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Electronics
Electronics is the science of how to control electric energy, energy in which the
electrons have a fundamental role. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that
involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and
integrated circuits, and associated passive electrical components and
interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry
consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with
passive elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.
The nonlinear behavior of active components and their ability to control electron
flows makes amplification of weak signals possible, and electronics is widely used
in information processing, telecommunication, and signal processing. The ability
of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing
possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics
packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure
complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular
working system.
Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and
technology, which deal with the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and
conversion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms using wires,
motors, generators, batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors, and other
passive components. Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology" because
its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers,
and vacuum tubes.
Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron
control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a
branch of solid-state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic
circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering. This
article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.
Branches of
Electronics
Electronics has branches as follows:
Digital electronics:-
Digital electronics or digital (electronic) circuits are electronics that handle digital
signals - discrete bands of analog levels - rather than by continuous ranges (as used
in analogue electronics). All levels within a band of values represent the same
numeric value. Because of this discretization, relatively small changes to the
analog signal levels due to manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation or parasitic
noise do not leave the discrete envelope, and as a result are ignored by signal state
sensing circuitry. In most cases, the number of these states is two, and they are
represented by two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as
"ground" or zero volts), and the other a value near the supply voltage. These
correspond to the "false" ("0") and "true" ("1") values of the Boolean domain
respectively, named after its inventor, George Boole, yielding binary code. Digital
electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates, simple
electronic representations of Boolean logic functions.
Analogue electronics:Analogue electronics are electronic systems with a continuously variable signal, in
contrast to digital electronics where signals usually take only two levels. The term
"analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage
or current that represents the signal.
An analogue signal uses some attribute of the medium to convey the signal's
information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses the angular position of a
needle as the signal to convey the information of changes in atmospheric
pressure. Electrical signals may represent information by changing their voltage,
current, frequency, or total charge. Information is converted from some other
physical form (such as sound, light, temperature, pressure, position) to an electrical
signal by a transducer which converts one type of energy into another.
Circuit electronics:The process of circuit design can cover systems ranging from complex electronic
systems all the way down to the individual transistors within an integrated circuit.
In integrated circuit design automation, the term "circuit design" often refers to the
step of the design cycle which outputs the schematics of the integrated circuit.
Typically this is the step between logic design and physical design. Formal circuit
design usually involves the following stages:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics is the study and application of electronic devices that source,
detect and control light, usually considered a sub-field of photonics. In this context,
light often includes invisible forms of radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet and infrared, in addition to visible light. Optoelectronic devices are
electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers, or instruments that use
should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor
material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the
conduction band. Hence when light having enough energy is incident on
the device more & more electrons are excited to the conduction band
which results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this
process is more and more current starts flowing and hence it is said that
the resistance of the device has decreased. This is the most common
working principle of LDR.
Characteristics of LDR
LDRs are light dependent devices whose resistance decreases when
light falls on them and increases in the dark. When a light dependent
resistor is kept in dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance is
called as dark resistor. It can be as high as 1012 . And if the device is
allowed to absorb light its resistance will decrease drastically. If a
constant voltage is applied to it and intensity of light is increased the
current starts increasing. Figure below shows resistance vs illumination
curve for a particular LDR. Photocells or LDRs are non-linear devices.
There sensitivity varies with the wavelength of light incident on them.
Some photocells might not at all response to a certain range of
wavelengths. Based on the material used different cells have different
spectral response curves.
Construction of a Photodiode
The structure of a light dependent resistor consists of a light sensitive
material which is deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic.
The material is deposited in zigzag pattern in order to obtain the desired
resistance & power rating. This zigzag area separates the metal
deposited areas into two regions. Then the ohmic contacts are made on
the either sides of the area. The resistances of these contacts should be as
less as possible to make sure that the resistance mainly changes due to
the effect of light only. Materials normally used are cadmium sulphide,
cadmium selenide, indium antimonide and cadmium sulphonide. The use
of lead and cadmium is avoided as they are harmful to the environment.
Applications of LDR
LDRs have low cost and simple structure. They are often used as light
sensors. They are used when there is a need to detect absences or
presences of light like in a camera light meter. Used in street lamps,
alarm clock, burglar alarm circuits, light intensity meters, for counting
the packages moving on a conveyor belt, etc.
Experimental
Study
Aim:To determine the relationship between resistance Of a photodiode and
Intensity and Frequency of Light (or) radiation incident on the LDR.
Apparatus Required:-
Circuit diagram:-
Procedure
Step 1:- Forming the given circuit.
From the Positive terminal of the battery , connect to the positive terminal of
the ammeter .
Connect the negative terminal of the ammeter to the LDR . Now connect the
other terminal of the LDR to the positive terminal of the rheostat.
Connect the rheostat to the Battery ( source of DC)
Step 2:- After the circuit has been made , Connect the bulb to an AC
source( preferably using an extension box).
Step 3:- Switch on the circuit. The experiment has to be done in a dark room. Now
switch of the bulb and keep it with maximum closeness to the LDR. Now note the
reading of the voltmeter and ammeter and record them in the Observation Table.
Step 4:- Now move the bulb slowly away and switch on the circuit again. Measure
the distance. Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings. Do the same for
different distances and take 4 values.
Step5. Do all the steps again using a different colored light in order to change the
frequency of the radiation or light source used.
Note down the readings in the observation table.
Observations
Result
The Resistance of the LDR decreases when the Intensity of the light or radiation
incident on the LDR increases and vice versa. Thus , the intensity of incident
radiation varies inversely with the resistance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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