Layup Practices for Fossil Plants | POWER Magazine

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Layup Practices for Fossil Plants

02/01/2013 | James Mathews, EPRI
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Improper layup practices are a major contributor to boiler tube failures and to steam turbine
pitting and cracking in U.S. fossil plants. EPRIs research into identifying damage mechanisms,
utility best practices, and innovative new methods to protect plant equipment during outages will
aid plant operators in achieving a successful layup.
For several decades, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has conducted ongoing
research into the causes of damage mechanisms, utility best practices, and innovative new
methods for protecting boiler and turbine equipment. This research has helped to identify the
most effective planning strategies, evaluate protection techniques, and outline key principles
for successful layups.
Our research confirms that damage to plant equipment from improper layup procedures
continues to be a problem for U.S. fossil plants. There are many underlying factors to be
considered, particularly at plants where equipment is aging and more vulnerable to damage.
Our research confirms that improper layup practices are a major contributor to boiler tube
failures and to steam turbine pitting and cracking, a major cause of reduced plant reliability

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The causes of improper layup procedures are many. At some plants, the duration of the
required layup is not always clear at the beginning of an outage; short-term outages can
quickly become long-term outages, with different unplanned-for layup requirements or
preservation techniques required. For example, some layup techniques, such as nitrogen

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At other plants, correct layup procedures are well known but not always followed. An EPRI

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study found that only 37% of utilities surveyed routinely nitrogen-blanket the boiler, and only
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Layup Practices for Fossil Plants | POWER Magazine

Page 3 of 12

Proper layup practices must consider the entire unit. Protection strategies should take into
account site-specific factors, operational requirements, and unit design. A seamless transition
from service through shutdown, into the out-of-service or layup period, and through the
subsequent unit startup and return-to-service status must be factored into the strategy.
Finally, proper storage of all major components or systems should be incorporated into a
comprehensive layup procedure for the unit (see sidebar Damage Mechanisms from
Improper Layup Practices).

Damage Mechanisms from Improper Layup Practices

Inadequate layup practices allow metal to remain in contact with oxygen and water for
extended periods of time. The presence of salts, particularly chloride salts, can accelerate the
corrosive effects of water and oxygen on metal surfaces.
Tweets
Corrosion fatigue is a major failure mechanism in boiler tubes. The fatigue portion of the

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corrosion fatigue mechanism depends on mechanical and thermal stresses developed during
the cycle. At a greater than 2% strain, the protective magnetite oxide of the stressed
component cracks, exposing unprotected surfaces to the boiler water. Pitting, the corrosion

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material (Figure 2). Pitting corrosion is the most prevalent layup-initiated corrosion
under-deposit corrosion mechanisms, are initiated or exacerbated by pitting corrosion.

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portion of the mechanism, can significantly increase the propagation rate through the
mechanism. Other corrosion mechanisms, such as stress corrosion cracking and various

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2. Permanent damage. This image shows oxygen pitting in a boiler
drum that was given inadequate layup protection. Courtesy: EPRI

Poor layup practices also affect steam turbines. Left open to the atmosphere and sitting over
a full and warm hotwell, the steam turbine is bathed in warm and humid conditions that are
conducive to pitting, particularly on the low-pressure turbine blade/disk surfaces in the phase
transition zone, which is a precursor to corrosion fatigue on the turbine (Figure 3). In cases
where the turbine has been contaminated (for example, following a condenser tube leak),
corrosion can be rapid and severe.

VIDEOS & INFOGRAPHICS

3. Pitiful problem. Deposits that contain chloride

aggressively pit the turbine when it is allowed to sit

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in moist conditions. These pits become sites for

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Layup Practices for Fossil Plants | POWER Magazine

Page 4 of 12

The corrosion potential and damage risk during a unit outage are nearly independent of the

An interactive overview of where all the major

outage duration. Mitigation of corrosion and preservation of the asset need to be

federal industry regulations stand as of Labor

implemented during the unit shutdown process. Two key points should be emphasized:

day. Presented by: B&W

Visit our video archive (/power-video Thermal cyclic stresses and rapid startup/shutdown operations mean that short-term
outages can actually be more detrimental than longer, planned outages with controlled
shutdowns.
Corrosion activity is most aggressive in the minutes and hours following shutdown when
the moist, aerated environment is at its highest temperature. A rule of thumb is that the
rate of corrosion doubles for each 10 degrees Celsius of temperature elevation.
Frequent, short-term outages (from unit cycling) are more problematic and damaging than
traditional, but infrequent, long-term outages, because the percentage of operating life and
annual hours that the components are strained or imperfectly protected is increased by

archive/)

July 24, 2015

Power-to-gas brings a new focus to

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nearly an order of magnitude. The more time cumulatively spent in these operating
conditions and the higher the frequency of cycling, the greater the chance of damage.
As a simple example, consider the number of times you can bend a paper clip before it breaks.
Regardless of how slowly you repeat the cycle, the paper clip will eventually fail. But more
rapid and frequent cycling decreases the time before it breaks. Unlike a paper clip, steamgenerating equipment protection must also consider correct water chemistry (corrosive

Source: U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory

damage) and operating temperatures (thermal stresses).

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The shutdown and layup periods should be viewed as a continuation of the good water
chemistry practices used during operation. The primary purpose of the cycle chemistry is to

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in order to minimize corrosion and reduce concentrating and performance-robbing deposits

on heat transfer and aerodynamic surfaces. The primary purpose of the shutdown and layup

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corrosion (Figure 1).

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1. Trouble spots. Areas of the steam cycle affected by layup and startup practices. Source: EPRI

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Based on EPRI research and personal experience, three guiding principles should govern all
layup decisions and practices:
Keep the chemical oxidation-reduction potential of water in the cycle the same during all
operating conditions. This principle refers not only to excluding air but also to
maintaining chemical residuals that exist during operation. If reducing agents (such as
hydrazine) are used during normal operation, they should be used during layup. If they
are not, they should not be introduced just for layup (unless extenuating circumstances
exist that should be reviewed).

Mandla/articleshow/48235714.cms)

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Layup Practices for Fossil Plants | POWER Magazine

Keep water from becoming oxygenated by the surrounding environment. Regardless of

the chemistry during operation, water in the steam cycle should never become saturated
with oxygen by unrestricted contact with air, because it will cause corrosion. Stagnated
oxygenated water (or moist surfaces) have been demonstrated to cause disruption of
the passive oxide films on metal surfaces and to initiate pitting as a precursor to
corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking.
Keep water and moisture out of steam-touched components and any water-touched
surface to be maintained dry during the shutdown period. Successful layup practices
require consideration of all water/steam-touched equipment in the steam cycle and
should begin as the equipment is being removed from service. Partial layup of the
system, or layup of only some of the equipment (boiler), will not produce the desired
results or protect against corrosion. The simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen
should be avoided; dry surfaces ensure that impurities deposited on the surface will not
generate highly concentrated electrolytic (corrosive) solutions.

Page 5 of 12

ENGIE signs liquefied natural gas deal with

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For plants without layup systems and procedures in place, several preventative measures can
be taken. For example, consider the equipment that is available and common-sense operating
procedures that can provide significant benefits:

Below-The-Hook And Material Handling

Equipment
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Maintaining vacuum on the condenser during short outages.

Properly using existing steam spargers to preheat and deaerate water in the condenser
or deaerator storage tank.
Promptly and completely draining all water-containing equipment while it is hot at the
start of overhauls.
Using plant compressed air to facilitate draining and drying of boiler and steam tubing
while metal is still warm, utilizing residual heat to facilitate drying.
Filling the boiler from the bottom to minimize aeration.
Using hot deaerated and treated water from a sister unit to fill a dry boiler.

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Solvay and Enirgi Chemicals join forces to

Duration of the Outage. The length of shutdown is fundamental to the type of layup
procedure or technique selected. The rapidity with which plant personnel need to return a
unit to service can place constraints on how it is shut down or on the procedures and

market SOLVAir solutions

(http://www.powermag.com/pressreleases/solvay-and-enirgi-chemicals-joinforces-to-market-solvair-solutions/)

practices used for layup. Although certain approaches are considered more appropriate for

Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Americas

certain types of outages, more than one layup approach can provide equipment protection.

receives order for 3 M501J gas turbines with

long term service contract from Virginia

EPRI defines shutdown periods as follows:

Electric Power Company

(http://www.powermag.com/press-

A short-term shutdown involves periods extending overnight or through a weekend.

This shutdown period is typical of cycling operation and utilizes a wet layup or hot
standby approach. Wet layup is generally considered for shorter durations of a weekend
or one to two weeks, but it can be effective for months, if properly implemented and
maintained. Dry layup is effective even for the shorter durations, but it might be
desirable to avoid draining the equipment if the unit could be returned to service on
short notice. Some componentsespecially superheaters, reheaters, and, most
importantly, the steam turbine systemrequire the avoidance of moisture or steam
condensation; maintaining temperatures above saturation may be effective but is not
practical for extended periods.
An intermediate shutdown is longer than a weekend and up to one week. This
duration typifies a shutdown for minor equipment repairs. Either wet or dry approaches
can apply.
A long-term shutdown is one extending from a few weeks to six months. Such outages
can involve major equipment repair, a planned outage, or a long-term layup due to
system load requirements. It also could include mothballing a unit. Both wet and dry
approaches can apply, but if return-to-service timing is not an issue, totally dry layup is
preferred for extended outages.

releases/mitsubishi-hitachi-power-systemsamericas-receives-order-for-3-m501j-gasturbines-with-long-term-service-contractfrom-virginia-electric-power-company/)
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(http://www.powermag.com/pressreleases/)

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Purpose of the Outage. A prime factor affecting the choice of a layup procedure is the type
or purpose of the outage: economic dispatch, forced outage, or scheduled outage for
maintenance. Also of importance in planning is the actual outage length, which may be
subject to change. Factors include system conditions or dispatch requirements, system
reserves, cost of generation, status of other units, equipment inspection results during
outage, and other maintenance activities.

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Return-to-Service Requirements. The choice of layup practice will be driven by how quickly
the unit is expected to return to service. For example, it takes longer to return a unit to service
when it has been in dry layup than if it is full of water (generally due to activities such as
disconnecting piping, removing or installing blank flanges, realigning valves, filling with
treated water, and so on). A more detailed discussion of these factors is found in the

Page 6 of 12

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concluding section of this article.

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Maintenance Activities During Outage. Strong consideration should be given to the

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anticipated maintenance required during the outage. This consideration may affect whether
the boiler is rapidly drained while hot or allowed to cool with water in the system.
Maintenance scheduling may make it preferable to take advantage of water in the boiler to
more rapidly cool thick-walled headers and steam drums. Draining hot facilitates the
preferred dry storage of a boiler for long outages; cooling with water requires nitrogenblanketing to prevent the introduction of air to wet surfaces.
Environmental Conditions. The most obvious environmental condition is the potential for
freezing water stored within tubes. This condition can be mitigated by temporary enclosures,
heat tracing, or localized sources of heat. Dust, salt spray (including cooling tower drift), and
high humidity also can damage equipment. These conditions can be mitigated by using

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temporary, environmentally controlled structures (such as tents or canopies) and controlling

humidity and dust with filtered air-handling systems. Changes in ambient temperature (dayto-day and over a single day) often reflect changes in the relative humidity and cause the
enclosed equipment to breathe. These changes may require pressurization with nitrogen or
dry air or the use of dehumidification systems.
Convenience. The layup method must be easily implemented in a timely manner. For
example, if it takes a week or longer to implement layup for a typical outage of six to seven
weeks, and another week or longer to prepare the system or component for plant startup, the
method might be too complex and, in all probability, it will not be accepted by plant
personnel. Proper outage planning and procedures plus equipment engineering/design can
mitigate some of the inconvenience and setup/teardown time.
Plant Design. Plant design can affect the selection of layup method for certain systems. For
example, main steam line pipe supports are not generally designed to carry the additional
load of water in the lines. Therefore, wet layup cannot be applied to plant steam piping unless
pipe supports are modified for the additional load, or temporary supports are installed. Staff
experts must review the appropriateness of the layup methods proposed for each plant
system.
Planned vs. Unplanned Outage. Many shutdowns are elective. They typically occur with
some advance notice and usually offer at least some flexibility in timing. The shutdown can be
initiated with equipment protection in mind, even if the duration is uncertain. Unplanned
outages due to mechanical problems, severe water chemistry excursions, loss of connection
to the grid, or other causes occur with little or no advance notice and might restrict the ability
of the operator to control the shutdown and provide little opportunity to put layup plans into
action, unless the plant staff anticipated the need and planned for such an outage in advance.

Advanced Planning Required

Planning for layups involves identifying the roles, procedures, and practices that must be
addressed in advance of every shutdown, including anticipated contingencies. Plants with
effective layup programs generally incorporate the following elements:
Written procedures to delineate actions to be taken and the person or organization
responsible for placing plant systems into layup.
Scheduling of layup for various plant systems during planning for the next outage.

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Page 7 of 12

Development of plant-specific logic diagrams to provide the basis for layup method
selection.
Designation of a plant layup coordinator responsible for placing appropriate systems
and components into proper layup conditions.
Assignment of a layup team to assist the layup coordinator in accomplishing assigned
responsibilities.
One utility recently completed implementation of a series of layup processes and procedures
based on these planning elements. Plant staff report consistent and effective protection of the
steam generating equipment in less time with better results, including improved startup
chemistry and reduced startup timea real win-win scenario.
Finally, the selection of layup methods for affected plant systems and components should
begin when planning for the next outage begins, not as an afterthought.

Layup Methods: Wet and Dry

The procedures for layup of idle equipment generally fall into two categories: wet and dry.
The decision about which layup method to use can be made for each piece of equipment; for
example, the boiler can be drained and kept dry for repairs, while the deaerator can contain
water and a nitrogen blanket for a quick restart.
Wet layup permits chemically treated and deaerated water to remain in the boiler, deaerator,
condenser, and all associated piping. The goal is to provide proper chemical treatment and
prevent air from entering any wet area in the cycle where pitting and corrosion can occur. As
the unit cools, steam pressure excludes oxygen from contact with equipment as long as it
remains pressurized and a vacuum is maintained in the condenser. As the unit approaches
ambient conditions (temperature and pressure), nitrogen is typically added to prevent air
from filling the steam space as the steam condenses to water. Although the operating
chemistry may be satisfactory for a short outage, some elevation of the chemical dosing
should be considered before the unit is completely removed from service.
Dry layup is an alternative for protecting closed-in equipment such as pressure vessels and
piping. It is an especially effective method when equipment must be periodically opened and
inspected. Two options can be used for dry layup: nitrogen gas blanketing and dry air.
Nitrogen blanketing is not used for long-term layup due to maintenance and operational
requirements to keep the gas in the systems, but it is more effective when protecting an
airtight vessel for short periods. Nitrogen blanketing cannot be used where entry into the
enclosed space is required due to the hazard of personnel asphyxiation.
Dry or dehumidified air offers additional advantages to nitrogen gas. The dry condition can be
maintained even while equipment is opened for routine inspections. Dehumidified air systems
are also less costly to maintain over the long term. The table provides examples of steps
followed in each layup practice.

Special Considerations for Layups of Different Durations

One popular belief is that short-term layups are less critical than longer-duration ones. The
reality is that all intermediate and long-term layups go through a short-term lay-up phase. All
outage period durations are equally critical. (See sidebar Possible Layup Practices Based on
Return-to-Service Requirements.)

Possible Layup Practices Based on Return-to-Service Requirements

The following possible layup practices are based on how quickly the unit needs to be returned
to service.

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Page 8 of 12

Forced Outage for a Boiler Tube Failure unit will be down just long enough to repair the
boiler tubeless than 24 hours:
Boiler: dry layup (the boiler will need to be drained for repairs)
Deaerator: wet layup
Condenser/turbine: wet layup (residual heat of turbine should mitigate damage)
Scheduled Outage with Return to Service Within 8 to 24 Hours:
Boiler: wet layup (with nitrogen, if pressure decays)
Deaerator: wet layup (with nitrogen, if pressure decays)
Condenser/turbine: maintain steam seals and vacuum on condenser
Scheduled Outage with Uncertain Return to Service needs to be able to return to service
quickly:
Boiler: wet layup with nitrogen
Deaerator: wet layup with nitrogen
Condenser/turbine: dry layup with dehumidified air or wet layup with nitrogen
Seasonal Outage may be called on to produce power with one to two days notice:
Boiler: dry with dehumidified air
Deaerator: dry with dehumidified air
Condenser/turbine: dry with dehumidified air
All Outage Conditions a single methodology now being evaluated:
Boiler: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Deaerator: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Condenser/turbine: conditioned on shutdown with proprietary barrier-forming amines
Note that conditioning with proper chemical dosages over a period of 8 to 48 hours permits
extended storage whether equipment is full of treated water, drained in humid to semi-humid
conditions, or dry. Dry conditions have been demonstrated to actually improve the corrosive
inhibition properties when subsequent humid or wet conditions are encountered.
The approach to a shutdown and subsequent layup may be different depending on the
outage duration. Planned, long-term outages are simpler to prepare for. Addressing shortterm outages that become longer is trickier. For example, for a short-term layup, the turbine
set will be hot (above saturation temperature) in many parts, and warm, dry air can be used to
prevent condensation on the surface. But after a time, the metal will cool, and a transition to
dehumidification is required to stay below a relative humidity of 40% and prevent hygroscopic
absorption of moisture and oxygen absorption on the dry salt deposits. When and how to do
this without proper preplanning becomes guesswork, so planning for these eventualities
should be part of every shutdown routine. The same applies to a boiler that is left full, hot,
and pressurized to prevent air intrusion; nitrogen capping must be done before losing the
steam blanket, which happens when the unit cools.
Short-Term Layups. Short-term layup presumes that the unit will be required to operate
within a relatively short timeframe. In general, no major changes are required from normal
operations except that the unit must be protected from air ingress. Short-term outages are
often scheduled outages, as opposed to maintenance outages. The equipment is to be
maintained in a standby condition for restart either on a planned schedule or upon request.
Typically, unit availability is maintained, and the return-to-service period can be as short as 12
to 24 hours or up to 72 hours.
These are some key considerations for short-term layups:

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Plant operators should take advantage of residual heat in heavy-walled components to

facilitate drying of wetted components and to purge vapor spaces, by blowing dry air
through the hot components to the cooler, wet regions.
If a short-term layup is known to be less than a few days, the optimum protection is to
keep the unit pressurized (to exclude air) and hot (to eliminate condensation and
eliminate oxygen in wet areas). Flooded components should be kept flooded and vapor
spaces kept hot (non-vented); the condenser and feedwater heater should be kept
under vacuum (keep vacuum pumps running).
Although corrosion fatigue in boilers is dependent on the strain induced by rapid startup
and shutdown and disproportionate thermal expansion of joined components,
maintaining proper water pH and oxygen below 100 ppb is a controllable factor that is
known to markedly reduce corrosion fatigue damage in steam generation equipment.
Turbines, superheaters, and reheaters should be kept dry. The Point Defect Model,
which was developed in the 1990s to describe pit nucleation, found that aerated
moisture is the key precursor to pit formation.
For shutdown of drum-type units or heat-recovery steam generators, slowly dropping
the steam pressure and temperature generally results in a wet steam with very low
impurities. This moisture will effectively wash the turbine blades, removing watersoluble impurities. The process should allow liquid films of high-purity water to form on
the material that is rinsed away by the subsequent water. The turbine should still be
dried by purging with hot, dry air.

Follow instructions. Examples of steps used in each of the layup practices discussed. Source: EPRI

Intermediate Layups. Typically, during intermediate layups, the pressure within equipment
will eventually decay to atmospheric pressure and approach ambient temperature. The length
of an intermediate-term shutdown allows some additional flexibility for layup techniques;
however, the selected technique should be determined not by the length of the outage alone
but with consideration of other factors such as return-to-service needs and maintenance work
to be performed.
Wet layup conditions should be used when it might be necessary to return the unit to service
on short notice or when makeup water capacity is limited. Dry storage is the preferred
method as the term of the outage increases or is of an indeterminate length.
Long-Term Layups. For long-term layups, many of the intermediate-term procedures can
effectively protect equipment for a six-month period if conditions are properly monitored and
maintained. During the outage, plant equipment must be stored in a condition that

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prevents both corrosion of idle components through moist, aerated conditions and
deterioration of idle components through oxidation of elastomerics and drying of materials
requiring moisture.
Wet layup techniques can be used for normally water-filled or wetted components such as
feedwater heaters, condensate/feedwater piping, deaerators, and boilers. The main
disadvantage of the wet layup method, particularly for long-term conditions, is that it requires
staff time to ensure that the nitrogen or inert atmosphere and chemical conditioning are
appropriately maintained.
Dry layup using dehumidified air is typically chosen for long shutdown periods.

Ongoing Research
EPRI is conducting research on barrier coatings or inhibitors that protect exposed metal
surfaces by preventing interaction of air or moisture with the metal surface. These alternative
preservation techniques can be applied when convenient, do not require capital expenditures
and complicated operating procedures, and are flexible to changes in outage duration period.
Current research has demonstrated that the development of a protective barrier on the metal
surface established by the hydrophobic formation of polyamine products inhibits corrosion
and pitting activity in the presence of aggressive chemical species and moisture.
New products and application methods are currently under test. Showing good promise are
various proprietary products used in predetermined dosages in the hours or days preceding
shutdown. Application during operation of the unit ensures complete distribution to all steam
- and water-touched surfaces. It also provides the needed time and conditions to establish the
impervious barrier on the metal surfaces. The flexibility of this technique, requiring only
turning on a chemical injection pump prior to shutdown, would provide an economic and
simple way to preserve equipment in a wet unit for a period of up to 30 days or in a dry
storage condition for many months. Expect introduction of these new products within a year
or two.
James Mathews (jmathews@epri.com) is the manager of EPRIs Boiler and Turbine Steam and
Cycle Chemistry Program in Charlotte, N.C. He served as the consulting chemist for the Fossil
Generation Division for Duke Energy, where he was employed for 36 years prior to joining EPRI.

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