Thesis LWC PDF

European Union Brite EuRam III
LWA concrete under fatigue loading.

A literature survey and a number
of conducted fatigue tests.
EuroLightCon
Economic Design and Construction with
Light Weight Aggregate Concrete
Document BE96-3942/R41, June 2000
Project funded by the European Union
under the Industrial & Materials Technologies Programme (Brite-EuRam III)
The European Union Brite EuRam III

EuroLightCon

Contract BRPR-CT97-0381, Project BE96-3942
Although the project consortium does its best to ensure that any information given is accurate, no liability or responsibility of any kind (including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the project cons ortium, the authors/editors
and those who contributed to the report.
Acknowledgements
This report, concerning Task 5.1.4.3, is written by Wim Bennenk. The report is based on a study performed by Sonja
van Lier and Adriaan de Vlieg, as junior researchers at the Eindhoven University of Technology, department Structural
Design. The study is coached by the author, assisted by Aleks Milenkovic and Math Pluis on behalf of Spanbeton. The
tests are performed in the Van Musschenbroek Laboratory at the EUT, managed by Sip Overdijk. Adriaan de Vlieg and
Martien Ceelen conducted the tests. This report is a mutual effort of EUT and Spanbeton.
Information
Jan P.G. Mijnsbergen, CUR, PO Box 420, NL-2800 AK Gouda, the Netherlands
Tel: +31 182 540620, Email: jan.mijnsbergen@cur.nl
Information on the EuroLightCon-project and its partners: http://www.sintef.no/bygg/sement/elcon
ISBN 90 376 03 48 3
The European Union Brite EuRam III

EuroLightCon

Contract BRPR-CT97-0381, Project BE96-3942
Selmer ASA, NO
SINTEF, the Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research at the
Norwegian Institute of Technology, NO
NTNU, University of Technology and Science, NO
ExClay International, NO
Beton Son B.V., NL
B.V. VASIM, NL
CUR, Centre for Civil Engineering Research and Codes, NL
Smals B.V., NL
Delft University of Technology, NL
IceConsult, Lnuhnnun hf., IS
The Icelandic Building Research Institute, IS
Taywood Engineering Limited, GB
Lias-Franken Leichtbaustoffe GmbH & Co KG, DE
Dragados y Construcciones S.A., ES
Eindhoven University of Technology, NL
Spanbeton B.V., NL
LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

A literature survey and a number of conducted fatigue tests
Table of Contents
PREFACE
SUMMARY
11
SYMBOLS
13
INTRODUCTION
15
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
A CONCRETE FATIGUE MODEL

Uniaxial tensile behaviour [9]
A deformation-controlled uniaxial tensile test [9]
S-N curves and Whler diagrams [9]
The cyclic creep curve
E-modulus
17
17
18
19
19
20
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
LOADING
Constant amplitude
Variable amplitude
Presentation of results
22
22
23
24
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
THE MINER RULE

General
Concrete under compression
Concrete under tension
Conclusion
25
25
25
26
26
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
PARAMETERS INFLUENCING FATIGUE OF CONCRETE

Concrete characteristics
External factors
Climate aspects
27
27
28
29
S-N CURVES
30
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
TESTS WITH DIFFERENT LOADING TYPES

Compressive tests
Tensile tests
Tensile-compression tests
35
35
36
36
CALCULATION PROCEDURE
37
BE96-3942 EuroLightCon

PERFORMED TESTS IN DELFT AND GENT
38
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.4.3
10.4.3.1
10.4.3.2
10.4.4
TESTS AT EUT
Required arrangements capacity
Test arrangement
Performed compression test
Applied loading scheme
Measuring procedure
Measuring results
Performed tension-compression test
Applied loading scheme
Measuring procedure
Measuring results
Compression/tension test LWA-TC1
Compression/tension test LWA-TC2
Analyses and conclusions
40
40
41
43
43
43
44
49
49
49
49
51
53
54
11
REFERENCES
55
12
NOMENCLATURE
56

PREFACE
The lower density and higher insulating capacity are the most obvious characteristics of LightWeight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC) by which it distinguishes itself from ordinary Normal
Density Concrete (NDC). However, these are by no means the only characteristics, which justify the increasing attention for this (construction) material. If that were the case most of the design, production and execution rules would apply for LWAC as for normal weight concrete,
without any amendments.
LightWeight Aggregate (LWA) and LightWeight Aggregate Concrete are not new materials.
LWAC has been known since the early days of the Roman Empire: both the Colosseum and the
Pantheon were partly constructed with materials that can be characterised as lightweight aggregate concrete (aggregates of crushed lava, crushed brick and pumice). In the United States, over
100 World War II ships were built in LWAC, ranging in capacity from 3000 to 140000 tons and
their successful performance led, at that time, to an extended use of structural LWAC in buildings and bridges.
It is the objective of the EuroLightCon-project to develop a reliable and cost effective design
and construction methodology for structural concrete with LWA. The project addresses LWA
manufactured from geological sources (clay, pumice etc.) as well as from waste/secondary materials (fly-ash etc.). The methodology shall enable the European concrete and construction industry to enhance its capabilities in terms of cost-effective and environmentally friendly construction, combining the building of lightweight structures with the utilisation of secondary aggregate sources.
The major research tasks are:
Lightweight aggregates: The identification and evaluation of new and unexploited sources specifically addressing the environmental issue by utilising alternative materials from waste. Further the development of more generally applicable classification and quality assurance systems
for aggregates and aggregate production.
Lightweight aggregate concrete production: The development of a mix design methodology to
account for all relevant materials and concrete production and in-use properties. This will include assessment of test methods and quality assurance for production.
Lightweight aggregate concrete properties: The establishing of basic materials relations, the
influence of materials characteristics on mechanical properties and durability.
Lightweight aggregate concrete structures: The development of design criteria and -rules with
special emphasis on high performance structures. The identification of new areas for applic ation.
The project is being carried out in five technical tasks and a task for co-ordination/management
and dissemination and exploitation. The objectives of all technical tasks are summarised below.
Starting point of the project, the project baseline, are the results of international research work
combined with the experience of the partners in the project whilst using LWAC. This subject is
dealt with in the first task.

Tasks 2-5 address the respective research tasks as mentioned above: the LWA itself, production
of LWAC, properties of LWAC and LWAC structures.
Sixteen partners from six European countries, representing aggregate manufacturers and suppliers, contractors, consultants research organisations and universities are involved in the EuroLightCon-project. In addition, the project esta blished co-operation with national clusters and
European working groups on guidelines and standards to increase the benefit, dissemination and
exploitation.
At the time the project is being performed, a Working Group under the international concrete
assoc iation FIB (the former CEB and FIP) is preparing an addendum to the CEB-FIP Model Code
1990, to make the Model Code applicable for LWAC. Basis for this work is a state -of-the-art
report referring mainly to European and North-American Standards and Codes. Partners in the
project are also active in the FIB Working Group.
General information on the EuroLightCon-project, including links to the individual project partners, is available through the web site of the project: http://www.sintef.no/bygg/sement/elcon/
At the time of publication of this report, following EuroLightCon-reports have been published:
R1
Definitions and International Consensus Report. April 1998
R1a
LightWeight Aggregates Datasheets. Update September 1998
R2
LWAC Material Properties State-of-the-Art. December 1998
R3
Chloride penetration into concrete with lightweight aggregates. March 1999
R4
Methods for testing fresh lightweight aggregate concrete, December 1999
R5
A rational mix design method for lightweight aggregate concrete using typical UK materials, January 2000
R6
Properties of Lytag-based concrete mixtures strength class B15-B55, January 2000
R7
Grading and composition of the aggregate, March 2000
R8
Properties of lightweight concretes containing Lytag and Liapor, March 2000
R9
Technical and economic mixture optimisation of high strength lightweight aggregate
concrete, March 2000
R10
Paste optimisation based on flow properties and compressive strength, March 2000
R11
Pumping of LWAC based on expanded clay in Europe, March 2000
R12
Applicability of the particle -matrix model to LWAC, March 2000
R13
Large-scale chloride penetration test on LWAC-beams exposed to thermal and hygral
cycles, March 2000
R14
Structural LWAC. Specification and guideline for materials and production, June 200
R15
Light Weight Aggregates, June 200
R16
In-situ tests on existing lightweight aggregate concrete structures, June 200
R17
Properties of LWAC made with natural lightweight aggregates, June 2000
R18
Durability of LWAC made with natural lightweight aggregates, June 2000
R19
Evaluation of the early age cracking of lightweight aggregate concrete, June 2000
R20
The effect of the moisture history on the water absorption of lightweight aggregates,
June 2000
R21
Stability and pumpability of lightweight aggregate concrete. Test methods, June 2000
R22
The economic potential of lightweight aggregate concrete in c.i.p. concrete bridges,
June 2000
R23
Mechanical properties of lightweight aggregate concrete, June 2000

R24
R25
R26
R27
R28
R29
R30
R31
R32
R33
R34
R35
R36
R37
R38
R39
R40
R41
R42
R43
Prefabricated bridges, June 2000

Chemical stability, wear resistance and freeze-thaw resistance of lightweight aggregate
concrete, June 2000
Recycling lightweight aggregate concrete, June 2000
Mechanical properties of LWAC compared with both NWC and HSC, June 2000
Prestressed beams loaded with shear force and/or torsional moment, June 2000
A prestressed steel-LWAconcrete bridge system under fatigue loading
Creep properties of LWAC, June 2000
Long-term effects in LWAC: Strength under sustained loading; Shrinkage of High
Strength LWAC, June 2000
Tensile strength as design parameter, June 2000
Structural and economical comparison of bridges made of inverted T-beams with topping, June 2000
Fatigue of normal weight concrete and lightweight concrete, June 2000
Composite models for short- and long-term strength and deformation properties of
LWAC, June 2000
High strength LWAC in construction elements, June 2000
Comparison of bridges made of NWC and LWAC. Part 1: Steel concrete composite
bridges, June 2000
Comparing high strength LWAC and HSC with the aid of a computer model, June 2000
Proposal for a Recommendation on design rules for high strength LWAC, June 2000
Comparison of bridges made of NWC and LWAC. Part 2: Bridges made of box beams
post-tensioned in transversal direction, June 2000
LWA concrete under fatigue loading. A literature survey and a number of conducted
fatigue tests, June 2000
The shear capacity of prestressed beams, June 2000
A prestressed steel-LWA concrete bridge system under fatigue loading, June 2000

10

SUMMARY
This report of sub-task 5.1.4.3 concerns the fatigue strength of concrete in general and LWAC
in particular. From the literature survey, the important issues for testing the fatigue strength of
concrete are described in chapter 2. There are references with the research performed by Hordijk at Delft University of Technology for his PhD thesis. The existing methods to estimate the
fatigue lifetime of dynamically loaded structures, such as the Miner Rule of Palmgren-Miner
hypothesis, are discussed in chapter 4. The types of loading are discussed in chapter 3. The influence of the type of loading as well as the magnitude of the loading and the frequency are discussed in chapter 5. In this chapter also attention is paid to the influence of the type of concrete
and external factors, such as temperature and humidity. The presentation of data is discussed in
chapter 6, while tests with different loading characteristics are presented in chapter 7. Some of
the tests performed at the Delft University of Technology Eindhoven, tension fatigue tests, as
well as at the University of Gent, bending fatigue tests are reviewed in chapter 9.
This literature survey is complementary to the study of Spanbeton concerning the fatigue
strength and the study and research performed by Betonson and the EUT for the prestressed
steel-concrete composite bridge, where a typical and essential detail is tested on its fatigue
strength.
Additional to the literature survey, some tests are performed at the Van Musschenbroek Laboratory at the EUT. The loading is related to a design study of a bridge, composed with prestressed
precast inverted T-beams and an in situ cast concrete deck-slab, conducted by Spanbeton in subtask 5.1.4.2. The study resulted in two representative loading cycles for the deck-structure; one
loading with a variation in the compressive upper and lower stresses and another one with the
combination of tensile - and compressive stresses.
Test specimen have been produced of LWA concrete, grade C55. The ultimate capacity of
forces versus frequency for the test arrangements is determined.
-
The fatigue strength under sinusoidal compressive stresses between 16.5 and 33 MPa at a
frequency of 5-10 Hz was satisfying. The test specimen resisted ten million of loading cycles.
For the tensile -compression test, the feasible tension capacity of LWAC had to be learned
in some preliminary tests. The final tests showed that 10 million cycles were feasible.
Keywords:
LWAC C55, literature survey, LWAC bridge-decks, stress variation, frequency, compression
fatigue test, tension-compression fatigue test.
11

12

SYMBOLS
Latin upper case symbols
E
Es
F
Ms
N
Ni
R
R
S
S
modulus of elasticity
secant modulus
force
miner sum
normal force
number of cycles
stress ratio
radius
stress level
displacement
Latin lower case symbols

d
lmeas
fc
fcm
fcf
fc;rep
fc,;ep;f
fc(t)m
fcm
fck
fckf
fckt
ft
i
n
t
difference in.
length between measure points
design value compression strenght of concrete
mean tensile strength concrete
uniaxial design tensile strength for concrete under fatigue loading
representative value of compression strength concrete
representative uniaxial tensile strength for fatigue
mean tensile strength concrete after t days
mean compression strength concrete
characteristic value of tensile strength concrete
characteristic cube strength for fatigue
characteristic cube strenght for fatigue after t days
design value tensile strength of concrete
cycle number
number of cycles
time
Greek lower case symbols
displacement
strain
o
sec
min
max
min
max
secondary creep increase per cycle

material factor
stress
minimal compression stress
maximal compression stress
minimal tensile stress
maximal tensile stress
frequency
13

14

INTRODUCTION
In the EuroLightCon project - Economic Design and Construction with LightWeight Aggregate
Concrete - the structural applications of LWAC are centralised in research task 5. One part of
that research concerns the fatigue behaviour of concrete. Although in some building structures
the live load is of a cyclic nature, fatigue is usually an important issue in civil structures, such as
bridges, viaducts, platforms, due to traffic loads, sea waves, wind etc.
The general study in task 5.1.4.3 concerns the fatigue behaviour of concrete in the deck structures of concrete bridges, composite bridges as well as for box-beam applications, all with
prestressed precast units.
The study concerns a literature survey and a number of fatigue tests. Spanbeton has studied the
fatigue loading in bridge decks in sub-task 5.1.4.2. Based on design calculations Spanbeton selected two representative stress combinations acting in a bridge deck. These stress combinations
are the bases for a number of fatigue tests on LWAC. The tests are performed in the Van Musschenbroek Laboratory of the Eindhoven University of Technology, faculty of Architecture, department Structural Design.
Fatigue of concrete is also a subject in the study of Spanbeton, report of sub-task 5.1.4.2 and the
study of EUT together with Betonson, report of sub-task 5.1.4.1, concerning the fatigue resistance of a recently developed prestressed steel- LWA concrete bridge system. In the three mentioned reports the subject is fatigue-related. For the EUT, it means, a new research project in
this field of design, and at the same time a challenge to confront junior researchers with this important subject.
In general, the fatigue loading of concrete can be seen as a process of internal changes of the
structure of the hardened concrete, mostly called damage that results in a crack propagation
and finally in failure when a number of loading cycles is exceeded. By the presence of microcracks in concrete, the fatigue mechanism is explainable, but in essence not completely known.
As said, previously, concrete structures are usually statically loaded. Bridges are dynamically
loaded, caused by traffic loads and wind loads.
Research learns that some hundreds of loading cycles at a high stress level will not lead to fatigue failure. In general, variations in the normal live loads on floors and stairs will not cause
fatigue effects. The check on fatigue resistance is necessary for structures sensitive for vibrations, such as slender chimneys, poles, and structures with a very variable live load, traffic
loads, such as for bridges and roads.
It is very usual to multiply a static load with an impact factor > 1, to transform the dynamic load
into an increased static load, which covers the dynamic effects. That is called a quasi-static
load. Fatigue of concrete structures is only important for specific applications, as previously
mentioned. Besides that, the number of failures, due to fatigue, is very small, which means that
the design method is covering the loading history correctly. The design and calculation methods
15

are based on long-term experiences and practise, so it is impossible to calibrate these methods
on the existing reliable concrete structures, because the safety factor can not be determined in a
non-destructive way.
The attention is mostly paid to the fatigue of the material. The fatigue strength of concrete is in
principle lower than the strength under short-term static loading. A load that varies in time as
well as in magnitude substantially can lead to a material failure.
The fatigue strength is a long-term issue and has to be reviewed for the structures designed lifetime. Fatigue is an Ultimate Limit State failure mode. Cracking, deflection and the loss of stiffness are aspects of the Serviceability Limit State.
Fatigue effects can occur in the concrete, in the reinforcement as well as in the bond between
concrete and reinforcement.
The fatigue strength is depending on the following aspects:
-
16
The maximum stress,

The minimal stress,
The frequency of the loading cycles,
The nature of the load, sinusoidal or stochastically,
The grade of the concrete,
The rate of hydration,
The rate of hydration and test conditions- under water or above water.

A CONCRETE FATIGUE MODEL
Fatigue is mostly studied in a quantitative way, although the knowledge of the real mechanism
is still limited. In this chapter a model for the fatigue of concrete developed by Hordijk [9] is
presented. The model is based on a local approach. The starting point is the stress situation in
the so-called softening zone and the stress redistribution after a loading cycle. The stress-crack
opening relationship for unloading and loading is the input for the Model. The concrete is modelled at macro-level as a homogeneous isotropic material. It is assumed that as soon as the concrete tensile stress is achieved, the concrete cracks while the crack direction is perpendicular to
the acting tensile force direction.
2.1
Uniaxial tensile behaviour [9]
When a tensile bar is loaded uniaxially in tension by means of a load-control then fracture occurs when the maximal attainable load is reached. See Figure 1a. If, however, the deformation
over a certain measuring length is used as a control parameter, then a post-peak behaviour can
be found, see Figure 1b. As a consequence of the material behaviour, there is a zone ahead of a
visible crack in the concrete in which the transferable stress depends on the crack opening, see
Figure 2a. This model for the non-linear material behaviour in concrete is the basic principle of
the fictitious crack model, that was proposed by Hilleborg and co-workers [9].
Figure 1 A load- and deformation-controlled tensile test; schematically presented [9]

In fact the test specimen consists under loading of three different areas. Firstly, there is a visible
crack in which no tensile force can be transferred. Secondly, there is a part of the test specimen
behaves linear elastic. Thirdly there is the intermediary zone, also called the process zone,
with a fictitious crack; the crack-closing stresses are active.
17

Figure 2 The fictitious model and the Dugdal-Barenblatt model [9]

The size of the zone and the stress transfer length depends on the crack-width. This briefly described model is also to link to the model of Dugdale -Barenblatt concerning the yielding of
steel, where a plastic zone with crack-closing stresses is assumed ahead of a crack tip, see Figure 2b. In this model the crack-closing stresses are equal to the yield stress of steel.
2.2
A deformation-controlled uniaxial tensile test [9]
When a test specimen is strained in uniaxial tension, it will respond elastically in the first stage.
The load-deformation is linear up to the peak, see line I. The tensile stresses are -on macrolevel- uniformly distributed over the cross-section. So, in fact, the stress-strain curve for the
concrete can replace the load-strain curve of the test specimen. At peak load, micro-cracks indicate the zone where the continuos macro-crack will develop, the so-called softening or process
zone. In fact, the crack will develop in the weakest zone. See also Figure 3.
Figure 3 Load-deformation relations under tensile loading [9]
18

The transferable load decreases when the deformation of the process zone increases. Outside the
zone the loading decreases. Stronger cross-sections follow curve line II. The model predicts and
describes the results of research adequately.
2.3
S-N curves and Whler diagrams [9]
As far as cyclic loading or fatigue loading is concerned, a distinction is generally made between
low cycle high amplitude fatigue and high cycle low amplitude fatigue. The former involves
few load cycles of high stress at a lower rate of loading (earthquakes, storms, etc.), while the
latter is characterised by a great number of cycles at low stress at a higher rate of loading (traffic
loading, wind and wave loading, etc.) The main characteristic of fatigue behaviour of concrete
is the number of load cycles, N, that can be performed before failure occurs. N increases when
the upper load level decreases. When the relative maximum load or stress is plotted against log
N, a linear relationship is the result, as shown in Figure 4a. In the next diagram 4b is shown that
the fatigue strength is also depending on the lower stress. A decreasing lower stress level results
in a decreasing number of cycles to failure. Stress reversals have more detrimental effect on tensile fatigue than repeated tensile stresses.
Figure 4 Whler diagram [9].
2.4
The cyclic creep curve
If the deformation is recorded during a fatigue test on plain concrete and plotted against the
number of cycles performed, the curve, known the cyclic creep curve, will be obtained. One can
distinguish three parts in the curve:
1 The deformation increase per cycle decreases by a higher number of performed cycles.
2 The increase of the deformation is constant
3 Just before failure occurs, the deformation increases rapidly.
19

Figure 5 Schematic representation of a cyclic creep curve

In the literature relationships are given for gravel and for LWA (Lytag) for stresses between 0.5
and 50 N/mm. The equations are linear, independent for the stress level, but depending on the
type of coarse aggregate.
o
For gravel:
Log N = -2.66 - 0.94.log sec
For Lytag:
Log N = -3.79 1.06.log sec
In which sec = secondary creep increase per cycle
2.5
E-modulus
Holmen [10] studied the development of the E-modulus in compressive tests under fatigue loading. In Figure 6 is shown that the secant modulus (Es) decreases for a growing number of cycles. There exists a strong relationship between the increase of strain in the constant creep per
cycle and the number of cycles to perform until failure.
Figure 6 The development of the secant modulus of elasticity in a compressive fatigue test.
20

Therefor it is possible to conclude the number of cycles within the lifetime from the measured
stress variation. The ultimate strain can be used as a criterion for fatigue failure:
o
d
d dt
N
N=
* N=
dn
dn dt
In which = the frequency.

So the formula can be written as:
o
log = log + log N log

For a constant value of the addition log e + log N is almost constant in value. The number of
cycles to conduct before failure occurs is also depending on the frequency. A lower frequency
leads to a smaller number of cycles up to failure, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 The relationship between the cyclic creep rate and log N. [9].
21

LOADING
Fatigue loads do not always have a sinusoidal character but are, in the contrary, mostly irregular
or stochastically distributed in the time. Due to the fact, that the irregularity of the load at the
same time means unpredictability, one needs statistics to characterise the load. To describe a
random process, the process is split into - n sinusoidal sub-processes that vary in duration.
3.1
Constant amplitude
In research projects, the constant amplitude test is often applied. The test specimen is loaded
with a force, varying sinusoidal in time between a maximum and a minimum value, see Figure
8. The frequency is constant.
Figure 8 Constant amplitude

The objective of the test is to learn the number of loading cycles - Ni - before the test specimen
fails. The number of cycles - Ni - is also depending on the upper and lower stress, max and
min. This is shown in a 3-D diagram. By using a fixed value for min i, the Whler diagram is
obtained, see Figure 9.
Figure 9 The 3-D presentation and the Whler diagram as a cross-section.
22

Within the constant-amplitude tests one can distinguish:

Compressive compressive cycles: Both max and min are compressive stresses. The rate of
max and min and the static compressive stress is called
S max and S min.
Tension- tension cycles:
Both max and min are tensile stresses. The rate of both
max and min and the static tensile stress is called S max
and S min.
Compressive tension cycles:
min is a compressive stress. max is a tensile stress. S max
is the rate between the compressive stress min and the
static compressive stress and S min is the rate between the
tensile stress max and the static tensile stress.
The Miner rules are based on tests with constant amplitudes.
3.2
Variable amplitude
Load blocks with constant amplitude can vary in magnitude; the numbers of cycles as well as
the upper and lower stress are parameters to simulate the aimed load. Such a load is also called a
program-load, see Figure 10.
Figure 10 A program load

It also possible to change the duration of a block, which means irregularities in the blocks interfaces, called a variable amplitude load, as shown in Figure 11. In this example the frequency
does not change.
Figure 11 Variable amplitude load.
23

3.3
Presentation of results
Test results can be presented in different ways. In a test with constant amplitude, the number of
loading cycles until failure is depending on max and min. The results can be presented in a 3-D
diagram. On one axis the value of max and the other one the value of min. is presented. The
third axis represents logN i . In Figure 12 tests results for plain concrete under uniaxial compressive stress are shown. To easy the user, a 2-D presentation is made, in which for instance
min i is constant or a constant stress ration R is chosen, as in a Whler diagram.
In the case the stress variations are constant, one gets a Goodman diagram, not very practical in
use.
Figure 12 Goodman diagrams.
24

THE MINER RULE
4.1
General
Most of the tests on fatigue behaviour of concrete are performed with a constant amplitude load.
In reality the load is not that regular of nature. By applying the Miner rule, it is also possible the
estimate the fatigue lifetime for other loading histories.
The Miner rule can simply be written as:
Ms =
Ni
1
i =1
In which c is the number of cycles during the intended lifetime.

The number of loading cycles - Ni - is derived from constant amplitude tests. Via this value the
stress level of each separate cycle is taken into account. In this value one can express the influence of the concrete grade, the hydration rate, the test conditions and the loading frequency.
The interpretation of the Miner rule is as follows:
Each separate cycle causes a - hypothetical contribution to the damage in the concrete with a
value 1/Ni . According the presented rule one can add all separate contributions in a random sequence. As soon as the sum is equal to 1, fatigue failure will occur. Up till now there exist no
physical explanation for the damage 1/Ni . It was not yet possible to connect the damage with a
number of present cracks in the concrete.
4.2
Concrete under compression
In 1977 StuPOC launched a research project concerning the applicability of the Miner Rule for
concrete under compression. A probabilistic approach was chosen, in which some material aspects such as compressive stress, shrinkage and creep are considered. The fatigue life of concrete and so the Ms has a stochastic character.
The formula is then as follows:
Ms =
med ( Ni )
1
i =1
It was learned in the project that on a log-scale med(M) = 0.47, substantially lower than 1. By
multiplying the stresses with a factor 0.97 the Miner hypothesis predicted the result rather accurately.
25

4.3
Concrete under tension
At Delft University of Technology the applicability of the Miner hypothesis for concrete under
tension has been investigated. Program loads with blocks were used to study the influences of
the sequence of the loading. The magnitude of max varied in the tests, sometimes high stresses
and sometimes lows. In general the Miner sum Ms was beyond 1. When for Ms the cyclic creep
is taken into account the value of Ms is close to 1.
4.4
Conclusion
Quite a number of arguments can be mentioned against the Miner rule of Palmgren-Miner hypothesis. All these arguments are based on the lack of a physical damage model; nevertheless
the Miner rule is frequently applied in the daily practise. The rule is simple and research did not
proof that the rule is not applicable or not reliable enough. Hordijk [9] states: The hypothesis
does not accurately reflect to concretes. One reason for this, for instance, is that the sequence
effects are not taken into account. Nevertheless, it is applied in the daily design practice, first of
all because it is simple, secondly, because no better method is available and, thirdly, because the
description of concrete behaviour under random loading is adequate enough for most cases.
His research project is based on the application of fracture mechanics, another approach.
In the research project [3] the sequence of loading cycles is studied. The value of max varied
per block. However, no conclusions could be drawn.
26

PARAMETERS INFLUENCING FATIGUE OF CONCRETE
Quite a number of parameters are influencing the fatigue lifetime of concrete. These parameters
can be divided into three groups:
-
Concrete composition and concrete properties

External factors, such as loading sequence
Climate factors, temperature and humidity.
5.1
Concrete characteristics
In general, it is expected that the concrete grade is not influencing the fatigue strength as long as
the applied stresses are respecting that concrete grade and as long as normal strength concrete,
NWC, is concerned. For high strength concrete, HSC, a more brittle material, decreases in fatigue strength is expected and for lower-ones an increase. Research at TNO-IBBC in 1997
learned that the fatigue strength decreases when the concrete is more brittle.
A general conclusion is that the fatigue lifetime is longer for high strength concrete than for
normal strength concrete, as long as the maximum relative stress is high enough. For instance:
0.7 < (max / fc m) < 0.9. However, the influence of the higher concrete strength is not sufficiently
clear. Considering that the application of HSC leads to more slender structures while the fatigue
strength of concrete is becoming more dominant, due to the increase of the dynamic load in
comparison with the dead load.
The dominant parameters in the mix composition, such as the water cement ratio, the applied kg
cement and the percentage air do not influence the fatigue strength, when expressed in general
terms in relation to the static strength.
When concrete is conditioned under water the decrease of the fatigue strength increases with a
higher water cement ratio in comparison with test specimen not conditioned under water.
The presence of silica fume in the concrete did not show significant differences in test results.
However, LWA concrete composed with silica fume, can be loaded to a higher stress level in
fatigue. The most likely explanation is as follows:
In NWC the cracks appear normally in the transfer zone of 5 10 m between paste and aggregate, a zone with unsound hydration products. In LWAC the quality of the transfer zone is
higher. The stiffness of LWA grains and the paste are more in balance for LWAC. Stress peaks
are smeared, so less cracking can be expected for LWAC with silica fume as filler.
As for high strength concrete the reduction of the total mass is also important in comparison
with the dynamic load. The reduction is a consequence of the lower mass per m and not specifically a result of a more slender structure, as for HSC may be expected. The fatigue behaviour
of LWAC is not extensively researched. Cornelissen [8] concludes from his research that the
fatigue behaviour of LWAC is depending on the type of LWA.
27

5.2
External factors
The fatigue strength is depending on the relative stress value S max = max / fc(t)m. When S max increases the number of loading cycles until failure occurs decreases. The difference between the
bottom stress min and the upper stress max determines the amplitude and is influencing the fatigue behaviour. In S-N curves the values for min are referred to log N and S max. With an increase of the amplitude the number of cycles until failure decreases as can be seen in Figure 13.
Figure 13 S-N curves

In fatigue test with S min as relative compressive stress the fatigue strength under tension shows
a decrease of the fatigue strength, in comparison with the tests in which S max is a relative tension stress, Cornelisse [8]. So in those cases the stress passes the zero axis, the fatigue strength
decreases. Probably the explanation is found in the interaction between cracks, due to tension
and due to compression, but also the repeating stresses in and around the crack tips may cause
that decreasing effect.
The number of loading cycles, until failure, decreases with a decreasing frequency of the load.
The upper limit of the strength is higher than the long-term strength of the concrete. The reduction factor of the fatigue strength is smaller than the reduction factor for the frequency. The lifetime of a test specimen - expressed in time increases with a decrease of the frequency of the
load cycle. In the CUR-report 163 one can read:
It is shown in general that a decrease of the frequency with a factor 100 leads to a decrease of
the number of loading cycles, until failure, with a factor 100. That means: the effective fatigue
lifetime is a factor 100 longer, see Figure 14.
.
With a decreasing secondary creep velocity, sec , the lifetime increases. In Figure 14 the peak
.
deformations are plotted against the time. [2]. At a lower frequency sec decreases, which means
a longer time until failure, so a longer lifetime.
28

Figure 14 Strain versus time for different frequency.
5.3
Climate aspects
The splitting tensile stresses caused by water in cracks and closed pores can contribute to the
reduction of the lifetime of concrete under fatigue loading, as learned from Japanese research
results. This phenomena is monitored both by test specimens conditioned under water and by
test specimens afterwards conditioned in a humidity controlled climate room. A possible reason
is the pumping effect in cracks when loaded and unloaded frequently, however, there is no hard
evidence for this assumption. Wet concrete shows in tests a shorter lifetime compared with dry
test specimens. Wet concrete shows normally more creep and that effect stimulates probably the
crack propagation.
The temperature of the test specimen is also of importance for the fatigue behaviour of concrete.
Test specimens have been tested under temperatures of 196C. A substantial increase in fatigue strength was performed compared with test in ambient temperatures. The static strength
also increases at extreme low temperatures, so the influence of the temperature on the S-N
curves will be less than the results of tests showed.
29

S-N CURVES
The S-values represent the quotient of the real acting stress and the uniaxial compressive concrete strength, the bending tensile strength and the uniaxial tensile strength. Working with S max
and S min the positive values are always used. For tensile -compressive test max is a tensile stress
and min a compressive stress. S min is always related to the compressive cube strength.
To compare the results of a number of tests for a fixed value for S min the following graphs are
presented:
Table 1. The overview of the tests to present in the following graphs.
Abbreviation
BT
BTD
CT
CTd
CTn
CTl
CTDa
CTDb
CTDI4
Ha5
Hb6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
30
LWA concrete
0.025 < S min < 0.700
S min value of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3
LWA concrete, S min = 0.2
HSC without micro silica fume
HSC with micro silica fume
Dry specimens, Wet specimens
Loading type
Bending-tension-tension
Bending-tension-compression
Centrally tension-tension
Centrally tensioncompression
Bending-tension-tens ion
Bending-tension-tension
Circumstances7
Dry
Dry
Dry-wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Dry-wet
2 weeks under water level, 2

weeks in open air
Wet specimens
were sealed.
Dry-wet
Dry
Dry
Dry

Smin = 0.0
1
0.9
Smax
0.8
BT
'BTD'
CT
CTd
CTn
'CTDa'
'CTDb'
Ha
Hb
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
LogN
Figure 15 S-N curves for the test series with S min = 0
Smin = 0.1
1
0.9
Smax
0.8
BT
'BTD'
CT
CTd
CTn
'CTDa'
'CTDb'
Ha
Hb
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
LogN
Figure 16 S-N curves for the test series with S min = 0.1
31

Smin = 0.2
1
0.9
Smax
0.8
0.7
BT
'BTD'
CT
CTd
CTn
'CTDa'
'CTDb'
CTDI
Ha
Hb
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
LogN
Smin = 0.3
1
0.9
Smax
0.8
0.7
BT
'BTD'
CT
CTd
CTn
CTI
'CTDa'
'CTDb'
Ha
Hb
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
LogN
32

Smin = 0.4
1
0.9
Smax
0.8
0.7
0.6
BT
CT
CTd
CTn
'CTDa'
Ha
Hb
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
LogN
The S-N curves, based on the tests performed at Delft University of Technology and the Gent
University of Technology, are as follows:
Dry test specimens

Tension-tension:
Centrally loading and bending of NWC
LogN = 12.78 11.82 x S max + 17.57 x S
min
18.40 S max x S
min
Centrally loading of LWAC

LogN = 15.35 15.38 x S max.
Bending of HSC
LogN = 12.36 10.24 x S max + 1.88 x S
min
33

Tension-compression:
Bending of NWC (tensile failure)
LogN = 9.19 6.86 x S max.
Centrally loading of LWAC (tensile failure)
LogN = 7.36 6.58 x S max.
Centrally loading of NWC (compressive failure)
LogN = 10.44 8.00 x S min.
Wet specimens
Tension-tension:
Centrally loading of NWC
LogN = 12.50 11.94 x S max.
Dry and wet specimens

Tension-compression:
Centrally loading of NWC
LogN = 8.71 7.46 x S max.
LogN = 9.09 7.37 x S max 2.51 x S min
34
(0.025 < S min < 0.700)

(S min, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3)

TESTS WITH DIFFERENT LOADING TYPES
The research on the fatigue resistance of concrete concerns tests with the following loading
schemes:
varying compressive stresses,
varying tensile stresses or
a combination of both.
7.1
Compressive tests
In this part the behaviour under variable compressive stresses is discussed.

A test specimen is installed in the arrangements and loaded centrally with a static compressive
force until failure. Repeating this procedure for several similar test specimens, same composition, same hardening conditions, same age etc, it is possible to calculate fc m, the mean value of
the compressive stresses at failure. This is necessary to calculate the relative stresses S max and S
min, the ratio between the acting stresses and fcm.
The loading velocity in the test shall never exceed the velocity of the loading cycles in the structure. The fatigue strength is overestimated when the loading velocity id too high.
To obtain a continuous stress distribution, at variable amplitude stresses, reference stresses are
used to describe the variation in the values of the amplitudes. One can choose a minimal stress,
a maximal stress or an average stress as a base for reference. See Figure 20.
Figure 20 Variable amplitude stress, referred to a maximal stress (a) or a minimal stress (b)
In fatigue compressive tests performed with constant amplitudes, it is shown that the number of
loading cycles Ni, until failure is not only depending on the minimal stress or the maximum one,
but also depending on:
-
The concrete quality

The rate of hydration
The hardening and test conditions
The change in loading frequency
35

The Miner Rule does not give any information concerning the development of strength and
stiffness during the lifetime. Therefor static tests are performed to measure the strength and the
stiffness. Fatigue test results show that particularly under compressive-tension loading the stiffness may decrease with 40 to 80%.
7.2
Tensile tests
To load a specimen with a tension force, the test specimen is fixed to the arrangements. Steel
plates are glued at the topside as well as at the bottom side, to fix the specimen by screws to the
test arrangements. The steel plates have to be glued plan-parallel to the axes of the test specimen, to avoid any eccentricity during testing. The uniaxial stress of the concrete fcm is obtained
form a number of uniaxial tensile tests. The relative stresses S max as well as S min are referred to
fcm.
7.3
Tensile-compression tests
The uniaxial tensile capacity of concrete is approximately 15 to 20 times lower than the compression capacity. The tests are performed in the same way as for the tensile tests, described in
the previous part. Regarding the fact that S min is a compressive force, the average compressive
strength fcm has to be determined by tests.
36

CALCULATION PROCEDURE
The characteristic concrete compressive cube strength fckf that has to be taken into account for
fatigue, can be derived from fckt. The ages as well as the hardening conditions of the concrete
then have to be reviewed.
The relationship for fatigue is as follows:
f 'ckf =
( f ' ckt 30)

30 N / mm 2
2
In which,
fckf = the characteristic cube strength to take in account for fatigue.

fckt = the characteristic cube strength after t days of hardening.
For concrete grades C30:
fckf = fckt
The material factor for concrete is:
m = 1.2
The design strength is equal to:

f 'cf = f 'c .rep. f m = f 'ckf 0.85 / 1.2 = 0 .71 f ' ckf
The representative value for the tensile strength in fatigue tests can be derived from:
f c.rep. f = 0.8 + f ' c. rep. f 30
In which:
fc.rep.f = representative uniaxial tensile stress for fatigue in N/mm.
However, the material factor is now:
m = 1.4
The design value for the uniaxial tensile stress for dynamic loading is:
f cf = f 'c. rep. f m = (0.8 + f 'c. rep. f 30) 1 .4 = 0.57 + f 'c. rep. f 52
In which:
fcf = design uniaxial design strength for concrete under fatigue loading
With the correct formula for LogN a Whler diagram can be designed.
Ni = the number of loading cycles until fatigue failure
R = stress ratio in a cycle R = min i / max i .
37

PERFORMED TESTS IN DELFT AND GENT
In the Stevin Laboratory of Delft (DUT) uniaxial tensile fatigue tests have been performed and
at the Magnel Laboratory of Gent (RUG) fatigue tests on bending.
At DUT the experiments concerned tensile tests on centrally loaded test specimens with constant amplitude. The objective of the experiments was to determine the number of loading cycles, until failure, as a function of the stress limits; to compose Whler diagrams for concrete
under tension.
The limits were chosen in a way that the maximum stress was a tension stress and the minimum
one a tension stress, a compressive stress or a zero stress.
The compressive stress was never higher than 30% of the cube strength to be sure that passing
the tension capacity caused failure. The concrete grade was C45. The frequency of the sinusoidal loading cycle is 6 Hz. The test conditions of the specimens were wet and dry.
For these tests cylindrical test specimens are produced with a smaller diameter in the middle
zone. The test specimen is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21 Test specimen for a uniaxial tension fatigue test.

Steel plates have been glued at the topside as well as on the bottom side, plan parallel. The deformations are measured with 2 LVDTs, fixed at 2 opposite longitudinal sides of the cylinder.
To load the test cylinder exactly centrally in the axis, the test specimens are positioned between
spherical hinges, as shown in Figure 22. The spherical hinges were prestressed to avoid play
during the change of compressive into tension forces and visa versa. [2].
38

Figure 22 Test arrangement at DUT.

Prestressed beams 150 x 280 x 2300 mm have been applied to perform fatigue bending tests in
the Magnel Laboratory in Gent. The beam was loaded in the middle of the span. Due to the
prestressing, compressive stresses are acting in the fibres at the bottom side of the beam before
the bending test starts. The frequency of the cycle was 8 Hz; the amplitude was constant.
39

10
TESTS AT EUT
10.1 Required arrangements capacity

Spanbeton investigated the fatigue behaviour of concrete bridge decks. The results are presented
in the report of sub-task 5.1.4.2. The design results are input for the tests to perform at the van
Musschenbroek Laboratory of EUT. Some other aspects are considered before starting the test
series.
For bridges the average frequency is 0.05 Hz, according CUR-report 93-13, page 28.
For railroad bridges the frequency of the loading cycle is 0.06 Hz for train transporting ore.
For transport of goods the frequency is 0.15 Hz and for passenger trains 1.0 Hz.
The time needed to perform a test with 10 x 106 cycles at 5 Hz is approximately 25 days. For 10
Hz approximately 12 days.
The pre-design of the test specimen dimensions and the arrangement capacity have to be determined firstly.
Two types of test will be performed for LWAC:
Uniaxial compression test
Uniaxial compression tension test.
The concrete grade is C55.
The amplitude for uniaxial compression tests is between 0.3 x fck and 0.6 x fck. For a cylinder
with a diameter of 70 mm, so a plain surface of 3848,5 mm, the required force is:
F min = -0.3 x 55 x 3848.5 = - 63500 N
F max = -0.6 x 55 x 3848.5 = -127000 N
F average =
= - 95000 N
The amplitude for uniaxial compressive-tension tests is between 0.424 x fc.rep. and 0.10 x fck.
For a cylinder with a diameter of 70 mm, the required forces are:
F min = + 0.424 x 3.5 x 3848.5
= + 5710 N
F max = - 0.100 x 55 x 3848.5
= - 21170 N
F average =
= - 7730 N
Due to the test arrangements capacity the final dimensions of the test specimens are:
100 x 100 x 500 mm for the reference test regarding the E-modulus
100 x 100 x 500 mm, with a constriction in the middle of the height, the reduced crosssection is 70 x 100 mm. The length of the constriction is basically 110 mm. See Figure 23.
40

The constriction of the prism is required for the tensilecompression test, but at the same time
also attractive regarding the feasible frequency at the required compressive stresses, which is
explained in the next part. The concrete mix composition for LWAC is presented in Table 2.
115
80
110
70
80
115
100
100
Table 2. Concrete mix compositions for LWAC C55.

Component
Percentage
Cement Geseke CEM 52,5R
OFT3
0,7 %
ON2
0,5%
Limestone
6,7 %
Lytag 6-12 mm
38%
Lytag 0,5-6 mm
26%
Lytag 0-2 mm
10%
Sand 0-2 mm
26%
W/C-ratio
0,40
Figure 23 Test specimen.
10.2
Test arrangement
The arrangements for the fatigue tests have not been used for a long period of time in the laboratory, so checks regarding functionality, capacity in relation with frequency and required adjustments were necessary. The arrangement is shown in figure 24.
Figure 24 Arrangement for fatigue tests.

The feasible frequency range is firstly measured under compression. The cross-section of the
test prism is 100 x 100 mm. It is loaded between 30% and 60% of the characteristic compressive cube strength. The stress variatio n is a sinus curve. The possible combinations of maximum
forces and the possible frequencies are shown in Table 3.
41

Table 3 Feasible maximum forces and frequencies.

Static force
Amplitude of force
[kN]
[kN]
288
45
266
66
252
82
248
88
246
86
Frequency
[Hz]
5
5
8
10
12-14
It is obvious that it is feasible to obtain high frequencies especially with lower forces, due to
required displacement of the jacket to build up and release the force. In fact, the time needed for
the oil-flow in the jacket. The maximum capacity in compression is 340 kN.
For the tensile -compression test, the objective is to load the prism with a cross-section of 100 x
100 mm between 42% of the bending tensile strength and at 10% of the characteristic cube
strength. For concrete C55:
F max = -0.10 x 55 x 100 x100 = - 55000 N > 55 kN.
F min = +0.42 x 3.5 x 100 x100 = +14700 N > 15 kN.
Already in the start of the test, problems were arising with the specimen as well as with the fixing of the specimen in the arrangement.
In the first attempt the glued joint between arrangement and test specimen failed at a
static tensile force of +6 kN. (foto right)
In the second attempt the same failure happened at a static force of +10 kN.
In the third attempt the joint performed well at 15 kN, but now the concrete failed after
3 cycles. (foto left)
Figure 25 Failure of concrete (left) and failure of glue joint (right) during test of arrangement.
The conclusion had to be that the specimen was loaded to a too high level, but the arrangement
is capable to perform the aimed tests as such. So the tension force had to be adjusted.
42

10.3
Performed compression test
10.3.1 Applied loading scheme

The base of the test is loading the specimen between 30 and 60 % of the characteristic strength.
For a specimen with a surface area of 70*100 mm and a characteristic strenght of 55 N/mm,
this means a maximum compression force of 0,6*55*70*100=231 kN and a minimum compression force of 0,3*55*70*100=115,5 kN. In testing this gives a loading of a static force of 172
kN with an amplitude of 57,8 kN.
10.3.2 Measuring procedure

The measuring procedure is followed up and recorded. The procedure is followed up at the start
of the test and during the execution of the test. More in detail:
The test specimen is positioned and glued.
The normal force is introduced until the static load is achieved.
The dynamical compression force is introduced - sinus curve at a frequency of 0.1 Hz.
A number of cycles are measured with a high speed, two detailed measurements per second.
The frequency is increased in steps until 11 Hz.
For a number of steps a check on the span is made, to adjust the loading curve.
The measuring speed is then decreased to two measurements per minute.
The test is running.
After 1 million cycles the frequency of the dynamic compression force is decreased to 0.1 Hz.
The measuring speed is 2 measurements per second.
A detailed measurement takes place during 1 minute.
All measured data are recorded and stored in the computer.
A new measurement is starting with a slow cycle at 0.1 Hz.
The frequency is then increased; the test is running or is progressing.
The test stops at 10 million cycles or earlier when the test specimen fails.
The data can be presented in graphically.
The objective of the detailed measuring during the test is to check all-important issues at that
very moment. The detailed measuring is possible at the frequency of 0.1 Hz; 20 measurements
per cycle with a measuring speed of 2 per second. At a frequency of 10 Hz it is only possible to
measure trends.
After a detailed measurement it is possible to draw a graph with on one axis the strain and on
the other the force. From this graph you can get the E-modulus of the specimen. This is a good
indicator for testing the specimen on fatigue.
The strain is measured with strain-measurers, glued on the specimen at both sides of the test
area. Figure 26 shows a strain-measurer glued on the specimen.
43

Figure 26. Strain -measurer on the specimen
10.3.3 Measuring results

In total there have been conducted two tests for the fatigue capacity under compression forces.
The first specimen was tested with 10 million cycles, the second with 2,5 million cycles. The
results of both tests are given in graphs of detailed measurements for determining the Emodulus.
10.3.3.1 Compression test LWA-C1

In table 4 the values of the forces and the displacements are given during the test.
Table 4 Forces and displacements during test LWA-C1.
# cycles
0
911000
1740600
2462250
6974173
7679237
8284413
9361178
10167992
F230,7
231,2
231,1
231,6
232,0
232,1
232,1
232,3
231,9
F+
115,9
115,6
115,7
115,2
115,0
114,6
114,7
114,7
115,0
S-2,53
-2,61
-2,53
-2,46
-2,32
-2,31
-2,41
-2,38
-2,40
S+
-1,99
-2,05
-1,97
-1,90
-1,75
-1,74
-1,82
-1,78
-1,79
F = forces in specimen [kN];

S = vertical position of the specimen [mm].
The graphs of detailed measurements during the test are shown in Figure 27 In the left graph the
strain is measured during a period of time, and in the right graph the E-modulus is determined.
44
0,0017
0,0016
35
0,0015
0,0014
30
y = 23892x - 4,9173
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]

0,0013
0,0012
0,0011
0,001
580
590
600
610
Signal Nr [ 0.5 sec / sign 0.1 Hz ]
0,002
0,0019
0,0018
0,0017
0,0016
0,0015
0,0014
0,0013
0,0012
0,0011
0,001
170
190
210
230
0,001
0,0012
Strain 1
strain 2
0,0013
0,0014
0,0015
0,0016
0,0017
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
40
30
20
y = 24230x - 9,8763
10
0
250
270
0,001
290
0,0012
0,0014
0,0016
0,0018
0,002
strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
Strain 2
0,0021
0,002
0,0019
0,0018
0,0017
0,0016
0,0015
0,0014
0,0013
0,0012
0,0011
0,001
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
40
35
30
25
20
y = 24284x - 10,142
15
10
170
190
210
230
Strain 1
250
270
0,001
290
Sigma N/mm2
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
-0,0008
-0,001
Strain 1
180
200
0,0014
Strain 1
Strain 2
0,0002
0
80
100 120
140
160
0,0012
220
0,0016
0,0018
0,002
0,0022
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0004
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0011
strain [ m/m ]
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
20
15
630
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
strain 1
620
25
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
y = 23911x + 34,319
-0,001
-0,0008
-0,0006
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 2
Strain 1
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
45
0,0004
40
0,0002
35
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]

0
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
-0,0008
120
140
160
180
200
-0,0006
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
40
0,0004
35
0,0002
0
-0,0002
-0,0004
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
y = 24428x + 28,766
30
25
20
15
10
380
-0,0006
400
-0,0004
Strain 2
Strain 1
0,001
40
0,0008
35
0,0006
0,0004
0,0002
0
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
strain [ m/m ]
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
-0,0008
0,0006
Strain 1
-0,0002
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
30
25
y = 23948x + 16,033
20
15
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Strain 1
-0,0002
120
Strain 1
Strain 2
Sigma N/mm2
0,0004
0,0002
0
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
Strain 1
500
Strain 2
550
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
0,0008
0,001
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
250
300
350
400
450
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0006
Strain [ m/m ]
15
Strain 2
-0,0006
320
340
360
46
25
20
10
240
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
220
y = 24372x + 33,509
30
y = 23660x + 25,825
-0,0006
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)

40
0,0004
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0002
0
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
-0,0008
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Strain 1
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
520
560
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
y = 23993x + 31,365
25
20
15
10
-0,0006
-0,0004
Strain 1
Strain 2
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0006
0,0004
0,0002
0
-0,0002
Strain 1
40
35
30
-0,0008
0,0008
-0,0004
100 120 140 160 180 200
-0,0006
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
0,0002
Strain 1
25
20
15
10
Strain 2
480
y = 23835x + 29,94
-0,0008
0,0004
-0,0008
320
360
400
440
35
30
220
240
260
Strain 2
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
y = 23971x + 19,645
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
0,0008
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
Figure 27 Graphs of detailed measurement and E-modulus of LWA-C1.

In table 5 the values of the E-modules obtained from the graphs are ranged.
Table5 Values of E-modules during test LWA-C1
# cycles
E-modulus
2000000 23892
2500000 24230
3500000 24284
3500000 23911
6800000 24372
7600000 24428
7600000 23948
7600000 23660
8200000 23835
9200000 23993
10100000 23971
47

Remark: some values (#cycles) are given twice: this means the test has been stopped for a period of time. The measurements took place right before stopping and right after proceeding the
test. Three times 7600000: ditto, one times extra because of breaking of the cable.
The specimen did not fail before the 10 million loading cycles were achieved.
10.3.3.1 Compression test LWA-C2

In Table 6 the values of the forces and the displacements are given during the test.
Table 6 Forces and displacement during test LWA-C2
# cycles
0
789000
790000
2446233
F231,6
231,6
231,6
231,7
F+
114,9
114,8
114,9
115,1
S-1,38
-1,29
-1,29
-1,22
S+
-1,99
-1,89
-1,88
-1,82

0,0008
35
0,0006
30
25
20
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [m/m]
The graphs of detailed measurements during the test are shown in Figure 28, similar to LWAC1.
0,0004
0,0002
0
-0,0002
-0,0004
1
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
y = 21952x + 20,901
15
10
5
0
-0,0004
0,0008
Strain [m/m]
Strain 1
Strain 2
Sigma N/mm2
Strain 1
0,0006
0,0004
0,0002
0
-0,0002
-0,0002
15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99
Signal Nr [0,5sec/sign 0,1 Hz]
Strain 1
Strain 2
0,0002
Strain 2
0,0004
0,0006
0,0008
Linear (Strain 2)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
y = 21751x + 18,707
-0,0002
Strain [m/m]
Signal Nr [0,5sec/sign 0,1Hz]
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
0,0008
Strain [m/m]
Strain 1
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 2)
Figure 28 Graphs of detailed measurement and E-modulus of LWA-C2.
48

In table 7 the values of the E-modules are ranged.

Table 7 Values of E-modules during test LWA-C2
# cycles
E-modulus
790.000
21952
2.440.000 21751
The specimen did not fail before the 10 million loading cycles were achieved.
10.4
Performed tension-compression test
10.4.1 Applied loading scheme

The base of the test is loading the specimen between 42% of the flexural strenght and 10 % of
the characteristic strength. For a specimen with a surface area of 68*98 mm, a characteristic
compression strenght of 55 N/mm and a flexural strenght of 3,8 N/mm, this means a maximum
maximum compression force of 0,1*55*68*98=21,99kN and maximum tensile force of
0,45*3,8*68*98=10,99 kN. In testing this means a static force of 5 kN and an amplitude of 15
kN.
10.4.2 Measuring procedure

The measuring procedure and the measurements are equal to those in the compression test.
10.4.3 Measuring results

There have been conducted several tests for the fatigue capacity under compression/tension
forces. During the execution it appeared that there had to be made an adjustment in the forces,
because of early failure of the specimen.
The first specimen collapsed during the positioning-procedure, at a tensile force of 2 kN. See
figure 29.
Figure 29 Failure of the specimen at tensile force of +2 kN
49

It was necessary to take a new specimen. The stresses were adjusted, taking into account the
mass of LWA-concrete. The maximum tensile stress was determined on
0,42*1,9*(2000/2400)=0,66 N/mm. The maximum compressive stress did not change.
The new combination of stresses give the following combination of required forces on the
specimen with an area of 68*98 mm: a static value of 8,7 kN with an amplitude of 13,1 kN.
The second specimen cracks before the first cycle, just outside the test-area. See figure 30.
Figure 30 Glued crack just outside the test-area.

The crack was glued and the specimen is tested under the adjusted load of Fmax=-21,9 kN and
Fmin=+4,6 kN at a frequency of 10 Hz.
After 1,1 million cycles one strain-measurer indicates a crack. It appeared to be a crack in the
middle of the test area. At the same time the glued area on the bottom joint was loose: Figure
31.
Figure 31 the glue joint let loose
50

Figure 32 Crack through strain measurer (detail).

The specimen failed and had to be replaced.
The only available specimen was the one used in the compression test. After positioning the
specimen the next combination of forces was generated: Fmax=-23,1 kN and Fmin=+4,5 kN at a
frequency of 10,5 Hz.
After 1250 cycles the glued surface at the bottom let loose. The specimen was positioned again
with forces: Fmax=-22,5 kN and Fmin=+4,5 kN at a frequency of 11 Hz.
Finaly the test was running during 10 million cycles.
10.4.3.1. Compression/tension test LWA-TC1

In Table 8 the values of the forces and the displacements are given during the test.
Table 8 Forces and displacements during the test LWA-TC1
# cycles
FF+
SS+
0
22,5
-4,5
-4,06
-3,86
4500000 22,3
-4,5
-4,13
-3,91
5500000 22,3
-4,5
-4,11
-3,90
6400000 22,5
-4,5
-4,13
-3,90
10200000 22,5
-4,4
-4,11
-3,88
The graphs of detailed measurements are shown in Figure 33 Similar to the compression test the
left graph shows the train measured during a period of time, and right graph the determination
of the E-modulus.
51

2
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0003
0,0002
0,0001
0
-0,0001
-0,0002
-2
y = 19611x - 2,2228
-4
-6
-0,0003
6950
6960
6970 6980 6990
Strain 1
-0,0003
7000
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [ m/m ]
0,0001
0
-0,0001
-0,0002
-0,0003
Strain 1
1900
1910
1920
0,0001
0,0002
0,0003
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 2)
1
0
-1
y = 16067x - 0,1364
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-0,0004
-0,0003
-0,0002
y = 19611x - 1,3459
-0,0001
0,0001
0,0002
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
Linear (Strain 1)
Strain 2
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 2)
6
Sigma N/mm2
0,0004
Strain [ m/m ]
-0,0001
Strain 1
Linear (Strain 1)
Strain 2
-0,0004
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890
-0,0002
Strain [ m/m ]
7010
0,0002
0,0003
0,0002
0,0001
0
-0,0001
2220
y = 16318x - 0,0719
y = 16255x + 0,1286
4
2
y = 19710x - 0,6448
0
-2
-5E-05
2240
2260
2280
2300
0,00005 0,0001 0,00015 0,0002 0,00025 0,0003
0,00035
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 1
Strain 1
Linear (Strain 1)
Strain 2
6
Sigma N/mm2
0,0005
Strain [ m/m ]
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 2)
0
-0,0005
-0,001
4
y = 15857x + 0,1519
2
0
-2
-0,0015
6380
6400
6420
6440
Strain 1
6460
Strain 2
6480
-0,0015
-0,001
-0,0005
Strain 1
Linear (Strain 1)
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 2)
Figure 33 Graphs of detailed measurements and E-modulus of LWA-TC1
52
0,0005
Strain [ m/m ]

The measurements of the E-modules are ranged in Table 9.

Table 9 Trend E-modulus during te st LWA-TC1
# cycles
Eleft
Eright
Eaverage
4500000
19611
16318
17965
5500000
19611
16067
17839
6400000
19710
16255
17983
10200000 15857
Between 6,4 and 10,2 million cycles the value of the left strain-measurer shows a constant
value. It indicates the strain-measurer let loose. This is the reason the last value of the Emodulus on the left side is not calculated.
The second test in compression/tension is conducted on a specimen of a new series. The base of
the second test is 2,0 million cycles.
10.4.3.2 Compression/tension test LWA-TC2

In Table 10 the values of the forces and the displacements are shown during the test.
Table 10 Forces and displacements during the test LWA-TC2
# cycles
FF+
SS+
0
22,1
-4,6
-4,05
-3,85
3.200.000 22,7
-4,3
-4,07
-3,85
0,0001
0,00005
Sigma N/mm2
Strain [m/m]
The graphs of detailed measurements are shown in Figure 34.
0
-0,00005
-0,0001
3
2
y = 22682x + 2,3302
y = 22681x + 2,4815
-0,00015
-1
1
21
41
61
81
101
Strain 1
Figure 34
-0,00015
-0,0001
-0,00005
0,00005
0,0001
Strain [m/m]
Signal Nr [0,5 sec / sign 0.1 Hz ]
Strain 2
Strain 1
Linear (Strain 2)
Strain 2
Linear (Strain 1)
Graphs of detailed measurements and E-modulus of LWA-TC2
The result is given in table 11

Table 11 Trend E-modulus during test LWA-TC2
# cycles
Eleft
Eright
Eaverage
3.200.000 22682
22681
22682
53

10.4.4 Analyses and conclusions

In order to analyse the results of the tests, the specimens are submitted to a static test. This gives
information about the E-modulus of the concrete. The static tests have been conducted with a
reference-prism and with some of the test specimens. In the test the compression force is increased and the E-modulus is determined between 30 and 95% of the maximum force.
The results of the obtained E-modules are given in Table 12.
Table 12 E-modules of static tests
Specimen
Eleft
Eright
Reference-prism
21592
22739
Compression #1
24340
24771
Tension/compr.#1 25597
25193
Tension/compr. #2 25664
25089
Eaverage
22166
24556
25395
25377
The results show the E-modulus in a static compressive situation is about 24000 N/mm.
In comparison with the results of the fatigue tests it appeared the specimen in the compression
tests had a similar E-modulus during the whole test. The value of the E-modulus in the first
compression/tension test is low compared with the static value. Still, the specimen did succeed
the fatigue test. The second compression/tension test shows normal values of the E-modulus.
It can be concluded that both tests did succeed in the fatigue test. The compression test gave no
problems. The reduction of the E-modulus is negligible.
The compression/tension tests gave some problems at starting a test. The biggest problems were
rising when the specimen got under a tensile force. A few times the glue-joint did fail and sometimes the specimen itself failed under a static tension. The problems with the glue-joint were
caused by the smooth surface of the glue-area. Under a little tension the outside skin of the area
let loose. Often the second time went well, because of the better grip of the glue. The early failure of the specimen under a tensile force can be explained through the inhomogene structure of
the concrete. Despite the start-problems the test succeeded while it was running.
In total there are conducted four successful fatigue tests on LWA-concrete specimens. Two
tests, one compression and one compression/tension test, reached 10 million cycles, while the
other two reached about 3 million cycles.
The value of the E-modulus is a good indicator for decreasing resistance against fatigue. In all
tests the reduction was small. The results of the tests show the LWA-concrete has sufficient fatigue resistance under the given stresses.
54

11
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
REFERENCES
Siemes Vermoeiing van beton deel 1: drukspanningen; IRO-MaTS/CUR VB rapport
112, Gouda, december 1983.
Cornelissen & Jakobs Vermoeiing van beton deel 2: trek-en trekdrukspanningen;
IRO-MaTs/CUR VB rapport 116, Gouda, oktober 1984.
Cornelissen & Jakobs: Vermoeiing van beton deel 3: trek- en trekdrukspanningen
(2); IRO-MaTS/CUR VB rapport 137, Gouda, december 1988.
Siemes: Vermoeiing van beton deel 4: drukspanningen (2); IRO-MaTS/CUR VB
rapport 163, Gouda, april 1993.
Siemes: Vermoeiing van beton, rekenprocedure en achtergronden;IRO-MaTS rapport 93-13, Gouda, december 1993.
Cornelissen: constant amplitude tests on plain concrete in uniaxial tension and tens ion-compression rapport 5-84-1, januari 1984.
Cornelissen & Timmers: Fatigue of plain concrete in uniaxial tension and alternating
tension-compressionrapport 5-81-7, oktober 1985.
Cornelissen: State of the art report on fatigue of plain concreterapport 5-86-3, oktober 1986.
Hordijk:Local approach to fatigue of concrete, Oud-beijerland, 1991.
Hordijk:Tensile and tensile fatigue behaviour of concrete; experiments, modelling
and analyses, Heron rapport vol. 37, 1988, no.3.
Siemes: Fatigue evaluation of concrete structures Preliminary studies, procedures and
examples, Heron rapport vol. 33, 1988, no.3.
Petkovic:Properties of concrete related to fatigue damage with emphasis on high
strength concrete,Trondheim, december 1995.
55

12
NOMENCLATURE
LWA
LWAC
NDA
NDC
HSC
w/b
w/c
Lightweight aggregate
Lightweight aggregate concrete
Normal density aggregate
Normal density concrete
High strength concrete
water binder ratio
water cement ratio
CEB
CEN
CTR
EN
FIB
FIP
MG
TC
TG
TLG
Comit Euro-international du Bton

Comit Europen de Normalisation
Cost Time Resources (form)
European Standard
Fderation Internationale du Bton
Fderation Internationale de la Prcontrainte
Management Group
Technical Committee (CEN)
Task Group
Task Leaders Group
56

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European Union Brite EuRam III

LWA concrete under fatigue loading.

The European Union Brite EuRam III

LWA concrete under fatigue loading.

Document BE96-3942/R41, June 2000

The European Union Brite EuRam III

LWA concrete under fatigue loading.

Document BE96-3942/R41, June 2000

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

A CONCRETE FATIGUE MODEL

THE MINER RULE

PARAMETERS INFLUENCING FATIGUE OF CONCRETE

TESTS WITH DIFFERENT LOADING TYPES

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

PERFORMED TESTS IN DELFT AND GENT

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Prefabricated bridges, June 2000

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Latin lower case symbols

Greek lower case symbols

secondary creep increase per cycle

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

The maximum stress,

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

A CONCRETE FATIGUE MODEL

Uniaxial tensile behaviour [9]

Figure 1 A load- and deformation-controlled tensile test; schematically presented [9]

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Figure 2 The fictitious model and the Dugdal-Barenblatt model [9]

A deformation-controlled uniaxial tensile test [9]

Figure 3 Load-deformation relations under tensile loading [9]

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

S-N curves and Whler diagrams [9]

Figure 4 Whler diagram [9].

The cyclic creep curve

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Figure 5 Schematic representation of a cyclic creep curve

Log N = -2.66 - 0.94.log sec

Log N = -3.79 1.06.log sec

In which sec = secondary creep increase per cycle

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

In which = the frequency.

log = log + log N log

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Figure 8 Constant amplitude

Figure 9 The 3-D presentation and the Whler diagram as a cross-section.

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Within the constant-amplitude tests one can distinguish:

Figure 10 A program load

Figure 11 Variable amplitude load.

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

Figure 12 Goodman diagrams.

LWA Concrete under fatigue loading

THE MINER RULE

In which c is the number of cycles during the intended lifetime.