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Solubility Rules, Reaction Prediction, & All the Stuff I Should Know Reference Sheet for AP Chemistry

Solubility
For the AP Chemistry exam you need to have memorized the following:
Six Strong Acids = SA
o The 6 SA are soluble, meaning the weak acids = WA may not be 100% soluble.
Strong Bases = SB
o The SB are soluble while the weak bases = WB may not be 100% soluble.
Soluble Substances (dissolve in aqueous solution)
Insoluble Substances (will not dissolve in aqueous solutions or will form precipitates)
The weird substances that do not follow regular rules, but are soluble.
Strong Acids or the BIG 6: Acronym P.I.N. C.B.S.
1. P = perchloric acid = HClO4
2. I = hydroiodic acid = HI
3. N = nitric acid = HNO3

4. C = hydrochloric acid = HCl


5. B = hydrobromic acid = HBr
6. S = sulfuric acid = H2SO4

Strong Bases: Note these are Group 1 (Li to Cs) & Group 2 (Ca to Ba) metals. All other bases are WEAK.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

LiOH
NaOH
KOH
RbOH
CsOH

6. Ca(OH)2
7. Sr(OH)2
8. Ba(OH)2

Always Soluble:
1.
2.
3.
4.

All metals in Group 1 (unless with O2-)


NH4+ (no exceptions)
NO3- (no exceptions)
C2H3O2- (sometimes written as CH3COO-)

Insoluble or Not Aqueous:


Halogens/Halides are soluble with all elements/polyatomics unless they get SLaMmed into a precipitate.
1. S = silver = Ag. Example AgCl = solid/insoluble/ppt.
2. L = lead = Pb. Example PbCl2 = solid/insoluble/ppt.
3. M = mercury = Hg. Example HgCl2 = solid/insoluble/ppt.
Sulfates are soluble unless they get CaBaSr SLaMmed into a precipitate.
1. Ca = CaSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt.
2. Ba = BaSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt.
3. Sr = SrSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt.
Phosphate (PO43-) & Carbonates (CO32-) are INSOLUBLE except with group 1 & NH4+.
Sulfides (S2-) are INSOLUBLE except with group 1, 2, & NH4+
Weirdos: These substances do not follow regular rules, but they are soluble and break down accordingly.
1. NH4OH NH3 + H2O
2. H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
3. H2SO3 SO2 + H2O

Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

General Information for Writing Equations


1. Net Ionic Equations be able to write all equations as net ionic equations.
a. Example of a net ionic equation:
i. sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are mixed
1. NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O (full equation)
2. Na+ + OH- + H++ Cl- Na+ + Cl- + H2O (equation with soluble ions & insoluble items)
3. OH- + H+ H2O (Net Ionic equation: spectator ions are crossed out, only
substances involved in reaction are remaining.
b. Spectator Ions = the ions that do not participate in the reaction.
i. These ions are equal & on opposite sides of the arrow and therefore can be crossed out.
ii. See Na+ & Cl- in step 2 of the example above.
iii. They do not participate in the reaction, they are like fans on the sidelines, so they are
cancelled out.
c. Strong Acids & Strong Bases
i. SA & SB completely dissociate, just like something that is soluble. When writing equations
do not leave them together as a compound, instead separate them into ions.
1. SA Example: HCl(aq) is really H+ + Cl2. Weak Acid Example: H2SO3(aq) H2SO3
3. SB Example: LiOH Li+ + OH4. Weak Base: Cu(OH)2 Cu(OH)2
d. Another Example of Net Ionic Equations:
i. Sodium Acetate is dissolved in water. Complete the equation in net ionic form. Note that
acetic acid is a WA so it does not break up into ions.
1. NaC2H3O2 + H2O HC2H3O2 + NaOH (starter equation)
2. Na+ + C2H3O2- + H2O HC2H3O2 + Na+ + OH- (complete ionic equation)
3. C2H3O2- + H2O HC2H3O2 + OH- (NET IONIC EQUATION)

Types of Equations to Know

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Decomposition: AB A + B
Synthesis (combination): A + B AB
Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O2 CO or CO2 + H2O
Single Replacement: A + BC AC + B
Double Replacement precipitate (also called metathesis): AB + CD AD + CB
Double Replacement neutralization (acid + base salt + water)
Double Replacement hydrolysis (water + a salt )
Coordination Compound/Ligand type reaction
a. Interesting website: http://www.public.asu.edu/~jpbirk/CHM-115_BLB/Chpt24/sld018.htm
9. Redox

Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

Equations in Depth
1. Decomposition Reactions
a. Carbonates CO2 + metal oxide
i. Na2CO3 CO2 + Na2O
b. Chlorates metallic chloride + O2
i. KClO3 KCl + O2
c. Ammonium carbonates NH3 + CO2 + H2O
i. (NH4)2CO3 NH3 + CO2 + H2O
d. Sulfurous acid acid SO2 + H2O
i. H2SO3 SO2 + H2O
e. Carbonic acid CO2 + H2O
i. H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
f. Acids in general nonmetal oxide + water
i. H2SO4 SO3 + H2O
g. Base metal oxide + H2O
i. Ca(OH)2 CaO + H2O
h. Binary compounds two elements
i. H2O H2 + O2
i. Hydrogen Peroxide H2O + O2
i. H2O2 H2O + O2
j. Ammonium hydroxide NH3 + H2O
i. NH4OH NH3 + O2
2. Synthesis Reactions
a. Metal + Nonmetal a salt
i. Ag + Cl2 AgCl
b. Metal oxides + H2O a base
i. CuO + H2O Cu(OH)2
c. Nonmetal oxide + H2O an acid
i. SO2 + H2O H2SO3
3. Combustion
a. Complete: hydrocarbon + O2 CO2 + H2O
b. Incomplete: hydrocarbon + O2 CO + H2O
4. Single Replacement
a. A single element that is more reactive will replace an element in a compound.
b. A reactivity sheet is not supplied on the AP exam. Although, the reactions they put on the exam
generally take place, which means you do not necessarily need to know the chart.
i. Li + CaCl2 LiCl + Ca
1. In net ionic form: Li + Ca2+ Li+ + Ca
2. This is both a single replacement and a redox reaction since electrons were
transferred.
5. Double Replacement Precipitate
a. This is where you need to know the solubility rules and how to write net ionic equations.
b. Example: NaCl + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCl
i. Net ionic form: Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) AgCl(s)
1. Note this is also a redox reaction.

Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

6. Double Replacement Neutralization


a. Acid + Base Salt + Water
i. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
1. Net Ionic Form: H+ + OH- H2O
b. Weak Acid + Strong Base create a basic product
c. Strong Acid + Strong Base create a neutral product
d. Strong Acid + Weak Base create an acidic product
e. Weak Acid + Weak Base can create an acidic, basic, or neutral product depending upon the Ka & Kb,
whichever is greater dictates the pH.
7. Double Replacement Hydrolysis
a. This occurs when a salt reacts with water. Some salts just dissolve and some salts react with the
water.
i. Example: Sodium Acetate is dissolved in water: NaC2H3O2 + H2O HC2H3O2 + NaOH
1. Net Ionic Equation: C2H3O2- + H2O HC2H3O2 + OH8. Coordination/Ligand Type Reactions
a. What is a ligand? Ligands are electron pair donors, which means they are Lewis Bases. This
electron pair bonds to a central atom, usually the cation of a transition metal, in a compound.
Hence, complex ions or coordination compounds are formed. These complex ions tend to be rich in
color.
b. Know these Ligands (electron pair donors)
i. NH3 (ammonia or amine)
ii. CN
iii. OHc. What the Ligands might bond with:
i. Ammonia:
1. Ag(NH3)2+
2. Cu(NH3)42+
3. Ni(NH3)62+
ii. Hydroxide:
1. Al(OH)42. Zn(OH)423. Cr(OH)63iii. Cyanide:
1. Ag(CN)22. Cd(CN)323. Fe(CN)63+
d. How do you figure out the number of ligands & the final charge?
i. Find the oxidation number of the cation. Multiple this oxidation number by 2 and this gives
you the number of ligands to add to the cation.
ii. The IMPORTANT part is the FINAL CHARGE on the complex ion. You will lose points on the
AP exam if the charge does not correctly add up.
1. Example: Cu2+(aq) + NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)
a. Find # ligands: (2+)x2 = 4
b. Find Overall Charge: 1Cu2+ + 4NH30 = 2+
2. Another Example: NH3(aq in excess) + Cu(OH)2(s) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq) + OH-(aq)
a. Key Word in excess.
e. Common Lewis Acids (act as the ligand acceptor or electron pair acceptor):
i. Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ag, Al
f. Common Lewis Bases (act as ligands or the electron pair donor):
i. NH3, CN-, OH-, SCNSolubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

9. Oxidation & Reduction


a. Common Oxidizing Agents (gain electrons)
i. MnO4- in acidic solution
ii. MnO2 in acidic solution
iii. MnO4- in neutral or basic solution
iv. Cr2O7 in acidic solution
v. HNO3 concentrated
vi. HNO3 dilute
vii. H2SO4 hot concentrated
viii. Metallic ions (higher oxidation #)
ix. Free Halogens
x. Na2O2
xi. HClO4
xii. C2O42xiii. H2O2

Products Formed
Mn2+
Mn2+
MnO2
Cr3+
NO2
NO
SO2
Metallous ion (lower oxidation #)
Halide ion
NaOH
ClCO2
O2 or H2O

b. Common Reducing Agents (loss electrons)


i. Halide ions
ii. Free metals
iii. Sulfite ions or SO2
iv. Nitrite ions (NO2-)
v. Diatomic halides in dilute basic soln
vi. Diatomic halides in conc basic soln
vii. Metallous ions (lower oxidation #)

Products Formed
Free halogens/halides = diatomic
Metal ions
sulfate ions (SO42-)
nitrate ions (NO3-)
hypohalite ions (Br2 BrO-)
halite ion
(Cl2 ClO2-)
metallic ions (higher oxidation #)

Polyatomic Ions To Know


These are not the only polyatomics to know, but at least its a start!
1C2H3O2BrO3ClOClO2ClO3ClO4CNHCO3HCOOpermanganate MnO4nitrite
NO2nitrate
NO3hydroxide
OHbisulfite
HSO3thiocyanate SCNiodate
IO3acetate
bromate
hypochlorite
chlorite
chlorate
perchlorate
cyanide
bicarbonate
formate

carbonate
dichromate
chromate
manganate
oxalate
silicate
selenate
sulfite
sulfate

2CO32Cr2O72CrO42MnO42C2O42SiO32SeO42SO32SO42-

borate
phosphate
phosphate

3BO33PO33PO43-

ammonium
hydronium

1+
NH4+
H3O+

Diatomic elements to Memorize


H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, and I = HNOFClBrI = Dr. BrINClHOF = ClOBr H. FIN (clobber Huck Fin)
Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

Other Things to Add to Your Study Note Cards

Free Energy
G = # = Spontaneous
G = + # = NOT spontaneous
G = 0 = Equilibrium
You can remember the following with this: Go Home To Supper:
Ho

So

Go

Ho

Go

Ho

So

So

Spont. only @ high Temps

Spont only @ low Temps

Organic Chemistry
General Organic Chemistry
1.
2.
3.
4.

Alkanes: CnH2n + 2
Alkenes: CnH2n
Alkynes: C2H2n-2
Aromatics (benzene) C6H6
a. Substituted Benzene: ortho = 1,2; meta = 1,3 and; 1,4 = para

Functional Groups
5. Alcohol: R OH
6. Aldehydes:
7. Ketone:
8. Ether: R O R
9. Carboxylic Acid:
10. Ester:
11. Amine: R NH2

12. Amide:
Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

Flame Test Colors


1.
2.
3.
4.

Barium = Green
Sodium = yellow
Copper = blue (w/ green)
Potassium = lavender

5. Strontium = red
6. Lithium = red
7. Calcium = orange
Quantum Numbers
n
l
ml
ms
l

1, 2,,3
0.(n-1)
-l to +l (small letter L)
+1/2, -1/2
0 = s; 1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f

Steric Number, Hybridization, & Shape


Steric Number Hybridization

Basic Shape

------------------

sp

linear

sp2

trigonal planar

sp3

tetrahedral

sp3d

trigonal bipyramidal

sp3d2

octahedral
Bond Orders

Bond

B.O. = bond order Type of bonds involved

single

sigma =

double

sigma + pi or +

triple

sigma+ pi+pi = ++

Intermolecular Forces (IMFs)


London dispersion
dipole-dipole
Hydrogen bonding
metallic
ionic
covalent network

Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

Nonpolar molecules. Examples: CH4, He


polar molecules. Examples: H2S, SO2
H-F, H-O-, H-N-, NH3, H2O
Jmetals, Ag, Pb, etc.
salts, NaCl, CaCO3. Note: ates contain covalent bonds.
C(graphite), C(diamond), SiO2, WC, Si, SiC.
Note: graphite = London dispersion too.
7

Activity of Metals (Four Groups)


Metals
Groups I & II
All others

React with
H2O. Ex: Li + H2O Li+ +OH- + H2
Non-oxidizing Acid. Ex: HCl.
Zn + 2HCl H2 + ZnCl2
Oxidizing Acid, HNO3 or H2SO4 (conc.)
Cu + HNO3 NO2 + H2O + Cu2+
Aqua Regia (HNO3 + HCl)

Cu, Ag, Hg
Au, Pt, Ir

Orders of Reactions & Graphs that give STRAIGHT LINES (kinetics)


0-Order
[R] vs. Time
slope = -k

1st Order
ln[R] vs Time
slope = -k

2nd Order
1/[R] vs. Time
slope = k

Nuclear Chemistry
Alpha
4
2

Beta/Electron
0
1

He

Neutron
1
0

Positron
0
1

Electrochemical Cells
Anode
oxidation
-side
lower Eo
e- leave

Solubility & Equation Ref Sheet for AP chem 5-2010

Cathode
reduction
+side
higher Eo
e- enter

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