Quadratic and Other Special

Functions
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A quadratic is an expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are given
numbers
and a 0.
The standard form of a quadratic equation is an equation of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are given numbers and a 0.
Thus, for example, the values x = 3 and x = 2 satisfy the equation, x 2 5x + 6 = 0.
This is
easily checked by substitution.
These values are called the solutions of the equation.
Linear equations that are written in
the standard form , ax + b = 0, a 0, have one solution. Quadratic equations may
have no
solutions, one solution, or, as in the above example, two solutions.

Quadratic equations with no term in x

When there is no term in x we can move the constant to the other side.

EXAMPLE
Solve x2 9 = 0.

SOLUTION
X2 9= 0
x2=9
x= 3 or x = 3.

Quadratic equations with no constant term

EXAMPLE
Solve x2 9x = 0

Solution
X2 9 = 0
x(x 9) = 0
so x = 0 or x 9 = 0
Hence the two solutions are or x = 0, or x = 9.

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH THREE

TERMS
There are three basic methods of solving such quadratic equations:

by factoring
by completing the square
by the quadratic formula

Solving quadratic equations by factoring

The method of solving quadratic equations by factoring rests on the simple fact. If
we obtain zero as the product of two numbers then at least one of the numbers
must be zero.
That is, if

AB = 0

then

A = 0 or B = 0

To factor x2 + bx + c we try to find two numbers whose sum is b and whose product
is c.

Example
Solve x2 7x + 12 = 0.

Solution
X2 7x + 12 = 0
x 24x3x+12 =0
x(x4) 3(x4) =0

(x4)(x3) =0
x 4= 0, or x 3 = 0
so x = 4, or x = 3

EXAMPLE
Solve the equation 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0

Solution
2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
2x2 + 2x + 3x + 3 = 0
2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1) = 0
(x + 1)(2x + 3) = 0
x + 1 = 0, or 2x + 3 = 0
x = 1, or x = 3/2

Common simplifications of quadratics

If the coefficient of x2 is negative multiply through by 1.

x2 + 5x 6 = 0 becomes x2 5x + 6 = 0

multiply out fractions

x2/2 5x/2 + 3 becomes x2 5x + 6 = 0

If there is a common factor divide through by it.

3x2 15x + 18 = 0 becomes x2 5x + 6 = 0

The quadratic formula

The method of completing the square always works. By applying it to the general
quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 we obtain the well known quadratic formula.
To derive the formula, we will begin by multiplying the equation through by 4a
Ax2 + bx + c = 0
4a2 x2 + 4abx + 4ac = 0

(2ax + b)2 = 4a2 x2 + 4abx + b2 so adding b2 will

produce a square.
4a2 x2 + 4abx = 4ac
4a2 x2 + 4abx + b2 = b2 4ac
(2ax + b)2 = b2 4ac

We pause at this stage to note that if b 2 4ac is negative, then there is no solution.
If b2 4ac is positive, we then proceed to take the positive and negative square
roots to solve for x. If b2 4ac is equal to 0, then there will only be 1 solution. We
suppose then that b2 4ac is positive and proceed to find the solutions.
(2ax + b)2 = b2 4ac
2ax + b =

4 ac +b2

or 2ax + b= 4 ac+ b

b b24 ac
x=
2a
EXAMPLE
Solve x2 10x 3 = 0 by using the formula.

Solution
Here a = 1, b = 10, c = 3,
so b2 4ac = 100 + 12
= 112

b b24 ac
X=
2a

X=

10

24(1)(3)

(10)

X=

10 112
2

X=

10 4 7
2

X=

2( 5 2 7)
2

X= 5 2 7
X= 5+2 7
or
x= 5 -2 7

Parabolas
The U-shaped graphs that arise from the curves y= a(x-k) 2 are called
parabolas.
The place where the parabola dips down to its lowest point, if it is upward facing, or
dips up to its highest point if it is downward facing is called the vertex of the
parabola.

We have seen that if y= a(x-k)2 +b then the vertex occurs at the new zero which
is x=k. The y-value here is y= a(x-k)2 +b=0+b=b.
Thus the coordinates of the vertex are: (k b , ).
Example:
Graph the parabola y = x2 + 6x 1
Solution:
y = x2 + 6x 1
Comparing with ax2+bx+c
a=1, b=6, c= -1

x = -b/2a
x = -6/2(1)= -3
x= -3
y = 1(-3)2 + 6(-3) 1
y = 9 18 1= 10

y = -10