Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p e t r o l

Mathematical modeling and eld application of heavy oil recovery by

Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic stimulation
Alfred Davletbaev a, Liana Kovaleva b, Tayfun Babadagli c,
a
b
c

RN-UfaNIPIneft, Rosneft, Russian Federation

Bashkir State University, Russian Federation
University of Alberta, Canada

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 14 February 2011
Accepted 29 July 2011
Available online 6 August 2011
Keywords:
electromagnetic heating
heavy-oil recovery
eld results
mathematical modeling

a b s t r a c t
A multi-layer, two-dimensional mathematical model of reservoir heating by Radio-Frequency (RF)
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation for heavy oil recovery is presented. The model takes into account the heat
loss in the wellbore and into the surrounding formations. The validity of the mathematical model is tested on
a real eld case application. A sensitivity analysis on the damping coefcient of EM waves is also performed.
It is shown that the occurrence of volumetric heat sources at the bottom hole caused by EM eld action yields
an intensive deep heating of the reservoir with a small temperature gradient. Numerical calculations show
that the bottom-hole pressure and the EM generator power are essential factors in determining the heat
transfer processes and heavy oil production. The method of RF-EM radiation is also compared to cold
production (without any inuence of heating).
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Heavy-oil and bitumen recovery from difcult geological media such
as deep, heterogeneous and high shale content sands and carbonates,
and water repellent oilshale reservoirs requires techniques other than
conventional thermal and miscible injection methods. Materials in oil
reservoirs (formation water, crude oil, oilwater emulsions, bitumen
and their components like resins, asphaltenes, and parafn) are nonmagnetic dielectric materials with low electrical conductivity. If an
electromagnetic eld can be created to change these properties, electrothermo controlled hydrodynamics could improve the displacement and
recovery of heavy-oil/bitumen.
This paper deals with the recovery improvement of heavy-oil by
Radio-Frequency (RF) Electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The RF-EM elds
in the form of waves can penetrate deeply enough from fractions of a
meter to several hundred meters into oil and gas containing reservoirs
to generate heat and eventually improve recovery mainly due to the
reduction of oil viscosity.
Results of RF-EM treatment experiments were well documented in
numerous studies (Chakma and Jha, 1992; Kasevich et al., 1994;
Nigmatulin et al., 2001; Ovalles et al., 2002). Theoretical aspects of
heavy-oil production were covered by Abernethy (1976), Islam et al.
(1991), Sahni et al. (2000), Sayakhov et al. (2002), and Carrizales et al.
Corresponding author at: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
School of Mining and Petroleum Eng., 3-112 Markin CNRL-NREF, Edmonton, AB, Canada
T6G 2W2.
E-mail address: tayfun@ualberta.ca (T. Babadagli).
0920-4105/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2011.07.006

(2008). Several other studies investigated the heat and mass transfer
processes in heavy oil reservoirs stimulated by EM radiation (Davletbaev
et al., 2008, 2009; Kovaleva and Khaydar, 2004; Kovaleva et al., 2004;
Sayakhov et al., 1998). A number of other investigations proposed
analytical models of lab experiments (Nigmatulin et al., 2001; Ovalles
et al., 2002).
Various methods of EM treatment of hydrocarbon deposits were
reported over more than ve decades (Bridges, 1979; Dyblenko et al.,
1981; Haagensen, 1965, 1986; Jeambey, 1989, 1990; Ritchey, 1956;
Sayakhov, 1992, 1996, 2003; Sresty et al., 1984). Field tests of bottomhole heating by RF-EM radiation were carried out in a number of oil
elds in Russia, the USA, and Canada (e.g., Kasevich et al., 1994;
Sayakhov et al., 1980; Spencer, 1987, 1989).
Abernethy (1976), in one of the pioneering works, solved the
problem of heat transmission within the production well under the
RF-EM eld inuence. The following expression for the oil ow rate,
taking into account the effect of temperature on the oil viscosity, and
the one-dimensional expression for the density of heat sources, was
adapted in that paper:
q = 2d Jb

rd
exp2d rrd ;
r

where d is the damping factor of the EM-wave, Jb is the intensity of

radiation at the well bottom, and rd is the radius of EM-wave radiator.
The use of two horizontal wells for bitumen recovery by EM heating
in Alaska was simulated by Islam et al. (1991). According to the model
presented, one of the wells is intended for water or gas injection and

A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

another well is intended for uid recovery. Sahni et al. (2000) analyzed
the use of low-frequency electric eld (ohmic) heating ( = 60 Hz) and
microwave electromagnetic heating ( = 0.915 GHz). Application of
the EM heating for oil recovery in two oil reservoirs was tested. The heat
equation with a heat source in a one-dimensional formulation was
solved by Ovalles et al. (2002). The aim of this work was to
mathematically model the physical experiments described in the
same paper. A satisfactory agreement between the calculated and the
laboratory data was obtained. Then, the mathematical model was used
for EM simulation in three hypothetical oil elds in Venezuela with
different viscosities of heavy oil.
EM oil recovery by horizontal oil wells was also considered by
Kovalyova (Kovaleva) and Khaydar (2004) and Kovaleva et al. (2004).
Later, EM radiation and electrical heating methods were compared by
Carrizales et al. (2008).
Mathematical models were developed for one-dimensional radial
and linear cases. The solvent injection combined with RF electromagnetic radiation in a producing well for extra-heavy oil recovery was
presented by Davletbaev et al. (2008, 2009). These models considered
the heat losses in the well and surrounding formations. Nigmatulin et
al. (2001) studied the effects of RF-EM radiation when applied
simultaneously with miscible oil displacement.
The high-viscosity oil production method introduced in Dyblenko
et al. (1981) and Spencer (1987,1989) denes production stimulation
by thermal excitation of the producing wells. In these methods, a
hydrocarbon reservoir saturated by heavy-oil or bitumen is exposed
to radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EM) produced by a
surface generator. Due to dielectric losses in the pay zone, the
transmitted EM energy is converted into thermal energy that
generates volume heat sources in the rock. Due to nite conductivity
of the coaxial conductor (the tubing and casing strings), part of the EM
energy traveling from the well head to its bottom hole transforms
again into thermal energy. The heat released prevents parafn
dropout along the wellbore and provides additional heating of the
oil in place, thereby increasing its mobility.
The results of eld tests in Russia (heavy oil reservoir by
Ishimbayneft, Yultimirovskaya and Mordovo_Karmalskaya tar
sands) and basic mathematical model of RF-EM application were
described by Davletbaev et al. (2010). This paper begins with
mathematical modeling of the RF-EM process to determine the
optimal application conditions. The model was described and a critical
sensitivity analysis using the model was provided as a sample
exercise. Field case results (Yultimirovskaya tar sands) were used to
test and validate the model. The algorithm of calculation included the
renement of the unknown parameters, in particular, an estimate of
the damping factor of EM waves in the reservoir (adaptation of the
measured and theoretical data temperature).

647

The heating process has a volumetric character and is largely

governed by the structure of the electromagnetic wave, the frequency
and power of radiation, and the dielectric properties of the medium. The
emergence of volume heat sources in the substance serves to heat and
ultimately reduce the viscosity of oil.

3. Denition of the model: geometry and basic equations

This paper presents a two-dimensional mathematical model and
numerical results of the heavy oil recovery by EM radiation from a well,
taking into account the convective heat transfer along the well and heat
losses into the surrounding rock. The EM radiation effect and usual
cold recovery of high-viscosity oil were also compared. The heat
propagation process and uid ltration in the layer were assumed as
radial.
An axial-symmetric coordinate system (r, z) with the axis z, oriented
along a well axis from top to bottom was used. The well, pay zone and
surrounding rocks were a multilayer system consisting of six layers
along the coordinate r, and 3 layers along the coordinate z (Fig. 1). The
rst layer along the coordinate r is a layer from the well axis to the inner
radius of tubing 0 b r b R1, the second layer is the tube itself from its inner
to outer radiuses R1 b r b R2, the third layer is the well annulus lled with
air R2 b r b R3, the fourth layer is the casing of a well from the inner to the
outer radius of R3 b r b R4, the fth layer is bafe plate R4 b r b R5, and the
sixth layer is a surrounding rock from the outer radius of the bafe plate
to the boundary of a layer R5 b r b re. Oil ows through the borehole from
the well bottom to the wellhead.
The rst layer along the coordinate z in the model is a nonproductive layer, i.e., the layer from the wellhead to the roof of pay zone
0 b z b Z1; the second layer is the producing layer from the roof to the
subface Z1 b z b Z2; the third layer is non-productive layer (surrounding
rock) Z2 b z b Z3.
It is assumed that in each elementary volume of the porous medium,
the heat transfer between the skeleton of the porous medium and uid
occurs instantaneously. The deformation of the skeleton of the porous
medium is absent and the ltration of uid in a porous medium is
described by Darcy's law. The general system of equations describing
the processes in the system (well-pay zone-rocks surrounding the well
and the pay zone), includes the continuity equation for the uid in a
porous medium (diffusion equation), the Darcy law, and the equation of
heat.
Appendix A presents the mathematical model in detail. The
boundary-condition differential equation system was solved by the
nite difference method using the implicit scheme.

2. Physics of RF-EM heating of oil

The distribution of electromagnetic waves in oil is associated with
frequency dispersion of dielectric inductivity (capacitance) caused by
orientational polarization of polar components. Under the RF-EM
inuence, additional heat (besides the Joule heat) is generated owing
to electric polarization effects. The dissipation of the EM energy is
accompanied by the occurrence of heat sources distributed in the
medium. Such distribution is, in the general case, given by the
following equation (Landay and Lifshitz, 1984; Ramo and Whinnery,
1944):
q=

0 tg 2
E ;
2

where frequency of EM waves, 0 electric constants, ' relative

permittivity of the medium to liquid, tg dielectric loss (dissipation)
tangent, and E electric eld intensity.

Fig. 1. Structural model used in the development of mathematical model: (1) well, (2)
pay zone, (3) and (4) surrounding rock (matrix).

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A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

An example calculation was performed using the following

hypothetical data for a sensitivity analysis in the next section:
Pi = 1 MPa; Pwf = 0; 0:25; 0:5; 0:75 MPa; kr = 0:183 1012 m2 ;
kz = 0; T0 = 8:8; = 0:25; o = 0:042 K1 ; ct = 109 Pa1 ;
R1 = 0:03 m; R2 = 0:035 m; R3 = 0:105 m; R4 = 0:11 m;
R5 = 0:115 m; re = 60 m; Ng = 0; 10; 20; 30 kW; d = 0:03267 m1 ;


o = 1912680 J = m3 K ; o = 950 kg = m3 ; o = 0:125 W = mK;


m = 1200000 J = m3 K ; m = 3 W = mK; h = 10 m;
f = 13:56 MHz; at = 3:42106 ; t = 3:4106 ; Z1 = 83 m;
Z2 = 93 m; Z3 = 96 m; Zc = 376:8 Ohm; R2;R4 = 45 W = mK;


R2; R4 = 3641900 J = m3 K ; R3 = 0:0315 W = mK;


R3 = 142977 J = m3 K ; R5 = 1:2 W = mK;


R5 = 2500000 J = m3 K ; Z1;Z3 = 3:95 W = mK;


Z1;Z3 = 2926000 J = m3 K ; 0 = 1 Pas:
The average parameters were chosen in the range typical of highviscosity oil deposits of the Urals region of Russia. Details about the
eld characteristics can be found in Davletbaev et al. (2010).
Note that the electromagnetic radiation we use is of radio frequency
range (f =13.56 MHz) and therefore, its absorption is mostly in oil. The
water absorbs high frequency waves really high in microwave. In addition,
the saturation of water in the collector is small and it can be neglected.
4. Application of the model and analysis of the results
The results obtained using the solution of the mathematical model
for the RF-EM treatment/continuous oil production process and
applying the data given above are presented in Figs. 26. Fig. 2
shows reservoir temperature distribution curves at different times for
0 = 1 Pas Pwf = 0.5 MPa, Ng = 10 kW. The temperature of the
medium at the bottom can reach sufciently high values due to
enhanced absorption of energy by electromagnetic waves near the
radiator (in this case ~100 C). We can also observe increasing
temperature and its gradient in the borehole zone during electromagnetic radiation into the reservoir.
Fig. 3 shows reservoir temperature distribution curves for different
output performance settings of the RF-EM generator for 0= 1 Pas,
Pwf = 0.5 MPa and time t = 3 days. It is apparent that by changing the

Fig. 3. Temperature distribution across the reservoir during simultaneous RF EM

heating and production for different RF generator performance settings: Ng = 10, 20,
30 kW for 0 = 1 Pas; t= 3 days, Pwf = 0.5 MPa.

emitting performance of the generator, it is possible to achieve the

target bottom-hole temperature and bottom-hole zone heating depth.
Fig. 4 illustrates the 3-D distributions (for r- coordinates,
corresponding to 10 m from the wellhead) of temperature after
3 days of treatment for an RF-EM generator power of 10 kW (Fig. 4-a)
and 20 kW (Fig. 4-b), 0 = 1 Pas, Pwf = 0.5 MPa. The generated
thermal eld in the rst case (Fig. 4) is characterized by high
temperatures (because of intense absorption of EM energy) in the
borehole environment, decreasing monotonically with distance from
the borehole. We consider the combined technology, including radiofrequency electromagnetic eld impact and injection of solvent into
the formation in other studies (Davletbaev et al., 2008, 2009). We
noticed that such technology is more effective for extra-heavy crude
oil and can increase the processing of well bottom zone in comparison
with RF treatment only more than twice.
Fig. 5 illustrates wellbore temperature distributions after 3 days of
treatment, at different distances from the wellbore central axis:
0.035 m (on the tubing surface); 0.7 m (in the annular space); 0.11 m
(on the inner wall surface of the cement casing); 0.5 m (in the
surrounding rock). The absolute bottom-hole temperatures correspond to the values of the reservoir temperature distribution curves

100

T, C

100

75

50
0
10

50
25
5

y, m

10

10

10
0

x, m

200

T, C

100

150

50
0
10

100
50
5

0
y, m

Fig. 2. Temperature distribution across the reservoir during simultaneous RF-EM

heating and production at different times: t = 0.1, 0.5, 1.5, 3 days for0 = 1 Pas;
Pwf = 0.5 MPa, Ng = 10 kW.

10

10

10
0

x, m

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution across the reservoir during simultaneous RF EM

heating and production for different RF generator performance settings: Ng = 10 kW (a)
and Ng = 20 kW (b); t = 3 days, 0 = 1 Pas, Pwf = 0.5 MPa.

A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

649

of the wellbore caused by the EM wave absorption by the tubing string

and the inux of hot oil from the matrix can help prevent parafn
formation and produce heated oil coming to the surface, which is
more mobile than the initial oil in place.
Fig. 6 shows the ow dynamics for different generator output
performance settings (Fig. 6a) for different reservoir/bottom-hole
differential pressures (Fig. 6b). At the initial stage of production, the
liquid rate falls rapidly; this decreasing trend then slows and turns
into a monotonous upward tendency. The initial rate drop is due to
the well reaching the stationary ow regime; the succeeding rate
increase is the result of reduction in oil viscosity. The greater the
duration of stimulation and the power of the emitter of EM waves, the
greater is the increased oil production as compared with the
production of cold oil. Pressure differential between the borehole
and the formation has no signicant effect on the dynamics of change
in ow rate (in the case considered here the range of pressure
difference between wellbore and formation, the duration of oil
production and the duration of EM radiation). The greater the
pressure differential between the borehole and formation, the greater
is the ow of oil from the reservoir.
Fig. 5. Temperature distribution along the wellbore during simultaneous RF EM heating
and production for different RF generator performance settings: Ng = 10 kW (a),
Ng = 20 kW (b); Pwf = 0.5 MPa, 0 = 1 Pas, t = 3 days.

(Figs. 25). An abrupt fall in temperature is observed on the border

between the pay zone and the reservoir bottom, which can be
attributed to the absence of heat sources in this zone. Within the pay
zone, the wellbore temperature curves indicate the presence of hightemperature spots. This is due to well/rock interaction effects in the
bottom-hole zone volume heating occurring within the pay zone
83 z 93 m is caused by EM energy absorption by the medium and a
convective heat transport from the heated oil in the reservoir. Heating

Fig. 6. Production rate dynamics during RF EM treatment for cold oil production
Ng = 0 kW and for generator performance settings Ng = 10, 20, 30 kW (a); and for
different reservoir/bottom-hole differential pressures P0 Pwf = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 MPa (b).

5. Model validation using a eld case

RF-EM tests were conducted in the Yultimirovskoye bitumen eld
located in Sugushlinskaya Square operated by Tatneft. An experimental section was selected for these tests in the eld. The test section
included two wells: no. 150 and no. 1. The distance between these
wells is 5 m. The pay zone has 25% porosity, 3.6% bitumen saturation
and the permeability ranges between 0 and 183 mD.
The EM energy was produced by a RF generator and transmitted by a
coaxial conductor (well). Initially, water from Well 150 was displaced by
air at an injection pressure of 0.40.6 MPa. The temperature in both
wells was measured by thermocouple elements. One measuring
element was lowered through the tubing string into Well 150 and
positioned at 87.5 m (the middle part of the radiator), and the other
element was lowered into Well 1 at 83.5 m.
The EM heating of the bitumen reservoir was performed in several
stages for different RF generator operation modes. Initially, the generator
was switched to the prolonged heating mode and its output performance
was set to approximately 20 kW. Fig. 7 shows the changes in temperature
recorded in the bottom-hole zones of the wells during the RF-EM
treatment. Fig. 2 indicates that after t1 =1.39 days (33.4 h) of continuous
heating in this mode, the temperature at the bottomhole of Well 150
increased from 8.8 C to 117.9 C. At the next stage, the generator was
readjusted to output 30 kW. As a result, after 6 h (by t2 =1.64 days), the
temperature in Well 150 reached 149.8 C. After that, the generator was

Fig. 7. Temperature distribution in Well 150 during RF-EM heating, with the generator
performance set to 20 kW, 30 kW, 60 kW, and 0 kW.

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A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

6. Energy balance calculation

Fig. 8. Temperature distribution across the reservoir during simultaneous RF-EM

heating for different stages.

set to its maximum output capacity of 60 kW. As seen in Fig. 2, the

heating dynamics soared and within 3.7 h (t3 =1.641.80 days) of
operation at the maximum-output mode, the temperature at the well
bottom hole increased from 149.8 to 191.3 C.
After that, the RF generator was switched out for 1.72 h (t4 =1.80
1.87 days). Then, the RF-EM system worked at maximum output of the
generator with electromagnetic waves of ~60 kW for 32 h (t5 =1.87
3.21 days). The RF-EM generator was shut for 72 h (t6 =3.216.20 days).
During the RF-EM treatment of Well 150 the temperature on the
bottom of Well 1 which was on distance of 5 m from Well 150 was
registered. The increase in temperature to 44.8 C was detected. Fig. 8
shows the theoretical curves of temperature distribution in the
reservoir from borehole 150 in different time periods. The results
indicate, after the 5th (t5 = 1.873.21 days of generator at 60 kW
operating) and 6th stages (t6 = 3.216.20 days generator stop), the
temperature at 5 m from the well (Well-150) increased to 32 C.
Fig. 9 illustrates the theoretical and measured temperature distributions along the borehole (from the wellhead to bottom). As seen, the
measured and theoretical curves are in good agreement. Note that the
mathematical model did not take into account the geothermal gradient
of temperature, hence, the absolute values of temperature do not
coincide. The distribution of temperature along the borehole (Fig. 9)
calculated after a few days shows a small loss of heat at the top and
bottom of the reservoir.
When modeling, the damping factor of the EM waves in the reservoir
was used as a parameter to match the measured and theoretical data in
Figs. 7 and 9. The best combination of measured and theoretical data was
obtained at the value of d = 0.03267 m 1. This value of damping
coefcient of EM waves in the reservoir was used for mathematical
modeling of the RF-EM eld and the production of extra-heavy oil.

The energy balance calculations were performed for: (1) cold oil
production at a constant bottomhole pressure in the well (the period
of 30 days of oil production), and (2) 5 days oil production and RFEM radiation and 25 days oil production stopped RF-EM generator
(the total duration of 30 days). These two cases were compared and
the additional oil production by high-frequency electromagnetic
radiation into the reservoir was calculated. These data were used to
estimate the energy balance, i.e. energy equivalent of additional oil
production to compare the expenditure of energy of using RF-EM
radiation. Power consumption, RF electromagnetic generator, its
efciency, energy losses in transmission lines from the thermal
station (where oil production is burned conventionally) to the
location of RF-EM generator, and the efciency of power transmission
lines were included in this exercise.
RF-EM generator has efciency G = 0.67. Transmission line of EM
waves from the wellhead to the bottom is a coaxial system of tubing
and casing, the efciency is L = 0.476. It is assumed that the efciency
of the transmission line from the thermoelectric power station to the
location of the RF-EM generator is TF = 0.563. Efciency of thermoelectric power station is EPS = 0.35. Heat loss EM energy in the
borehole that are associated with oxidation and contamination of
surface pipe tubing, with the presence of water in the well production
is LH = 0.75. Total power consumption with all the loss is determined
from the following expression:

NPC =

N0
:
G L EPS TF LH

Assessment of energy balance is described by the form factor Kem,

which equal to the ratio of produced additional energy, WAP to the
consumed energy due to the RF generator WPC:

Kem =

WAP
:
WPC

Here, the energy consumption is equal to the product consumed by

power RF-EM generator NPC on the duration of RF-EM radiation t1:
WPC =NPC t1. In addition the energy obtained is determined by the
formula of WAP =MG, where G caloric value of oil, which is assumed
to be 4.61107 J/kg, M=Qo o the mass of additional oil, which is
determined from the density of oil o and the volume of additional oil Qo.
In calculating the energy balance was taken 5 days of oil
production with RF-EM heating and then 25 days production without
RF-EM radiation. The base case is accepted by the cold oil production
30 days without RF-EM radiation. The analysis showed that the ratio
of the energy balance is 5.29.
7. Conclusions

Fig. 9. Wellbore temperature distribution in Well 150 (from the well head) after RF-EM
treatment (measured and calculated curves).

1. We formulated a two-dimensional mathematical model of heavy oil

recovery for RF-EM radiation heating. This model allowed us to
quantify the degree of heating the reservoir. The mathematical model
takes into account the heat losses into the rock surrounding the
wellbore and reservoir, and can be used to quantify the magnitude of
heat loss.
2. Simulation results were compared with those of a eld test. The
damping coefcient of EM waves in a reservoir was evaluated to
match the measured and calculation data.
3. Numerical simulations suggest that bottom-hole temperature and
heat/mass transfer effects in the reservoir can be controlled by
setting the output performance of the RF generator and by the
difference between the reservoir and bottom-hole pressure.

A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

4. The RF-EM energy loss along the wellbore (between the generator
and the bottom hole) can be considered an advantage as it prevents
parafn deposition and boosts the mobility of the produced oil.
Nomenclature

frequency of EM waves, MHz;

0 and 0 electric and magnetic constants, respectively;
'
relative permittivity of the medium to liquid;
tg
dielectric loss (dissipation) tangent;
E
electric eld intensity;
0
length of the EM wave produced by the generator, m;
P
pressure, MPa;
P0
initial reservoir pressure, MPa;
Pwf
bottom-hole pressure, MPa;
T
temperature, C;
T = T T0, T0 initial temperature of the medium, C;
R1 and R2 inside and outside radius of tubing, respectively, m;
R3 and R4 inside and outside radius of casing, respectively, m;
R5
outside radius of bafe plate, m;
Z1 and Z2 coordinates of the roof and subface of stratum, respectively, m;
Z3
maximal observed distance along coordinate z, m;
rd
radius of EM-wave radiator (rw = R2), m;
re
pool boundary along coordinate r, m;
o
density of the oil, kg/m 3;

specic heat capacity of oil, J/(kgK);

heat capacity per unit volume, J/(m 3K);

m
heat capacity of the rock skeleton, J/(m 3K);
o
heat capacity of oil, J/(m 3K);

thermal conductivity of the medium, W/(mK);

m
thermal conductivity of the rock skeleton, W/(mK);
o
thermal conductivity of oil, W/(mK);

porosity of the medium;

kr and kz permeability of productive stratum along coordinates r and
z, respectively, m 2;
h
stratum thickness, m;
ct
total compressibility of the system, Pa 1;
cm and co compressibility of the rock skeleton and of oil, Pa 1;
r and z rate of ltering in the stratum along and across stratication,
m/s;
w
ow in the tubing, m/s;
Q
ow rate, m 3/c, m 3/day;
0
value of viscosity at T = T0, Pas, mPas, cP;
o
coefcient allowing for temperature dependence of the
viscosity of oil, 1/K;
N0
power of EM-wave radiator, kW;
Ng
power of RF EM generator, kW;
Sb
area of EM-wave radiator, m 2;
Jb = N0/Sb intensity of radiation at the well bottom, kW/m2;
d
damping factor of EM-wave, m 1;
d2 and d4 damping factor of EM waves in the tubing and casing,
respectively, m 1;
Rs
active part of surface resistance of tubes;
Zc
wave resistance of air lling the intertube space, Ohm;
f
cyclic frequency of EM waves, MHz;
at and at absolute magnetic permeability and specic electrical
conductivity of the tubes, respectively;
G
efciency of RF-EM generator;
L
efciency of transmission line of EM waves of a coaxial
system of tubing and casing;
TF
efciency of transmission line from the thermoelectric
power station to the location of the RF-EM generator;
EPS
efciency of thermoelectric power station;
LH
efciency of heat loss EM energy;
Kem
energy balance factor;
WAP
produced additional energy, J;
WPC
energy due to the RF generator working, J;

NPC
t1
G
o
Qo

651

total power, J/s;

duration of RF-EM radiation;
caloric value of oil, J/kg;
density of oil, kg/m 3;
volume of additional oil, m 3.

Acknowledgment
This paper is the revised and improved version of SPE 136611
presented at the 2010 SPE Canadian Unconventional Resources and
Int. Petr. Conf., Calgary, AB, Canada, 1921 Oct.
Appendix A. Formulation of the problem and basic equations
We assumed that the ltration of uid in the reservoir and the
distribution of the thermal eld in the radial direction is carried out
uniformly, i.e. T/ = 0 and P/ = 0. The general system of
equations includes the equation of heat transfer, the diffusion
equation and Darcy's law.
The heat conductivity equation in the system is dened as follows:




T
1
T
1
T
c T
=
r
+

r o o
r r
z
r
t
r
z
w

A  1

T
q
+ ; 0 r re ; 0 z Z3 ;

where heat capacity per unit volume, thermal conductivity of the

medium, r rate of ltering in the stratum along stratication, o
density of the oil, co specic heat capacity of oil, w ow in the
tubing, q density of distribution of these heat sources, and Z3
maximal observed distance along coordinate z.
The pressure distribution in the reservoir is described by the
diffusion equation:




P
k 1 r P
k 1 P
= r
+ z
; rw r re ; Z1 z Z2 ;
ct r r r
ct z z
t

A  2

where kr and kz permeability of productive stratum along coordinates r and z, porosity of the medium, oil viscosity, ct
total compressibility of the system, rw and re well radius and pool
boundary along coordinate r, Z1 and Z2 coordinates of the roof and
subface of stratum, respectively.
The rate of uid ow in a porous medium is determined from
Darcy's law:
r =

kr P
; r r re ; Z1 z Z2 ;
r w

A  3

It is assumed that the uid motion along the wellbore from the
borehole to the wellhead is dened by
w =

Q
; 0 r R1 ; 0 z Z1 ;
R21

A  4

where R1 inside radius of tubing, and Q ow rate.

Reservoir oil viscosity is a function of temperature as given by:
= 0 expo T ;

A  5

where 0 value of viscosity at T = T0, T = T T0 change in

temperature in the reservoir, and o coefcient allowing for
temperature dependence of the viscosity of oil.

652

A. Davletbaev et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 78 (2011) 646653

= 1m + o ;

A  6

where R4 outside radius of casing, while in the other layers of the

well q = 0.
The total ow, Q of the injected agent is given by the ltration
velocity at the bottom hole:

= 1m + o ;

A  7

Q = 2 rw hr ;

j = cj j ; j = m; o;

A  8

Thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity of the saturated

porous medium (dened in rw r re, Z1 z Z2) are as follows:

where m and o thermal conductivity of the rock skeleton and of oil,

respectively, m and o heat capacity of the rock skeleton and of oil,
respectively, cm and co specic heat capacity of the rock skeleton and of
oil, respectively, and m and o density of the rock skeleton and of the
oil.
The energy interaction between the EM waves and the reservoir
rock causes the emergence of volumetric heat sources distributed
across the reservoir. The density of distribution of these heat sources
can be formulated as follows (Abernethy, 1976):
q = 2d Jb

rd
exp2d rrd ; rd r re ; Z1 z Z2
r

A  9

where d damping factor of EM-wave, Jb intensity of radiation at

the well bottom, and rd radius of EM-wave radiator.
The output performance (power) of the EM radiator is obtained
from the known generator output performance, Ng:
N0 = Ng exp2d2 + d4 Z1 ;

A  10

where Ng power of RF EM generator, d 2 and d4 damping factor of

EM waves in the tubing and casing.
The EM wave damping factor for the coax conductor (well tubing
and casing) is estimated from:
d2 =

Rs
1
;
2Zc lnR3 = R2 R2

A  11

d4 =

Rs
1
;
2Zc lnR3 = R2 R3

A  12

where Rs active part of surface resistance of tubes:

2

Rs =

f at
;
t

A  13

and Zc wave resistance of air lling the intertube space:

2

Zc =

0
:
0

A  14

Here, f cyclic frequency of EM waves, at and t absolute

magnetic permeability and specic electrical conductivity of the
tubes, respectively, 0 and 0 electric and magnetic constants, R2
outside radius of tubing, and R3 inside radius of casing.
It is assumed that the EM waves, while traveling along the annual
space from the head towards the bottom hole of the well, lose part of
their energy, which creates a sort of internal distributed heat sources
in the tubing and casing walls. These are given by:
q=

q=

d2 N0
exp2d2 + d4 z; R1 r R2 ; 0 z Z2 ;
r 2 lnR2 = R1
A  15
d4 N0
exp2d2 + d4 z; R3 r R4 ; 0 z Z1 ;
r 2 lnR4 = R3
A  16

A  17

where h stratum thickness.

The initial and boundary conditions for the equations are
determined by matching the well/reservoir/surrounding rock system,
and are given as follows:
P r; z; t = 0 = P0 ; rw r re ; Z1 z Z2 ;

A  18

T r; z; t = 0 = T0 ; 0 r re ; 0 z Z3 ;

A  19

P r = rw ; z; t = Pwf ; Z1 z Z2 ;

A  20

T r = 0; z; t
= 0; 0 z Z3 ;
r

A  21

T r = re ; z; t = T0 ; 0 z Z3 ;

A  22

T r; z = 0; t
= 0; 0 r re ;
z

A  23

T r; z = Z3 ; t
= 0; 0 r re ;
z

A  24

P r = re ; z; t = P0 ; Z1 z Z2 :

A  25

Here P0 initial reservoir pressure, Pwf bottom-hole pressure.

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