1

6.X.1



13
31
8 m 2
1
5.2 10
J
(9 10
kg) 3 10
2
s
1 0.988

mc2

Er

mc2 8.1 10

14

E Er 4.4 10

J
13

6.X.2

1
2
m |~v|
2
5
1
(1.4 10 kg)
2

9 10 m
3600 s2

4.4 10 J

6.X.3

|~v|

2K
m

21.1 105 J
1.5 103 kg

12 m/s

6.X.4

mc2
m

= K
5
K
1.1 10 J

2
c2
3 108 ms
1.2 10

12

kg

6.X.5

~r

= ~rf ~ri h18.2, 8, 6i m

= ~F ~r

1.41 J

h0.03, 0.04, 0.09i N h18.2, 8, 6i m

6.X.6

W
W
W

= ~
F ~r


N

0, 9.8
(2 kg), 0 N h25, 30, 0i m
kg
585 J

6.X.7
(a) K decreases and W is negative
(b) K increases and W is positive
(c) K decreases and W is negative
(d) K increases and W is positive

6.X.8

= ~F ~r

h300, 0, 0i N h2, 0, 0i m

600 J

= ~F ~r

6.X.9 A gravitational force acts on the jar.

h0, 4.9, 0i N h0, 1, 0i m

4.9 N

6.X.10
(a) No work is done because Earths displacement and Suns gravitational force on Earth are perpendicular.




(b) |~p| = ~pf ~pi  = |2P | = 2P

6.X.11 Doubling the final speed requires quadrupling the work done. Work, in this case, is proportional to speed squared.
Doubling the speed therefore quadruples the work.
6.X.12

40.8mc2

39.8mc2

Here, K is large compared to mc2 , in fact its about 40 times larger than mc2 . At this speed, most of the energy is kinetic
energy. About 40/41 of the total energy is kinetic energy. The remaining 1/41 of the total energy is rest energy.
At low speeds, K is small compared to mc2 .
6.X.13

0.8 MeV
939.6 MeV

8.51 10

6.X.14

W1

h30, 0, 0i N h2.3, 0, 0i m 69 J

W2

h15, 0, 0i N h8, 0, 0i m 120 J

Wnet

W1 + W2 189 J

6.X.15 Since the force and displacement are in the same direction, the dot product reduces to a simple scalar product.

2.5 10

5 10


N (0.5 m)

19

19

6.X.16

Eparticle + U

50 J + U

= 50 J

6.X.17 There are six interaction energy pairs: U12 , U13 , U14 , U23 , U24 , and U34 . Note that U12 and U21 are the same since
they describe the same pairwise interaction. Dont count such terms twice!
6.X.18

Ug

Mm
R


 (6 1024 kg)(1 kg)
11
6.7 10
Nm/kg2
(6.4 106 m)

6.3 10 J

6.X.19

1 1

rf
ri

!
=

1
1
+
1 107 m 1 108 m

9 108 m1

1
1
+
8
1 10 m 1 107 m

9 108 m1

Yes, it is negative.
6.X.20

1 1

rf
ri

6.X.21
By choosing your system appropriately, W = 0 and E = 0, so Ei = Ef .
6.X.22
r is the distance from the spacecraft to the center of the asteroid.
6.X.23
K decreases because U increases. You can see that the vertical separation between E and U decreases in going from r1 to
r2 .
6.X.24
A is bound because E < 0. C is unbound because E > 0. B is trapped because there are turning points where E = U and
K = 0.
6.X.25
C is circular motion since r=constant. B is an elliptical orbit. A is linear motion where an object is lauched vertically from
a star, rises until K = 0, and falls back into the star along a straight line.

6.X.26
In the problem in Chapter 3, the initial speed of the spacecraft is the speed necessary to just barely get it to the Moon and
have v = 0 when it gets there. The escape speed is the speed necessary for the object to go to r = and have zero speed
when it gets there. It takes slightly more initial speed to reach r = than to reach the Moon.

6.X.27
If an object falls from rest from a very large distance from Earth (r = ), then its speed when striking Earth is the escape
speed, 1.12 104 m/s.

6.X.28
You calculate the same final speed because

K f + Uf
Kf

= Ki + Ui
= Ki + Ui Uf
= Ki + U
= Ki + mgy

The final kinetic energy depends on y = yf yi . Thus, initial height and final height are not important; it is the change
in height y that determines the final speed.

6.X.29
vi = 100 mph = 44.7 m/s. Define the system to be the ball and Earth. At the initial state, the ball leaves the hand with
speed vi and height yi = 0. At the final state, it is at its peak and vf = 0. There is no work done on the ball.

0
7
+ Ki
U
i
1
mv 2
2 i

0
0
>

= Uf + K
+
W

f
= 
mgyf
v2

yf

=
=

2g
102 m

6.X.30
q
Define the system to be the ball and Earth. Its initial height is yi and its initial speed is vi = v2 + v2 . Its height at the
xi
yi
 
 
peak is yf and speed at the peak is vxf . Since Fnet,x = 0, vx is constant is vxf = vxi . There is no work done on the ball.

0
Ui + K i
Uf
mgyf
mgyf
mgyf
mgyf
yf

>

= Uf + Kf + 
W
= Ui + Ki Kf
1
1
= mgyi + mv2 mv2
i
f
2
2
1
= mgyi + m(v2 v2 )
i
f
2
1
= mgyi + m(v2 + v2 v2 )
xi
yi
xf
2
1
= mgyi + mv2
yi
2
2
v
= yi + yi
2g

6.X.31
Convert the kinetic energy of a proton to J. Ki,proton = 1.6 1014 J. Define the system to be the two protons, so Ki =
2(1.6 1014 J) = 1.6 1014 J. Assume that they are initially very far apart, so Ui 0. At the final state, their speeds are
zero at the turning point, which is the point of closest approach. The work done on the system is zero and their rest energies
are constant. Thus, the total initial kinetic energy is completely converted to the final electric potential energy.

Ki
Ki

= Uf
1 q1 q2
=
40 r

q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C, thus

7.2 1015 m

Note that the radius of a hydrogen atom is about 1 1010 m, so at these energies, the protons distance of closest approach
is within the atom, and close to the diameter of the nucleus.
6.X.32
The rest energy of O2 is about

Erest

16(940 MeV)

1.5 1010 eV

The binding energy of O2 is 5 eV. Thus, the ratio is

5 eV
1.5 1010 eV

3.3 1010

7
1 mol of O2 molecules has a mass of about 16 g. The best analytical balances measure to about 1 106 g. This gives a
6
g
ratio of 110
= 6 108 . Thus, even the most precise analytical balances can not measure the mass difference between
16 g
1 mol of O2 molecules and 2 mol of atomic oxygen (individual oxygen atoms).
6.X.33
The binding energy of a deuteron is 2.2 MeV. The total energy of a deuteron is

E = mproton c2 + mneutron c2 + Uatom

The electrons rest energy is negligible. Also, the potential energy U of the proton and the electron is small compared to the
rest energy. Thus,

Erest

mproton c2 + mneutron c2

938 MeV + 940 MeV

1878 MeV

The ratio of binding energy to rest energy is

2.2 MeV
= 0.1%
1878 MeV

6.X.34

Fy

=
=

Fy

Fx

=
=
=

U
y


GM m

y
y
GM m
y2

U
x 

GM m

x
y
0

8
6.X.35


p2
m

[kg m/s]2
[kg]
m2
[kg 2 ]
s
[N m]

[J]


=
=

[mc2 ]

m2
]
s2
[N m]

[J]

[kg

6.X.36
|~v| = 0.99c and m = 9.11 1031 kg
= mc2
1
=
(9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
1 0.992
= 7.08(8.20 1014 J)

5.80 1013 J

3.63 MeV

Erest

K = E Erest = 3.12 MeV. Thus,

K
Erest

= mc2
=

8.20 1014 J

0.512 MeV

6.

6.X.37
2

|~v| = 100 mph = 44.7 m/s. K 12 m |~v| so

K
Erest

2
1
m |~v|
2
mc2

=
=

1
2

|~v|
c2
1.11 1014

9
This is very small! A baseballs rest energy is much greater than its kinetic energy at typical speeds for a baseball.
6.X.38
For a baseball, |~v| 90 mph 40 m/s and m 0.15 kg, so

=
=

1
2
m |~v|
2
120 J

For a basketball, |~v| 10 m/s and m 0.6 kg, so K = 30 J

6.X.39
Because the energy of the electron is so large compared to its rest energy, the electrons speed will be very close to the
speed of light. To achieve at least 7 significant figures in your answer, you need to use melectron = 9.10938215 1031 kg,
1.672621638 1027 kg and c = 2.99792458 108 m/s.

Erest,proton

= mc2
=

(1.672621638 1027 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2

1.50327736 1010 J

Eelectron = 1.50327736 1010 J and m = 9.10938215 1031 kg

Eelectron

= mc2
=
=

1.50327736 1010 J
(9.10938215 1031 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2
1836.1527
1
q
2
1 |~vc2|

Solve for |~v|. Because of the very high value of , the speed of the electron is very close to c. In fact, the precision of your
calculator may be so small, that it calculates |~v| to be exactly equal to c, which is not correct. Its possible to use a computer
program such as Excel which has greater precision than your calculator. The result is |~v| /c = 0.99999985, though the 5 is
not a significant figure.
Note that most of the electrons energy is kinetic energy.

6.X.40

( 1)mc2

(1836.1527 1)(9.10938215 1031 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2

1.502459 1010 J

10
(a)
Erest

= mc2
=
=

(0.145 kg)(3 108 m/s)2

1.305 1016 J

(b) yes, because |~v| << c.

(c)
K

1
2
m |~v|
2
1
=
(0.145 kg)(17 m/s)2
2
= 21.0 J
=

(d)
K << Erest

6.X.41
malpha = mHe 4(1.7 1027 kg) = 6.4 1027 kg |~v| = 0.9993c
(a)
Erest

mc2

(6.4 1027 kg)(3 108 m/s)2

5.76 1010 J

(b) No, because |~v| is close to c.

(c)

1
q

|~
v|2
c2

1
p

1 (0.9993)2
26.7

( 1)mc2

1.48 1010 J

(d) Though K < Erest , they are both on the order of 1010 J; therefore, K Erest

6.X.42

11
(a)
K

=
=

1
2
m |~v|
2
1470 J

(b) It is the same. K is a scalar and thus does not depend on the direction of ~v

6.X.43

=
=
=

1
2
m |~v|
2
1
(0.144 kg)(222 + 232 + 112 m2 /s2 )
2
81.6 J

6.X.44


mHe

4g
mol



1 kg
1000 g



1 mol
6.02 1023 atoms

6.64 1027 kg
1
2
m |~v|
K =
2
r
2K
|~v| =
m
= 658 m/s
=

6.X.45
 
 
 
K = Kf Ki = 0 because ~vf  = 19 m/s and ~vi  = 19 m/s.
6.X.46
(a)
~p

= ~Fnet t
=

(h0.3, 0, 0i N)(1.5 s)

h0.45, 0, 0i kg m/s

12
(b)
~vi
~v

= h0.9, 0, 0i m/s
p
=
m
h0.45, 0, 0i kg m/s
=
0.8 kg
= h0.5625, 0, 0i m/s

~vf

= ~vi + ~v
= h0.3375, 0, 0i m/s

=
=
=

Kf Ki
1
1
mv2 mv2
i
f
2
2
0.081 J

6.X.47

= ~F  ~r
 
= ~F |~r| cos

(40 N)(3 m)(30 )

104 J

6.X.48

= ~F
  ~r
 
= ~F |~r| cos

(30 N)(50 m)(cos 35 )

1230 J

6.X.49
(a) Zero. The displacement through which the force acts is zero.

13
(b) Zero. The force vector is perpendicular to the displacement d~r, and cos 90 = 0.
(c) Wby spring = 12 ks2 12 ks2 which is 0 for one cycle since si = sf . For one-half cycle, Wby spring = 0 because, if the spring
i
f
is stretched a distance si then one half-cycle later it will be compressed the same distance, sf = si and s2 = s2 .
f

6.X.50
(a)
W

= ~F ~r
=

Fx x + Fy y + Fz z

(22 N)(25 (17)) m

= 176 J

(b) K is negative, so K decreased.

(c)
W

(22 N)(17 (25)) m

176 J

(d) K is positive, so K increased.

6.X.51
(a)
W

= ~F ~r
=

Fy y

= mg(yf yi )


N
= (0.7 kg) 9.8
(0 4.5 m)
kg
= 30.9 J

(b) K is positive, so K increased.

(c) W = 30.9 J since ~F is opposite ~r.
(d) K is negative, so K decreased.

6.X.52

Erest

= mc2
=

4.59 1010 J

14
E = mc2 where =

q 1
|~
v |2
1 c2

= 5.61.

(5.61)Erest

2.58 109 J

= E Erest
=

2.12 109 J

If W = 4.7 109 J, then E = W = 4.7 109 J.

Ef

Ei + E

2.58 109 J + 4.7 109 J

7.28 109 J

Erest stays the same, 4.59 1010 J.

E Erest

7.28 109 J 4.59 1010 J

6.82 109 J

Since Erest stays the same, you can also calculate K using Kf = Ki + W = 6.82 109 J
6.X.53
False, W is not a vector
True
False, W is not the magnitude of a vector.
2

False, K 21 m |~v| for |~v| << c.

True
True
True

6.P.54

15

= ~F ~r
=

(< 250, 440, 220 > N) (< 6, 4, 5 > m)

840 J

*0

= K + 
Erest
= Kf W
1
=
mv2 W
f
2
= 3745 J 840 J

Ki

2905 J

Ki

vi

1
mv2
i
2
6.96 m/s

6.P.55

= ~F ~r
=

h250, 490, 160i N h3, 9, 5i m

2860 J

Kf

= Ki + W
1
=
mv2 + W
i
2
= 8640 J + (2860 J)
=

5780 J

Ki

vf

1
mv2
f
2
9.81 m/s

16
6.X.56
You do the same work on each block. According to the Energy Principle, each block will have the same K. Since they
both start from rest, then Kf is the same for each block.
p2

Kf =

2m

therefore the larger mass block will have a larger final momentum.

If you pull the blocks for the same amount of time, then according to the Momentum Principle, ~p = ~Fnet t will be the
 
~
p
 
same for the two blocks. Since they both start from rest, ~pf will be the same. Since ~vf = mf , then ~pf  is greater for the
smaller block and the smaller block will have a greater final kinetic energy.
6.P.57
(a), (b) as follows:
WJack
WJill

h400, 0, 200i N h2, 0, 1i m

1000 J

h150, 0, 300i N h2, 0, 1i m

0J

(c) Jill does no work, so her force must be perpendicular to the boats displacement.
(d)
Kf
 
 
~vf 

Ki + W
r
 2 2W
~v  +
i
m
s
(1.3 m/s)2 +

2(1000 J)
3000 kg

1.0 m/s

6.P.58
 
 
K = ~F ~r = ~F |~r|
 
K
~ 
F =
|~r|


K =
f i mc2

31
8 m
1
1
(9 10
K q
q
kg)(3 10
)2
2
2
s
0.93c
0.99c
1 c2
1 c2
K
 
~ 
F

6.P.59

13

3.5 10
J
13
3.5 10
J
3m
13
1 10
N

17
(a)
= ~F ~r h0, mg, 0i h0, y, 0i
N
(0.12 kg)(9.8
)(0.07 m) 0.082 J
kg

(b)
K

= Wspring + WEarth
K WEarth
1  2 1  2

m ~vf  m ~vi + 0.082 J

2
2
0.288 J

Wspring

6.P.60 Steps 1, 2, 5, and 6 must be included, but not necessarily in that order.

= ~F
D ~r 13
E

1.6 10 , 0, 0 N h2, 0, 0i m
13

3.2 10
Ef

= Ei + W
13
31
8 m
1
)2 + 3.2 10
J
q
(9 10
kg)(3 10
2
s
1 0.91c
2
c
5.15 10

13

Solve for speed as a function of energy (final energy, that is).

|~v|
c

|~v|
c
|~v|
c

mc2
E
1
=r
2
2
mc
1 |~vc2|
r
mc2
1
E
s
(9 1031 kg)(3 108
1
5.15 1013 J
0.99

Significant figures are important in this problem.

6.P.61 Significant figures are important in this problem.

m 2
s )

18
(a)
W
Ef
|~v|
c

12
3
9
= ~F ~r (2 10
N)(3.2 10 m) 6.4 10 J
0
9
7
= E
+ W 6.4 10 J
i

s
r
(9 1031 kg)(3 108 ms )2
mc2
1
=
1
E
6.4 109 J
0.99999999992

(b) Since the electron experiences a constant force, its acceleration is constant, and therefore its average speed is the
arithmetic mean of its initial and final speeds, or 0.49999999996c. So the electron takes about
to go the distance.

6.X.62
si = 0 and sf = 0.1 m. The average force exerted between si = 0 and sf = 0.1 is


~ 
Favg  =
=
=

W
W

1
(ks + ksi )
2 f

1
N
20
(0.1 m)
2
m
1.0 N





= ~Favg  |~r|
=

(1.0 N)(0.1 m)

0.1 J

6.X.63
Assume that ~F is parallel ~r.
(a)
W

= ~F ~r
=
=

Fx x
(130 N)(6 m)

780 J

Fx x

(40 N)(5 m)

(b)
W

= 200 J

3.210 m
0.49999999996c

0.00002 s

19
(c)
Wtotal

780 J + 200 J

580 J

6.X.64

W1 + W2

= ~F1 ~r1 + ~F2 ~r2

=

h90, 150, 195i N h4, 6, 4i m + h90, 90, 585i N h4, 6, 4i m

((90 N)(4 m) + (150 N)(6 m) + (195 N)(4 m)) + ((90 N)(4 m) + (90 N)(6 m) + (585 N)(4 m))

480 J + 2160 J

2640 J

= Ef Ei
Ef

= Ei + W

Kf

= Ki + W
1
=
mv2 + W
i
2
= 4.67 104 J + 2.64 103 J
=

4.93 104 J

Kf

vf

1
mv2
f
2
29.8 m/s

6.P.65

W1

h250, 400, 170i N h6, 7, 4i m 4980 J

W2

h140, 250, 150i N h4, 7, 5i m 440 J

W
Kf
 
 
~vf 

= W1 + W2 4540 J
= Ki + W
r
 2 2W
~v  +
=
i
m
s

(3.5 m/s)2 +

10.2 m/s

2(4540 J)
100 kg

20

6.P.66

Wme

h400, 310, 250i N h3.6, 4.2, 1.2i m 162 J

Wme + Wfriend

= Kf Ki Wme
1
1

(700 kg)(4.01 m/s)2 (700 kg)(4 m/s)2 162 J

2
2
134 J

Wfriend

6.P.67
(a) W1 (130 N)(7 m) 910 J
(b) W2 (40 N)(7 m) 200 J
(c) W = W1 + W2 710 J

6.P.68
Assume that the force by you on the crate is parallel to the crates displacement.

= ~F ~r
= ~F1 ~r1 + ~F2 ~r2 + ~F3 ~r3
= F1x x1 + F2x x2 + F3x x3
=

(34 N)(2 m) + (13 N)(6 m) + (40 N)(2 m)

66 J

6.P.69

(180 N)(6 m) + (170 N)(4 m)

400 J

Kf

= W + Ki
1
= W + mv2
i
2
= 400 J + 613 J
=

1013 J

21

Kf

vf

1
mv2
f
2
4.5 m/s

6.X.70

Ei
Eelectron + Epositron

=
=

Ef
2Ephoton

2Eelectron

2Ephoton

Eelectron

Ephoton

Ephoton

Eelectron

mc2

= 8 1014 J
= 0.5 MeV

6.P.71

Ei = Ef

(a)
Ei,nuc

= E + Ef,nuc
= Erest, + Erest,f,nuc + K

= Ei,nuc Erest, + Erest,f,nuc

= mi c2 m c2 + mf c2
=

3.145285 108 J 5.968326 1010 J 3.085536 108 J

6.58 1013 J

(b)

6.P.72

1 eV

1.6 1019 J

4.11 106 eV

4.11 MeV

22
(a)
Ei,rest

= mc2
=

(3.894028 1025 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2

3.499767 108 J

(b)
Erest,alpha + Erest, new nucleus

= m c2 + mnucleus c2
=

(6.640678 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 + (3.827555 1025 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2

5.968326 1010 J + 3.440024 108 J

3.499708 108 J

(c) The rest energy decreased.

(d)
K

= Erest,i Erest,f
=

5.95 1012 J

3.72 MeV

6.X.73
Define the system to be the ball and Earth.

Ei
Ui + Ki
1
+0 mv2
mgy
:

i
i
2
vi

= Ef
= Uf + K f
1
*0

= mgvf + mv

 f
2
q
2gyf
=
=

19.8 m/s

6.X.74
Define the system to be the object and the Earth. Very far away, Uf = 0 and Kf = 0.

23

= Ef Ei
=
=

GmM
ri

GmM
r
 i
6.7 1011

Nm2
kg2

=
=

(1 kg)(6 1024 kg)

6.4 106 m
7

6.28 10 J

6.X.75
Note that the gravitational force is in the negative radial direction (toward the center of Earth). This is important for getting
your signs correct.
For r < R,

Fr

dU
dr
gr
=
R
Z
=

gr
dr
R

g r2
+C
R 2

where C is an integration constant. At r = R,

U (r = R)

R
+C
2
GM R
+C
R2 2
1 GM
+C
2 R

= g
=
=

GM
For r > R, U (r > R) = GM
r . At r = R, U (r = R) = R . The expression for U (r < R) must match the expression for
U (r > R) at r = R. Thus,

1 GM
+C
2 R
C

GM
R
3 GM
=
2 R
3
= gR
2
=

24
And therefore, U(r<R) is

U (r < R)

=
=

g r2
3
gR
R 2
2
g 2
(r 3R2 )
2R

where g = GM/R. A graph of U (r) is shown in Figure 1. You will notice an inflection point at r = R = 6.4 106 m. For
r < R, the potential energy is quadratic. For r > R, the potential energy is proportional to 1/r.
UEarth vs. distance from center of Earth
-3e+07

-4e+07

-5e+07

U (J)

-6e+07

-7e+07

-8e+07

-9e+07

-1e+08
0

2e+06

4e+06

6e+06
r (m)

8e+06

1e+07

1.2e+07

Figure 1: U(r) for Earth.

6.X.76
In nuclear energy production, there is a change in rest energy due to splitting or joining of nuclei. In the case of fusion, for
example, the change in rest energy results in gamma rays (i.e. high energy photons). In a chemical reaction used for chemical
energy production, the number of nuclei (of various types) stays the same. This is called stoichiometry in chemistry. No
nuclei split or join, but rather molecules split and atoms can join together to make new molecules. There is a change in the
binding energy (electric potential energy) which can result in an increase of thermal energy (in the case of an exothermic
reaction).
Nuclear energy production and chemical energy production are alike in the sense that something splits or joins to produce
energy. The difference is that, in the case of nuclear energy, nuclei split or join, and in the case of chemical energy, molecules
split or are formed (i.e. bonds are broken or formed between atoms).
6.X.77
         
         
(a) Momentum increases as the comet gets closer to Sun; therefore, ~pE  > ~pD  > ~pC  > ~pB  > ~pA 

25
(b) K increases as |~p| increases; therefore, KE > KD > KC > KB > KA .
(c)

false
false
false
true
true

(d)

false
true
false
true
true

(e) U increases as r increases; thus, UA > UB > UC > UD > UE .

6.X.78
If E = EA , then
false
true
true
false
false
true
If E = EB , then
true
true
false
false

6.X.79

Fx

=
=
=

U
x  
b

x x2
2b
x3

26

Fy

U
y
 
b
=
y x2
= 0
=

6.X.80
r

vescape

=
=

2GM
R
2320 m/s

The escape speed from Earth is 1.1 104 m/s, which is 4.8 times larger than the Moon. Thus, a thruster on the Moon must
do approximately 1/(4.8)2 = 1/23 times less work than a thruster on Earth to cause an equal mass object to escape.
6.P.81
(a)
Ui + K i
Ki
1
mv2
i
2
vi

vi

0
7+ K
= U
f
f
= Kf Ui
1
GM m
mv2
f
2
ri
s
2GM
v2 +
=
f
ri
s
2
2(6.7 1011 Nm
)(0.6 1024 kg)
kg2
2
=
1000 +
3.4 106 m
= 4960 m/s

(b) Uf and Kf = 0, so
Ui + K i
Ki
1
mv2
i
2

= Ui
=
s

vi

GM m
ri

2GM
ri

4860 m/s

27

6.P.82
0

7+ K
Ui + Ki = U
f
f
(a)
Ki
1
mv2
i
2
vi

vi

= K f Ui
1
GM m
mv2
f
2
ri
s
2GM
=
v2 +
f
ri
s
2
)(0.6 1024 kg)
2(6.7 1011 Nm
kg2
=
20002 +
3.4 106 m
= 5260 m/s
=

(b) Uf and Kf = 0, so

Ui + K i
Ki
1
mv2
i
2

= Ui
=
s

vi

GM m
ri

2GM
ri

4860 m/s

6.P.83
Use escape speed to get M for the asteroid.

r
vesc

=
=

If vi = 20 m/s, vf is found from Ei = Ef .

2GM
R
1 v2 R
2 G
7.46 1015 kg

28

0
7+ K
= U
f
f
1
=
mv2
f
2
r
2GM
=
v2
i
R
= 17.3 m/s

Ui + K i
GM m 1
+ mv2
i
ri
2
vf
vf

6.P.84
r
vesc

2
vesc

2GM
R
2GM
R

Use the Energy Principle.

Ei

Ui + Ki

GM m 1
+ mv2
i
ri
2

v2

v2

vf

vf

Ef

0
7+ K
U
f
f
1
mv2
f
2
2GM
v2
i
R
2
v2 vesc
i
q
2
v2 vesc
i
p
(35 m/s)2 (24 m/s)2

25.5 m/s

6.P.85
The Earth-Moon distance is 3.84 105 km = 3.84 108 m. The Energy Principle for the Earth-Moon-spacecraft system
gives

Ei

Ef

UE,i + UM,i + Ki

UE,f + UM,f + Kf

Kf

UE,i UE,f + UM,i UM,f + Ki

!
1
1
GME

+ GMM
rE,i
rE,f

1 2
v
2 f

1
rM,i

1
rM,f

1
+ v2
2 i

29

rE,i = RE = 6.4 106 m

rE,f = d RM = 3.823 108 m
rM,i = d RE = 3.776 108 m
rM,f = RM = 1.75 106 m

Substitute and solve for vf

1 2
v
2 f
1 2
v
2 f
vf

6.176 107

2.55 107

J
J
J
+ 2.80 106
+ 8.45 107
kg
kg
kg

J
kg
7.15 103 m/s

The sample program below simulates the motion of the spacecraft launched along a straight line between Earth and Moon.
The speed of impact at Moon as determined by the simulation is 7.12 103 m/s which is similar to the speed calculated
from The Energy Principle of 7.15 103 m/s.
1
2

from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

from v i s u a l import

3
4
5

RE = 6 . 4 e6 #r a d i u s o f Earth
RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon

6
7
8
9

s p a c e c r a f t = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE, 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25RE)

Earth = s p h e r e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s=RE)
Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(3.84 e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5RE)

10
11
12
13
14

m=1.5 e4 #mass o f s p a c e c r a f t
ME = 6 e24 #mass o f Earth
MM = 7 . 3 5 e22 #mass o f Moon
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11

15
16
17

v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 3 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f s p a c e c r a f t

18
19
20
21

t=0
#d t =0.013600 #time s t e p
dt=10

22
23
24

rmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Moon

25
26

t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=s p a c e c r a f t . c o l o r )

27
28
29
30
31
32

while rmag >0.99999999RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

rate (100)
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Earth
r=s p a c e c r a f t . pos
rmag=mag( r )

30
33
34

r u n i t=r /rmag
FgravE=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t

35
36
37
38
39
40

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Moon
r r e l m o o n=s p a c e c r a f t . pos Moon . pos
rrelmoonmag=mag( r r e l m o o n )
r r e l m o o n u n i t=r r e l m o o n / rrelmoonmag
FgravM=GmMM/ rrelmoonmag 2 r r e l m o o n u n i t

41
42
43

#c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM

44
45
46
47
48

#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
s p a c e c r a f t . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos + v dt

49
50

t r a i l . append ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos )

51
52

t = t + dt

53
54

print mag( v )

6.P.86
The system is Mars and the spacecraft.

Ei
Ui + Ki
Kf

= Ef
= Uf + K f
= Ui Uf + K i
= GM m

1
mv2
f
2

1 2
v
2 f

=
=

1 2
v
2 f
vf

6.P.87

=
=

1
1

ri
rf

!
+ Ki

!
1
1
1
GM m
+ mv2

i
ri
rf
2
!
1
1
1
GM

+ v2
ri
rf
2 i


1
1
1
GM

+ v2
7 106
4 106
2 i
J
J
4.59 106
+ 4.5 106
kg
kg
4.26 103 m/s

31

r
vcircular/orbit

=
=

GM
R
7925 m/s

7900 m/s

Define the system to be the satellite and Earth.

Ef Ei

Uf + Kf Ui Ki
0
0 GM m 1
> 1


GM m
2
>

 + mv
mv2

i

rf
2 f
ri
2

GM m 1
mv2
i
R
2
GM m 1 GM
m
R
2
R
1 GM m
2 R
6.3 109 J

=
=
=
=
=

6.P.88

Ei

Ef

Ui + Ki

Uf + Kf

Kf

Ui Uf + Ki

1
mv2
f
2

1 2
v
2 f

vf

GM m GM m 1

+ mv2
i
ri
rf
2
!
1
1
1
GMSun

+ v2
ri
rf
2 i

3.33 109

4420 m/s

6.P.89
  
  ~ 
r cos = (1.6 1013 N)(2 m) = 3.2 1013 J
W = ~F 

J
J
+ 3.34 109
kg
kg

32

= E
= Ef Ei

Ef

= W + Ei

f mc

= W + i mc2
=

1
3.2 1013 J + p
(9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
1 (0.95)2

3.2 1013 J + 2.63 1013 J

5.83 1012 J

f mc2

5.83 1013 J

5.83 1013 J
(9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
7.11
1
q
2
1 vc2

Solve for v which gives vf = 0.99c.

6.P.90

(a)
Ui + Ki
Ki
1
mv2
i
2
1 2
v
2 i

vi

= Uf + K f
0
7 Ui + K
= U
f
f
GM m 1
=
+ mv2
f
R
2
GM
1 2
=
+ v
R
2 f
J
J
= 134
+ 4.5
kg
kg
= 16.6 m/s

6.P.91
ri and vi 0. rf,J relative to Jupiter is Jupiters radius. rf,S relative to the Sun is the orbital radius of Jupiter plus
Jupiters radius (which is negligibly small in comparison to the distance from the Sun.) rf,S 8 1011 m. Define the system
to be the rock, Sun, and Jupiter.

33

Ei

= Ef

0
0
0
i,S,rock + U
i,J,rock + K
U
= Uf,S,rock + Uf,J,rock + Kf
i
0

GMS m GMJ m 1
+
+ mv2
f
rf,s
rf,J
2

1 2
v
2 f

GMJ
GMS
+
rf,S
RJ

=
vf

J
J
+ 9.57 108
kg
kg
4.7 104 m/s
1.68 108

6.X.92
The system is the ball and Earth.

Ui + Ki

= Uf + K f

0
0 1
1 
2
>
= mg y
+ mv2
mgyi + mv
f
f
2 i
2
1
2
mgyi =
mv

2 f
q
vf

2gyi

6.3 m/s

6.X.93
The system is the bear and Earth.
(a)
0
Ui + K
=
i
Kf

Uf + Kf

Ui Uf
mg(yi yf )


N
= (0.5 kg) 9.8
(2 m)
kg
= 9.8 J
=
=

Kf

vf

1
mv2
f
2
6.3 m/s

34
(b) The flower pot has twice the mass of the teddy bear, so it will have twice the kinetic energy when hitting the ground,
Kf = 19.6 J. Since mass cancels out, its speed when hitting the ground will be the same as the teddy bear, 6.3 m/s.

6.X.94
(a)
~F
net

mg

mg

viy

~p
t
m(vf y viy )
t
mviy

t
= gt


N
=
9.8
(1.55 s)
kg
= 15 m/s

(b) The system is the ball and the Earth

0
7
U
+ Ki
i
1
mv 2
2 i

0
= Uf + K
f
= 
mgyf
2

yf

=
=

1 vi
2 g
11.8 m

6.P.95

r=R
Z

mg
r dr
R

r=0

mgR
2

m
To move the object from r = R to r = , W = Ugrav = Uf Ui where Uf = 0. W = Ui = GM
=
R
takes twice as much energy to move the object from R to as it takes to move the object from 0 to R.

6.X.96
For two protons,

GM R
R2 m

= mgR. It

35


U

9 109

Nm2
c2

q1 q2
r

Where q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C

1.44 1011 J

If the two protons move closer together, U increases.

For an electron and proton, q1 = 1.6 1019 C and q2 = 1.6 1019 C, so U = 1.44 1011 J
As the electron and proton come closer together, U decreases because it becomes more negative.

false
false
true

6.X.97
Graph (a). Two electrons are an unbound system, so E > 0. Also, U > 0 and decreases to U = 0 at r = .

Graph (b). An electron and proton that are moving when very far apart are an unbound system, so E > 0. For oppositely
charged particles, U < 0. Also, K increases as r 0.

6.P.98
A sketch of the protons is shown in Figure 2. It is useful for calculating the distances between each pair of protons.

r1,4 =

d2 + d2 = 2d

36

Figure 2: Four protons at the corners of a square of length d.

Ei

= Ef

0
0
7

Ui + K
=
U
+ Kf
i
f
Ui = Kf
Kf

= U1,2 + U1,3 + U1,4

=

4Kproton

4

1
mv2
f
2


=

1 q2
1 q2
1 q2

+
+
40 d
40 d
40 2d


1
1 2 2
q
+
40
d
2d
!

1 q2 4 + 2
40 d
2
! 12
1 q2
1
(1 + )
40 md
8

6.P.99
(a) When very far apart and at rest, their potential energy is zero and their total kinetic energy is zero. Thus, their total
energy is zero. Their potential energy at any distance r apart is

1 (+e)(e)
4o
r

1 (1.6 1019 C)2

4o
r

37
Since the total energy of the system is zero, then their total kinetic energy is K = U . As a result,

1 (1.6 1019 C)2

4o
r

These quantities are shown on the graph in Figure 3.

E vs. r for a particle of charge +e and its antiparticle of charge -e

2.5e-13

U (r)
K (r)
E (r)

2e-13
1.5e-13
1e-13

E (J)

5e-14
0
-5e-14
-1e-13
-1.5e-13
-2e-13
-2.5e-13
5e-15

1e-14

1.5e-14

2e-14

2.5e-14
r (m)

3e-14

3.5e-14

4e-14

4.5e-14

Figure 3: Graphs of E, U , and K for a particle and antiparticle.

(b) U = 0 when very far apart.

5e-14

38

Ei

= Ef

2Erest,M

2Erest,m 2Kf

2M c2

2mc2 + 2Kf

= M c2 mc2

Kf

(M m)c2

Kf

(f )mc2

Kf
+1
mc2
(M m)c2
+1
mc2
M m
+1
m
M
1+1
m
M
m
M
m

=
=
=
f

1
q

v2
c2

v2
c2
v2
c2

m2
M2

m2
1 2
r M
m2
1 2c
=
M

If m << M , then f >> 1 and vf is close to c. The particles are definitely relativistic.
(c) mproton = 1.67 1027 kg and mpion = 2.5 1028 kg

v
u
u
= t1
s

mproton
mpion


0.99c

!2
c

2.5 1028 kg
1.67 1027 kg

(d)
Kf

Kf

( 1)mc2
1
= p
1 (0.99)2
= 7.09
=

1.37 1010

2
c

39
Calculate the distance between the pions when their potential energy is 10% of the final kinetic energy.
U

0.1Kf

1.37 1011 J
1 q1 q2
=
40 r

=
U

19
c )
(9 109 Nm
c2 )(1.6 10
r =
1.37 1011 J
= 1.7 1017 m

The radius of a proton is on the order of 1015 m. Thus, the pions are separated a distance of about
of a proton. They do not have to be very far apart for U to be negligible.

1
100

of the radius

6.P.100
(a) The initial state is the original plutonium nucleus, which is (c) in the figure.
The final state is when the daughter nuclei are far apart and Uf 0. This is (b) in the figure.
Initially, the system only has rest energy. In the final state, it has rest energy and kinetic energy, since Uf 0.
The Energy Principle gives
Ef
Kf + 2Erest,Ag

=
=

Ei
EPu

Kf

EPu 2Erest,Ag

mPu c2 2mAg c2

(242.007)(1.66054 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 2(120.894)(1.66054 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2

3.61175 108 J 3.60848 108 J

3.27 1011 J

Kf

If v << c, then Kf,1 = 21 mv2 where Kf,1 is

f

1
2

the total kinetic energy and m is the mass of the nucleus.

Kf,1

=
=

1
K
2 f
1.63 1011 J

(120.894)(1.66054 1027 kg)

2.00749 1025 kg
s
2Kf,1

vf

1.28 107 m/s

0.043c

40
v is about 4% of the speed of light, so it is safe to assume that the nucleus is non-relativistic.
(b) 1 Pu-242 nucleus gives 3.27 1011 J of kinetic energy. 1 mol of Pu-242 nuclei is 6.02 1023 nuclei, which results in
(6.02 1023 )(3.27 1011 J) = 1.96 1013 J of kinetic energy, This is 10 million times more energy than the 106 J
derived from 1 mol of gasoline.
(c) In going from state (a) to state (b) in the figure, there is no change in rest energy.
From this initial state to the final state where the nuclei are far apart, the potential energy changes and kinetic energy
changes.

Ei

Ef

0
7+ K
U
f
f
= Ki

0
Ui + K
=
i
Ui
1 q1 q2
40 r

3.27 1011 J

Where q1 = q2 = 47(1.60218 1019 C) = 7.53025 1018 C.

Solving for r gives
2

=
=

18
(8.98755 109 Nm
C)2
C2 )(7.53025 10
11
3.27 10
J
14
1.56 10
m

The radius of 121 nucleons is about

(1.3 1015 m)(121) 3

6.43 1015 m

A sketch is shown in Figure 4. Units are femtometers, where 1 fm = 1015 m. The diameter of a nucleus is 2(6.43 fm) =
2.7
12.9 fm. This leaves a gap of 15.6 fm 12.9 fm = 2.7 fm. The gap is 12.9
= 21% of the center-to-center distance.
2.7 fm

6.4 fm

6.4 fm

15.6 fm

Figure 4: The Ag-121 nuclei immediately after fission.

41

6.P.101
(a) The initial state is shown in state (c), the last state in the figure.
The final state in this case is when the nuclei interact, which is state (b), the middle state shown in the figure.
The potential energy has increased and the kinetic energy has decreased in this process.

Ef
Uf + Kf
Kf

= Ei
0
7
= U
+ Ki
i
= Ki Uf
= Kproton,i + Kdeuterium,i +

1 qproton qdeuterium
40
rf
Nm2 (1.60218 1019 C)2
)
C2
2(0.9 1015 m)

4.14 1013 J + 2.07 1013 J (8.98755 109

4.14 1013 J + 2.07 1013 J 1.28171 1013 J

4.928 1013 J

Now this is the initial kinetic energy of the system and the final state is the 3 He nucleus and the gamma ray, which is
state (c) (the top state in the figure).
(b) During this process, there is a change in the rest energy, a change in potential energy, and a change in kinetic energy.

Ef
Erest,Helium + Kf
Kf

Kf

= Ei
= Ki + Erest,proton + Erest,deuterium
= Ki + Erest,proton + Erest,deuterium Erest,Helium
=

4.928 1013 J + mproton c2 + mdeuterium c2 mHelium c2

4.928 1013 J + 1.50331 1010 J + 3.00513 1010 J 4.50038 1010 J

4.928 1013 J + 8.05904 1013 J

1.30 1012 J

(c)
K

Kf Ki

1.30 1012 J 4.928 1013 J

8.06 1013 J

(d) If 1 proton and 1 deuterium nucleus produces 8.06 1013 J of kinetic energy, then 1 mol of protons and 1 mol of
deuterium nuclei will produce (6.02 1023 )(8.06 1013 J) = 4.8 1011 J of energy. This is about half a million times
the energy obtained by burning 1 mol of gasoline.

42

6.P.102

(a) The momentum of the Ra-220 nucleus is zero; therefore, the total momentum of the Ra-216 nucleus and alpha particle
must also be zero. Since they exert equal magnitude forces on each other in opposite directions,
 then they will have



the same magnitude momentum, but in opposite directions as shown in Figure 5. Thus, ~pf,Ra-216  = |~p |.

Figure 5: The Ra-216 nucleus and alpha particle after decay.

(b)
Ei
Erest,Ra-220

= Ef
= Erest,Ra-116 + Erest, + KRa-216 + K
p2
= Erest,Ra-116 + Erest, +

Erest,Ra-220

= Erest,Ra-116

Ra216

2mRa-216

p2
+ Erest, +
2

p2
2m

1
mRa-216

1
+
m

Solve for p .

p2
2

1
mRa-216

1
+
m

!
= Erest,Ra-220 Erest,Ra-216 Erest,
= mRa-220 c2 mRa-216 c2 m c2
=

[(219.96274)(1.6603 1027 kg) (215.95308)(1.66 1027 kg) (4.00151)(1.6603 1027 kg)](2

3.28228 108 J 3.22245 108 J 5.97105 1010 J

1.216 1012 J

43

p2

2(1.216 1012 J)


1
m1
m

Ra-216

=
=

1.26 1019 kg m/s

p2
2m
1.194 1012 J

(c)
KRa-216 + K
KRa-216

Erest,Ra-220 Erest,Ra-216 E

1.216 1012 J

1.216 1012 J 1.194 1012 J

2.2 1014 J

Note that KRa-216 < K as expected. They have the same magnitude of momentum. Since K =
nucleus has less kinetic energy.

p2
2m ,

the larger mass

(d)
K

1.194 1012 J

( 1)mc2

1.194 1012 J

1.002

Since 1, v << c.

6.P.103
(a) Ephoton in J is (2.2 106 eV)(1.6 1019
Ei
Eproton + Eneutron
Edeuteron

J
eV )

= 3.52 1013 J

= Ef
= Edeuteron + Kphoton
= Eproton + Eneutron Kphoton
= mproton c2 + mneutron c2 Kphoton
=

(1.6726 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 + (1.6749 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 3.52 1013 J

= 1.50325 1010 J + 1.50532 1010 J 3.52 1013 J

= 3.00505 1010 J

mdeuteron

=
=

Edeuteron
c2
3.34358 1027 kg

44
Note that mdeuteron 6= mproton + mneutron because of the small kinetic energy of the photon.
(b) For a photon, pc = E so pphoton =
to conservation of momentum.

3.521013 J
2.99792108 m/s

= 1.17 1021 kg m/s. Thus, pdeuteron = 1.17 1021 kg m/s due

Kdeuteron

p2
2m
(1.17 1021 kg m/s)2
2(3.34 1027 kg)

=
=

2.0 1016 J

Note that Kdeuteron << Kphoton so it was safe to neglect it when applying the Energy Principle.

6.P.104
(a)
Ei
Erest,U
2

mU c

KPd

= Ef
=

2Erest,Pd + 2KPd

2mPd c2 + 2KPd
1
(m c2 2mPd c2 )
=
2 U


1
=
(235.996)(1.6603 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 2(117.894)(1.6603 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2
2
1
=
(3.52153 108 J 3.51843 108 J)
2
1
=
(3.103 1011 J)
2
= 1.55 1011 J
=

Assuming that |~v| << c, then

vP d

1
2
m |~v|
2
1.26 107 m/s

This is less than 10% of c, so it is reasonable to use the non-relativistic approximation.

(b) Immediately after fission, the Pd nuclei are at rest. Each one has a charge of 46(1.60218 1019 C) = 7.37003 1018 C.
Ei
Ui
1 q1 q2
40 ri
ri

= Ef
=

2Kf,Pd

3.103 1011 J

1.57 1014 m

45
(c)
R

(1.3 1015 m)(118) 3

6.38 1015 m

The distance between the centers of the nuclei is 15.7 1015 m. Thus the gap between the surfaces is 15.7 2(6.38) =
2.95 1015 m. A sketch is shown in Figure 6. Note that 1015 m = 1 fm.

6.4 fm

6.4 fm

2.94 fm
15.7 fm

Figure 6: Two palladium nuclei after fission.

6.P.105
(a) Consider a proton and deuteron initially very far apart. At the minimum energy needed to make contact, their speed
will be zero at contact. Apply the Energy Principle.

Ei
0
7
U
+ Ki
i
Ki

= Ef
0
= Uf + K
f
= Uf
1 q1 q2
=
40 rf

Substitute rf = 2(1 1015 m) = 1 1015 m, q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C.

Ki

1.15 1013 J

46
(b) Upon production of the Helium-3 nucleus and gamma ray photon,

Ei
Erest,proton + Erest,deuteron + Ki
Kf

= Ef
= Erest,He + Kf
= Erest,proton + Erest,deuteron + Ki Erest,He
= mproton c2 + mdeuteron c2 + Ki mHe c2
=

1.50331 1010 J + 3.00513 1010 J + 1.15 1013 J 4.50038 1010 J

8.06 1013 J + 1.15 1013 J

9.21 1013 J

(c)
Kf Ki

9.21 1013 J 1.15 1013 J

8.06 1013 J

This is the change in rest energy of the nuclei in this reaction.

(d) Graph 3. It correctly represents the nuclear interaction at short distances before fusion (the system is bound, thus
U < 0), the coulomb interaction after fusion (repulsive force and unbound system, thus U>0), the coulomb repulsion
at greater distances (U > 0, but decaying), and no interaction at great, great distances (U 0 as r ).

6.P.106
Let 1 be the original nucleus and 2 be the new nucleus after alpha decay. Use c = 2.992792 108 m/s.

Ei
Erest,1
Kf

= Ef
= Erest, + Erest,2 + Kf
= Erest,1 Erest, Erest,2
=

m1 c2 m c2 m2 c2

3.52065 108 J 5.96833 1010 J 3.46089 1008 J

8.38 1013 J

6.P.107
(a) Define y = 0 to be at the lowest point of the pendulums motion ( = 0). Then the height of the pendulum is
y = L L cos = L(1 cos ). Because it is near Earth, we can use

= mgy

= mgL(1 cos )

47
U vs. e for a pendulum
20
18
16
14

U (J)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-200

-150

-100

-50

0
e ()

50

100

150

200

Figure 7: U vs. for a pendulum.

(b) To sketch the graph, assume that m = 1 kg and L = 1 m. Then, U varies between the values of 0 and 2g. An example
graph is shown in Figure 7.
(c) s = L, so =

s
L.

Write U in terms of s.

mgL(1 cos

s
)
L

The tangential component of the net force on the mass is

Fnet,tan

=
=
=
=
=

U
s

s
(mgL(1 cos ))
s
L
s 1
mgL( sin )( )
L L
s
mg sin
L
mg sin

The net force can also be found by sketching a free-body diagram for the pendulum and summing the forces to calculate
the net force on the pendulum. A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 8.
The gravitational force can be written in terms of its radial component and its tangential component. The tangential
component of ~Fgrav is

48

Frad

Fgrav , rad

Fgrav

Fgrav , tan

Figure 8: A free-body diagram for the pendulum.

Fgrav,tan

Fgrav sin

mg sin

The negative sign gives the direction, showing that the force is to the left and angent to the path for positive angles
and to the right and tangent to the path for negative angles.
(d) To barely make it to the top, vf = 0 at the top. Apply the Energy Principle with the initial state at = 0 and the
final state at = 180 .

Ei
Ki

=
=

Ef
Uf

Ki

mgL(1 cos 180 )

2mgL
p
4gL

1
mv2
i
2
vi

Use m = 1 kg and L = 1 m. The initial energy needed to barely make it to the top is Ei = 2mgL = 2g, for m = 1 and
L = 1. If E > 2g, then it easily goes all the way around. If E < 2g, then it never makes it to the top. An example
graph is shown in Figure 9.

6.P.108

49
U vs. e for a pendulum
30

U
v > critical speed
v = critical speed
v < critical speed

25

U (J)

20

15

10

0
-200

-150

-100

-50

0
e ()

50

100

150

Figure 9: Various energy levels for a pendulum.

E2

particle

(pc)2

(mc2 )2 (m |~v| c)2

=
=

2 (mc2 )2 2 m2 |~v| c2
1
1

 (mc2 )2 
 m2 |~v|2 c2
2
|~
v|
|~
v |2
1 c2
1 c2

(mc2 )2 m2 |~v| c2


2
1 |~vc2|

m2 c4 m2 |~v| c2


2
1 |~vc2|

m2 c4 (1 mm|~v2 c| 4c )


2
1 |~vc2|

m2 c4 (1 |~vc2| )


2
1 |~vc2|

m2 c4

(mc2 )2

6.P.109
A sample program is shown below.

2 2

200

50
1
2

from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

from v i s u a l import

3
4
5
6

RE = 6 . 4 e6 #r a d i u s o f Earth
RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
h = 5 e4 #i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e o f Ranger

7
8
9
10

Earth = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =5RE)

Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(4e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5 Earth . r a d i u s )
r a n g e r = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE+h , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25 Earth . r a d i u s )

11
12
13
14
15

m=173 #mass o f r a n g e r
ME = 6 e24 #mass o f Earth
MM = 7 e22 #mass o f Moon
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11

16
17
18

v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 3 2 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f r a n g e r
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f r a n g e r

19
20
21

t=0
dt=5

22
23
24

#i n i t i a l i z e work
work = 0

25
26
27

rmag=mag( r a n g e r . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( r a n g e r . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Moon

28
29

t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=r a n g e r . c o l o r )

30
31
32

while rmag>RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

rate (1000)

33
34
35
36
37
38

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Earth
r=r a n g e r . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
FgravE=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t

39
40
41
42
43
44

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Moon
r r e l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
rrelmoonmag=mag( r r e l m o o n )
r r e l m o o n u n i t=r r e l m o o n / rrelmoonmag
FgravM=GmMM/ rrelmoonmag 2 r r e l m o o n u n i t

45
46
47

#c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM

48
49
50
51
52

#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
r a n g e r . pos = r a n g e r . pos + v dt

53
54

#c a l c u l a t e work done by g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s

51
55

work = work + dot ( Fnet , v dt )

56
57

t r a i l . append ( pos=r a n g e r . pos )

58
59

t = t + dt

60
61
62
63
64
65
66

print
print
print
print
print
print

" c r a s h e d a t t=" , t
"= ( i n h o u r s ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 )
"= ( i n days ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 / 2 4 )
" s p e e d = " , mag( v )
" work = " , work
" change i n K= " , 0 . 5 m (mag( v ) 2 ( 1 . 3 2 e4 ) 2 )

6.P.110
A sample program is shown below. Note that the energy is calculated before the position and momentum update so that
the speed in the kinetic energy calculation corresponds to the same clock reading when the distances (such as rmag) are
calculated.
1
2
3

from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

from v i s u a l import
from v i s u a l . graph import

4
5
6
7

RE = 6 . 4 e6 #r a d i u s o f Earth
RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
h = 5 e4 #i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e o f Ranger

8
9
10
11

Earth = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =5RE)

Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(4e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5 Earth . r a d i u s )
r a n g e r = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE+h , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25 Earth . r a d i u s )

12
13
14
15
16

m=173 #mass o f r a n g e r
ME = 6 e24 #mass o f Earth
MM = 7 e22 #mass o f Moon
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11

17
18
19

v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 3 2 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f r a n g e r
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f r a n g e r

20
21
22

t=0
dt=10

23
24
25

rmag=mag( r a n g e r . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( r a n g e r . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Moon

26
27

28
29
30

UGraph=g d i s p l a y ( t i t l e ="E vs . r " , x t i t l e= ' r (m) ' , y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' , x =450 , y=0, width =400 ,
h e i g h t =300)
UPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
EPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
KPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

31
32
33
34

t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=r a n g e r . c o l o r )

52
35
36

while rmag>RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

rate (1000)

37
38
39
40
41
42

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Earth
r=r a n g e r . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
FgravE=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t

43
44
45
46
47
48

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Moon
r r e l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
rrelmoonmag=mag( r r e l m o o n )
r r e l m o o n u n i t=r r e l m o o n / rrelmoonmag
FgravM=GmMM/ rrelmoonmag 2 r r e l m o o n u n i t

49
50
51

#c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM

52
53
54
55
56
57
58

#c a l c u l a t e e n e r g y
Umoon = GmMM/ rrelmoonmag
Uearth = GmME/rmag
U = Umoon + Uearth
K = 1/2mmag( v ) 2
E= K + U

59
60
61
62
63

#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
r a n g e r . pos = r a n g e r . pos + v dt

64
65

t r a i l . append ( pos=r a n g e r . pos )

66
67

t = t + dt

68
69
70
71

UPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag ,U) )

EPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag , E) )
KPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag ,K) )
Viewing the graphs shows that the total energy indeed remains constant. If the time step is too large (dt > 100 s for example),
the total energy will become inaccurate.
The escape speed from Earth is approximately 1.12 104 m/s. If you change the initial speed to be less than the escape
speed, you will notice that the total energy is negative and the spacecraft never makes it to Moon. If you launch it at the
escape speed, you will notice that the total energy is zero, as expected. Since the escape speed would cause the spacecraft to
just barely reach r = , then it certainly has enough energy to get to Moon. Thus, even at the escape speed, with E = 0,
it still reaches Moon as one would expect.