CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Spray drying is an essential unit operation for the
manufacture of many products with specific powder
properties. It is characterized by atomization of a
solution or suspension into droplets, followed by
subsequent drying of these droplets by evaporation of
water or other solvents.
The manner in which the spray droplets contact the
drying medium determines their subsequent drying
behaviour and in turn greatly influences the properties
of the final product. The form of spray-air contact is
determined by the location of the atomizer relative to
the air inlet. Broadly speaking, the flow may be
considered either co-current in which the spray and
gas flow in the same direction or counter-current when
the spray and gas flow in opposite directions.
Spray drying is used for the manufacture of many
consumer and industrial products such as instant food
products, laundry detergents, and pharmaceuticals. It is
well suited to continuous production of dry solids in
powder, granulate or agglomerate particle form from
liquid feed-stocks.
Some advantages of spray drying include the ability to
produce a dry powder rapidly and the ability to control
the particle size distribution. The limitations of spray
drying include problems with efficient particle
collection and the potential instability of materials
sensitive to high temperatures.

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to
(a)Demonstrate spray drying of liquid and dissolved
solids by varying parameters such as: Air flow
rate, Air temperature, Composition Of the feed
solution, Flow rate of the feed, Distributor
pressure.
(b)Examine the effects of various spray-drying
process parameters on the solid product by varying

one process parameter and keeping the others

constant.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

THE DRYING PROCESS

Drying is the process of removing liquid from solids
by evaporation. The drying process has been used
for thousands of years to reduce transport weight
and increase the storage life of numerous products
and materials. For centuries, drying meant spreading
a product out in the open air and letting the sun
provide the energy for water evaporation. With the
dawn of the industrial age, many different drying
processes have been developed to increase drying
speed and improve product quality and uniformity.
Dryers are the devices used for carrying out the drying
process.
Dryers can be classified on the basis of heating mode or
on the basis of type of feed compartment.

(a) ON THE BASIS OF HEATING MODE

Convective/Direct dryers/ADIABATIC
Conductive /Indirect dryers/NON-ADIABATIC
Dryers by radiant energy

(b) ON THE BASIS OF FEED COMPARTMENT

TRAY DRYERS
SCREEN-CONVEYOR DRYER
ROTARY DRYER
TOWER DRYER

SREW-CONVEYOR DRYER
FLUID BED DRYER
FLASH DRYER
SPRAY DRYER
THIN FILM DRYER
DRUM DRYER

2.2 SPRAY DRYERS

2.2.1

Brief History Of Spray Dryers

The development of spray drying equipment and

techniques evolved over a period of several decades
from the 1870s through the early 1900s. The first
known spray dryers used nozzle atomizers, with
rotary atomizers introduced several decades later.
Different types of spray dryers are used for
various purposes in different fields ranging from
laboratory sale to industrial sectors. During the
last three decades spray drying has undergone
an intensive research and development, so that
modern spray drying equipment can meet the
requirements to produce a powder with tailor-made
specifications required by the end-user.
One of the first spray drying patents was applied
for in 1901 by the German Mr. Stauf, who
sprayed the milk by nozzles into a chamber with
warm air. The first real break-through,
however, was in USA in 1913, when the American Mr.
Grey and the Dane Mr. Jensen
developed a nozzle spray dryer and started to
produce and sell drying installations on a
commercial scale.
Because of the relatively unsophisticated designs
of the early spray dryers and practical

difficulties in operating them continuously, very

little commercial use of the process was made until
the 1920s.
By the second decade of the twentieth century, the
evolution of spray dryer design made commercial
operations practical. Milk drying was the first
major commercial application of the technology.
During the next 20 years, manufacturers developed
designs to
accommodate heat-sensitive products, emulsions
and mixtures. Spray drying came of age during
World War II, with the sudden need to reduce the
transport weight of foods and other materials. This
surge in interest led to developments in the
technology that greatly expanded the range of
products that could be successfully spray dried.
The first rotary atomizer was developed by the
German Mr. Kraus in 1912, but not until
1933, when the Danish engineer Mr. Nyrop filed his
world patent, which was the real breakthrough
of atomization.

In the world of industrial dryers, there are few

types that accept pumpable fluids as the feed
material at the inlet end of the process and
produce dry particulate at the outlet.
Spray drying is unique in its ability to produce
powders with a specific particle size and moisture
content without regard for the capacity of the
dryer and the heat sensitivity of the product. This
flexibility makes spray drying the process of
choice for many industrial drying operations.
2.2.2

BASIC STEPS IN SPRAY DRYING

Spray drying is used to dry liquid products. The

product to be dried is sprayed into
a stream of heated air. Water evaporates into the
air leaving the dry particles to be
Collected.
There are some basic steps that are usually
associated with the spray drying process;
2.2.2.1

CONCENTRATION OF FEEDSTOCK

Feedstock is normally concentrated prior to

introduction into the spray dryer. The concentration
stage increases the solids content thereby reducing
the amount of liquid that must be evaporated in the
spray dryer.
The limit on the extent of pre-concentration of the
feed is dictated by the viscosity of the liquid,
which must not be so high, that the product
cannot be pumped or atomized. For milk powder
manufacture, it is common to preconcentrate
the milk (9% total solids in skim milk; 13% total
solids in whole milk) to 45% in
an evaporator. For many protein isolates, such a
high concentration cannot be used, because
most protein solutions are very viscous.(20) In this
case, spray drying must be done with a
concentrate of about 25% total solids concentration.
This practice, however, causes the
powder particles to have a lower density. Therefore,
these products are typically very light
and fluffy and the unit cost of operation increases
dramatically
2.2.2.2

ATOMIZATION

Producing droplets of specific size and

surface area by ATOMIZATION is a critical

step in the spray drying process. The

degree of atomization, under a set of drying
conditions, controls the drying rate,
and therefore the required particle residence
time, and therefore the dryer size.
All of the atomizing techniques can give
good average particle size control,but there
are major differences in the particle size
distribution created. The most commonly
employed atomization techniques are:
2.2.2.2.1

PRESSURE NOZZLE ATOMIZATION

A spray is created by forcing the fluid through an

orifice. The energy required to overcome the
pressure drop is supplied by the feed pump. The
narrowest particle size distribution is possible
with this technique.Must be used when minimization
of "fines" is important to the product. The average
particle size produced for a given feed is primarily
a function of the flow per nozzle, the nozzle
orifice pressure drop (P2),and the spray angle. The
spray angle is varied by P1. The higher P1, the
greater the spray angle. The most energy efficient
of the atomization techniques. Requires routine
changing of the internal pieces, usually made of
tungsten carbide. Changing schedule depends upon the
application. Limited to approximately 0.4 GPM flow
per nozzle with a slurry because of potential
plugging with the small orifice
required.
With multiple nozzle dryers, a problem with one
nozzle does not shut operations down.

Typically requires a piston-type positive

displacement pump.
Control of wall buildup can be achieved through
variations of the spray angle.
It Can reduce the capital cost for a dryer because
of reduced diameter required

Figure 2.1: An example of a pressure nozzle

2.2.2.2.2

TWO-FLUID NOZZLE ATOMIZATION

A spray is created by contacting two fluids, the

feed and a compressed gas. The atomization energy is
provided by the compressed gas, usually air. The
contact can be internal or external to the nozzle. A
broad particle size distribution is generated. The
average particle size produced for a given feed is
primarily a function of the flow per nozzle, and the
compressed gas rate and pressure. The least energy
efficient of the atomization techniques. Useful for
making extremely fine particles (10-30 micron)
because of relatively high wear resistance. Also for
small flow rates typically found in pilot scale

dryers. Requires periodic changing of the air and

liquid caps. Can typically use any type of feed
pump. Control of the spray angle is limited. Capital
cost can be lower due to the absence of the pressure
pump and rotary atomizer.

FIGURE 2.2 An example of a two-fluid nozzle

2.2.2.2.3

CENTRIFUGAL ATOMIZATION

A spray is created by passing the fluid across or

through a rotating wheel or disk. The energy
required for atomization is supplied by the atomizer
motor. A broad particle size distribution is
generated. The average particle size produced for a
given feed is primarily a function of the diameter
of the wheel and the RPM.
Requires relatively high gas inlet velocity to
prevent wall buildup, which can increase the amount
of fines produced. Can generally be run for longer
periods of time without operator interface. Usually
the most resistant to wear.
Requires periodic changing of wheel inserts, usually
made of tungsten carbide.
Control of wall buildup is minimal, due to direction
of spray (horizontal) and broad particle size

distribtion, forcing the dryer to be relatively

large in diameter.
Capital cost of the atomizer is typically high.
Comparatively larger diameter dryer can increase
capital cost. As with any high speed rotating
machine, maintenance costs are high. Design of
dryer roof and atomizer support add to fabrication
cost.

FIGURE 2.3 An example of a centrifugal atomizer

2.2.2.3 DROPLET-AIR CONTACT

The central element of a spray dryer is the spray
dry chamber. In the chamber, atomized liquid is
brought into contact with hot gas (usually air, at a
vacuum), resulting in the evaporation of 95%+ of the
water contained in the droplets in a matter of a few
seconds. The way in which the spray makes contact
with the air in the dryer influences the behavior of
the droplet during the drying phase and has a direct
bearing on the properties of the dried product. The
type of contact between the spray and the air is
determined by the position of the atomizer relative
to the air inlet. Nozzle headers are usually located
at the top of the dryer and spray down.

2.2.2.4 DROPLET DRYING

Moisture evaporation takes place in two stages.
During the first stage, the temperature in the
saturated air at the surface of the droplet is
approximately equal to the wet-bulb temperature of
the drying air. There is sufficient moisture in the
drop to replace the liquid evaporated at the surface
and evaporation takes place at a relatively constant
rate. The second stage begins when there is no
longer enough moisture to maintain saturated
conditions at the droplet surface, causing a dried
shell to form at the surface. Evaporation then
depends on the diffusion of moisture through the
shell, which is increasing in thickness. The rate of
evaporation falls rapidly during the second phase.
Different products have differing evaporation and
particle-forming characteristics. Some expand,
others contract, fracture or disintegrate.
The resulting particles may be relatively uniform
hollow spheres, or porous and irregularly shaped.

2.2.2.5 SEPARATION
Following completion of drying, the particles of
product must be separated from the drying air.
Primary separation is accomplished by the particles
simply falling to the bottom of the chamber. A small

fraction of the particles remain entrained with the

air
and must be recovered in separation equipment.
Cyclones, bag filters, and electrostatic
precipitators
may be used for the final separation stage. Wet
scrubbers are then often used to purify and cool the
air so that it can be released to atmosphere.
2.3

BASIC FEATURES AND CONFIGURATIONS OF A SPRAY DRYER

A SPRAY DRYER, as the name implies, is a device for
drying, utilizing a spray. Spray drying entails
intimate mixing of a heated gas with an atomized
(sprayed) liquid stream within a vessel (drying
chamber) to accomplish evaporation through a direct
contact, adiabatic process.
The unit operation of a SPRAY DRYER includes the
following key components:
_ A method for ATOMIZING a solution or slurry.
_ An air/gas HEATER, or a source of hot air such as
a waste flue gas.
_ A gas/spray MIXING CHAMBER with adequate
residence time and droplet trajectory distance for
achieving the heat and mass transfer.
_ A means for RECOVERING the solids from the gas
stream.
_ A FAN to induce the required air/gas flow through
the system.

2.3.1 SPRAY DRYER CONFIGURATIONS

2.3.1.1 CO-CURRENT OPERATION

In a co-current dryer (Fig. 2.4), the spray is

directed into the hot air entering the dryer and
both pass through the chamber in the same
direction. Co-current dryers are the preferred
design for heat-sensitive products because the
hottest drying air contacts the droplets at their

maximum moisture content. Spray evaporation is

rapid, and the temperature of the drying air is
quickly reduced by the vaporization of water. The
product does not suffer from heat degradation
because the droplet temperature is low during most
of the evaporation time. Once the moisture content
reaches the target level, the temperature of the
particle does not increase greatly because the
surrounding air is now much cooler. Dairy and other
heat-sensitive food products are usually dried in
co-current dryers.

FIGURE 2.4 CO-CURRENT FLOW SPRAY DRYER.

1. feed storage
2. pump
3. drying chamber
4. air heater
5. cyclone
6. gas scrubber

7. separator

2.3.1.2 COUNTER-CURRENT OPERATION

In this dryer design (Fig. 2.5), the spray and the
air are introduced at opposite ends of the dryer,
with the atomizer positioned at the top and the air
entering at the bottom. A counter-current dryer
offers more rapid evaporation and higher energy
efficiency than a concurrent design. Because the
driest particles are in contact with hottest air,
this design is not suitable for heat-sensitive
products. Counter-current dryers normally use
nozzles for atomization because the energy of the
spray can be directed against the air movement.
Soaps and detergents are commonly dried in countercurrent dryers.

FIGURE 2.5 COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW SPRAY DRYER

1. drying air
2. feedstock
3. dried product

4. drying chamber
5. cyclone
6. wet scrubber
7. bag filter
8. electrostatic precipitator

2.3.1.3 MIXED FLOW OPERATION

Dryers of this type (Fig. 2.6) combine both
concurrent and counter current flow. In a mixed
flow dryer, the air enters at the top and the
atomizer is located at the bottom. Like the
counter-current design, a mixed flow dryer exposes
the driest particles to the hottest air, so this
design is not used with heat-sensitive products.

FIGURE 2.6 MIXED FLOW SPRAY DRYER

1. drying air
2. feedstock
3. dried product

4. drying chamber
5. cyclone
6. wet scrubber
7. bag filter
8. electrostatic precipitator

2.3.2
SPRAY DRYER FEEDSTOCK
One important advantage of spray drying is that the
feedstock can be in virtually any form that can be
pumped. Solutions, slurries, pastes, gels and
suspensions can be successfully spray dried. The
first step in the spray drying process is to
prepare the feedstock for spraying by optimizing
the temperature, concentration, viscosity or other
characteristic.
2.3.2.1
IMPORTANT FEED STOCK PROPERTIES
a) Feed temperature
The temperature of the feedstock affects the
viscosity and the transfer of heat from the drying
air in the chamber to the droplets. Both the
temperature of the feedstock and the temperature of
the chamber air need to be considered when
selecting nozzle seal materials.
b) Melting temperature
Some feedstock is solid at room temperature and
must be melted in order to atomize them. Prilling
or spray cooling involves forming pellets or
crystals by spraying melted feedstock into a
chamber through which cooling air is flowing.
c) Abrasion
The abrasiveness of the feedstock must be
considered when selecting the material for the
internal nozzle components. For most applications,
tungsten carbide is the material of choice for
Twist & Dry swirls and orifice disks. Tungsten

carbide has excellent resistance to abrasion and

good corrosion resistance for most feedstock.
d) Corrosion
For some feedstock, corrosive attack on the nozzle
components is a greater problem than abrasion. For
these cases, 316 stainless steel or nickel alloy
C22 may be good choices.
e) Specific gravity
The specific gravity is the density of the
feedstock relative to water. A specific gravity
greater than 1.0 means that the feedstock is denser
than water.
Increasing the specific gravity reduces the flow
through a nozzle. Converting your density units to
g/mL will yield the specific gravity value, since
water has a density of 1 g/mL.
f) Solids content
The solids content is the percent of the feedstock
that is composed of solids. Most feedstock has
about 50% solids, although the range is from about
20% to 70%. Increasing the solids content reduces
the amount of moisture removed in the spray drying
process. As the solids content increases, the
feedstock becomes more difficult to pump and
atomize.
g) Surface tension
Surface tension is the force acting on the surface
of a liquid that tends to minimize its surface
area.
Reducing surface tension makes a feedstock easier
to atomize.
h) Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow of fluids. The
most commonly used unit is the centipoise.
Increasing viscosity tends to increase droplet
size. For some nozzle designs, including the BETE

Twist & Dry, increasing the viscosity tends to

increase the flow.
2.3.3

SPRAY DRYER PRODUCT(POWDER)

Spray dryers transform liquid feedstock into

particles of powder. Like liquid feedstock, powders
have important properties that are monitored during
the drying operation.

a) Powder Shape
Many spray drying operations produce
sphericalparticles while others result in nonspherical particles. Particles may be hollow or
solid. Nonspherical particles are characterized by
their aspect ration, which is the ratio of their
longest dimension to their shortest dimension.
b) Powder Size
It is important to differentiate between droplet
size and particle size because the two are
generally not the same. The relationship between
the mean size of liquid droplets and dried
particles is not consistent and no general
statements can be made on this subject.
The methods used to measure the sizes of dried
particles include sieving, microscopy,
sedimentation and laser techniques. Pressure spray
nozzles can produce particles ranging in size from
20 to 600 microns, depending on the nozzle type,
feedstock properties and operating conditions. Twofluid nozzles generally produce particles with

sizes in the range from 10 to 200 microns and

larger.
c) Agglomeration
It is sometimes desirable to have product particles
that are larger than those produced by a single
stage spray drying process. Agglomeration is the
process of enlarging particles by getting them to
stick to each other. Agglomerated particles may
have improved solubility, higher bulk density,
improved flow properties and less dust.
Occasionally, the second stage of a two stage dryer
is used to agglomerate product particles. Since the
particles leaving the first stage are still sticky,
they will bond with other particles during the
second stage drying.
Some installations spray wet particles from the
first stage with additional feed in the second
stage. The fresh feed softens the surface of the
particles and allows them to grow. This process is
called instantizing or re-wetting
agglomeration.
Most dryer operations include the recycling of fine
particles fines captured by the separation
equipment into the spray zone. Returning fines
promotes an agglomerating effect, leading to the
production of a powder that is coarser, freer
flowing and dust free.
d) Bulk density
Bulk density is the weight of dried powder per unit
volume. This is a critical factor for most spray
drying operations since it determines the size (or

fullness) of containers and influences the handling

and shipping costs. Bulk density is constantly
monitored during the spray drying process.
6.5 Factors affecting bulk density
Increasing feed rate increases bulk density if
the residual moisture increases
If increasing feed temperature leads to the
production of spherical droplets instead of
threads, bulk density increases.
For easily atomized feeds, increased
temperature can lower bulk density.
Bulk densities often increase on powder cooling.
A coarse homogenous powder has a lower bulk
density than a fine homogenous powder.
A powder with a wide distribution of particle
sizes will have a higher bulk density than a powder
with a narrower distribution of particle sizes.
Increasing feed solids generally increases bulk
density.
Feed aeration decreases bulk density.
Feed suspensions give higher bulk densities
than feed solutions.
Increasing residual moisture content increases
bulk density.

 Increasing inlet air temperature decreases bulk

density.
Reducing the outlet air temperature increases
residual moisture and therefore increases bulk
density.
Co-current dryers produce powders with lower
bulk densities than counter-current dryers.
2.4 Drying history of a droplet containing solids
in a spray dryer
Figure 2.7 schematizes the drying history of a
droplet containing
insoluble or dissolved solids, in a spray dryer [3,
4]. At the beginning of the first
drying period, the droplet temperature changes
until reaching the wet bulb
temperature, determining by the operation
conditions. During this first period,
water (solvent) evaporates as a pure liquid, with
the surrounding saturated
vapor film being the only resistance to heat and
mass transfer between gas
and droplet. Moreover, the droplet shrinks,
decreasing its size and
concentrating solids at its surface due to the
inward movement of its

boundary. Once the droplet moisture content becomes

too low to keep this
saturated condition, dissolved solids from solution
start being deposited at the
droplet surface, forming a partial porous crust
around the liquid droplet. As
drying proceeds, the droplet transforms into a
particle with a wet core
completely surrounded by the porous crust. Note
that any change in the spray
(Passos, Birchal Physical properties of powder)
dryer operation conditions to those, under which
the droplet shrinks slowly at
a rate that assure a uniform distribution of the
solid concentration, can lead to
development of a full particle without a crust.

FIGURE 2.7 Drying history of a droplet containing

solids in a spray dryer

For the case illustrated in Figure 2, the second

drying period starts when
the porous crust covering the entire droplet
surface. At this point, there is no
more a droplet, but a particle constituted by a wet
core and a porous crust.
This period is characterized by thickening the
crust towards the interior of
particle, as well as, by reducing the drying rate,
since the porous crust

constricts the vapor mass transfer from the inner

core surface to the
surrounding gas. Therefore, the particle
temperature increases, supplants the
wet bulb temperature, and tends to reach the
thermal equilibrium with the gas.
For cases, in which the gas operation temperature
exceeds the solution
boiling temperature, a bubble can be generated
inside the particle when its
temperature equals to this boiling point. Under
this condition, vapor is
intensively generated inside the particle, raising
its internal pressure.
Therefore, the particle inflates, or bursts, or
cracks, depending on the
permeability and mechanical characteristics of the
crust. Consequently, by
varying either the spray dryer operation parameters
or the feed solution
properties, many different particle morphologies
can be obtained
In order to evaluate the crust properties, it is
important to emphasize
that, in some cases mainly in the food process, the
crust composition differs
from the droplet solid composition due to the
segregation of these

components during drying. Based on drying kinetics

and mass transfer
fundamentals, solids with smallest mass-diffusion
coefficients must be
concentrated at the particle surface. This
segregation also explains the high
concentration of free fat on the whole milk powder
crust surface [5].
Simultaneously to drying and particle formation
mechanisms, in many
applications, the powder is subjected to
agglomeration, for the purposes of
improving appearance and/or dispersability.
Particle agglomeration can be
enhanced in spray dryer systems for processes, in
which it is required, as the
instant powder production. Therefore, primary,
secondary and tertiary
agglomerations between droplets and/or particles
should be intensified by
respectively:
(a) Using an atomizer device to generate a wider
droplet size distribution. This
promotes, at the atomizing zone, effective
collisions between smaller and
larger droplets due to their different falling
velocity;

(b) Recycling fines (separated from the exhausted

gas) to the upper wet
region of the drying chamber, where droplets are
descended, as shown in
Figures 1b. These fine particles are incorporated
into droplets producing
secondary agglomerates. Different agglomerate
structures can be
achieved depending on the design and location of
the fine return system
[9];
(c) Inserting a fluid bed into the conical region
of the spray dryer to improve or
create agglomerates by rolling down wet particles.
This brief description of drying and particle
formation corroborates the
concept of manipulating the spray dryer operation
variables to achieve the
desirable powder properties in order to optimize
the product quality.
Additionally, it leads to choose the most general
powder properties that can
be manipulated and controlled by the spray dryer
operation. These properties
can be integrated into four groups, as: (i)
moisture content, including the water

activity and sorption isotherms; (ii) particle size

distribution incorporating the
mean particle size and dispersion index, as well
as, the particle shape and its
superficial area; (iii) density, concerning the
solid, particle and in bulk; (iv)
stickiness, including the degree of particle
cohesion and adhesion. Other
properties, specific of the desirable product,
should be added to these general
ones to complete the powder quality requirements.

2.5 Moisture Content Of A Spray Dried Powder

The residual moisture content of spray dried powder
is of great important to define the product
quality, since this quantifies the amount of water
presented in the material. This parameter is
straightly related to drying
conditions and to droplet formation mechanisms.
Consequently, it must vary
with changes in the spray dryer operation variables
(mainly the inlet air
temperature), as well as, the solution or
suspension feed composition and
concentration. Depending on the methods used for
measuring the moisture
content, the different forms of water, available in
the powder, can be
identified, such as water weakly bounded (free or
retained water), water
strongly bound (hydrate water), water with weaker
bonds and water imbibed
in proteins. The drying oven method at a controlled
temperature until constant

mass of the sample is the most widely method used.

Generally for food or
pharmaceutical powders, this method is normalized
concerning the drying
temperature, sample exposure and oven type [11].
Moreover, for these
powders, both, the residual moisture content and
the water activity, are
required in order to develop a procedure to control
adequately the product
shelf life, taste and texture, agglomeration,
contaminant growth and microbial
proliferation [12]. Water activity, expressed by
the air relative humidity in
Two methods are used to express this moisture
content. These methods are wet
basis (m) and dry basis (M). In addition, the
content may be expressed as a percent or
as a decimal ratio. We will use all four forms (wet
basis, dry basis, percent, and decimal
ratio) in analyzing moisture or food products.
The general governing equations for indicating
moisture content are:
260 Food & Process Engineering Technology

where: m = decimal moisture content wet basis (wb)

M = decimal moisture content dry basis (db)
md = mass of dry matter in the product
mw = mass of water in the product
mt = total mass of the product, water plus dry
matter
The percent moisture content is found by
multiplying the decimal moisture content by
100.
In addition, relationships between wet and dry
moisture content on a decimal basis

can be derived from Equations 10.01 and 10.02.

Those relationships are:

Use of the wet basis measurement is common in the

grain industry where moisture
content is typically expressed as percent wet
basis. However, use of the wet basis has
one clear disadvantagethe total mass changes as
moisture is removed. Since the total
mass is the reference base for the moisture
content, the reference condition is changing
as the moisture content changes. On the other hand,
the amount of dry matter does not
change. Thus, the reference condition for dry basis
measurements does not change as
moisture is removed.
For a given product, the moisture content dry basis
is always higher than the wet
basis moisture content. This is obvious from a
comparison of Equations 10.01 and
10.02. The difference between the two bases is
small at low moisture levels, but it
increases rapidly at higher moisture levels.
A final note regarding moisture content relates to
high moisture materials such as
fruits and vegetables. Many of these products have
moisture contents near 0.90 (or
90%) (wb). On a dry basis this would be 900% if
expressed as a percentage. For products
of this type, moisture is often given as mass of
water per unit mass of dry product, the decimal
basis we discussed earlier.
2.5.1 Equilibrium Moisture Content
A material held for a long time at a fixed
temperature and relative humidity will
eventually reach a moisture content that is in
equilibrium with the surrounding air.
This does not mean that the material and the air
have the same moisture content. It

simply means that an equilibrium condition exists

such that there is no net exchange of
moisture between the material and the air. This
equilibrium moisture content (EMC
or Me) is a function of the temperature, the
relative humidity, and the product.

2.6 IMPORTANT SPRAY DRYER PARAMETERS

Air Flow Rates

The rate of air flow must be at a maximum in
all cases. The movement of air is decided the
rate and degree of droplet evaporation by
inducing, the passage of spray through the
drying zone and the concentration of product
in the region of the dryer walls and finally
extent the semi-dried droplets and thus reenter the hot areas around the air disperser.
A lower drying air flow rate causes an
increase in the product halting time in drying
chamber and enforces the circulatory effects.
The effect of drying air flow rate on powder
solubility depends on its effect on powder
moisture content and density of powder.
Density variation can arise from temperature
changes and migrating pollution. By using
COMSOL multi physics we can able to get the
exact solution which is used for both
temperature and concentration changes. The
rising of air flow rate was led to the
increased of powder moisture content and
decrease in powder solubility (Papadakis,
1998).

Air Temperature

Powder properties such as moisture content,

bulk density, particle size, hygroscopicity
and morphology were affected by inlet
temperature. Normally, the inlet temperature
uses for spray dry technique for food powder
is 150-220oC. Chegini (2005) studied the
effect of inlet temperature (110-190oC) on the
moisture content of orange juice powder. It
was found that at a constant feed flow rate,
increasing the inlet air temperature reduced
the residual moisture content. In other words,
The air inlet temperature to the spray dryer
controls the production rate of the final
powder. For higher production, you run with a
higher inlet temperature.
The outlet temperature is controlled by
adjusting the feed rate and this also controls
the powder moisture based upon a consistent
temperature of inlet, feed solids content and
humidity of inlet air. At higher inlet air
temperatures, there is a greater temperature
gradient between the atomized feed and drying
air and it results the greatest driving force
for water evaporation. The use of higher inlet
air temperature leads to the production of
larger particles and causes the higher
swelling. If temperature is low, the particle
remains more shrunk and smaller. Nijdam (2006)
were obtained the similar results in the
production of milk powder at 120oC and 200oC.
The higher drying temperature is lower the
moisture content and increase its
hygroscopicity.

Composition/Concentration Of The
Feed Solution
The spray concentration influences the
particle size.
The higher the concentration of the spray
solution, the larger and more porous the dried
particles. On the other hand, spray drying a
feed solution that has low concentration will
result in product having finer powders with
less porosity.
The content of the feed solution also affects
the nature of the final products. It may also
place restriction on other spray dryer
parameters. For example, heat sensitive
product requires extreme care in controlling
the inlet and out temperatures of the spray
dryer.

Feed Flow Rate

Higher flow rates imply in a shorter contact
time between the feed and drying air and
making the heat transfer less efficient and
thus caused the lower water evaporation. The
higher feed flow rate showed a negative effect
on process yield and that was resulting the
decreased heat, mass transfer and the lower
process yield. In addition, when higher feed
rates were used, a dripping inside the main
chamber was observed, when the mixture was
passed straight to the chamber and that was
not atomized and finally resulting the lower
process yield.

Distributor Pressure
The distributor acts as an atomizer. High
distributor pressure translates to high
atomizer speed, and this will result in the

production of smaller droplets and more

moisture will be evaporated resulting from an
increased contact surface.

2.7 ADVANTAGES OF USING A TALL FORM

SPRAY DRYER
1. PARTICLE SIZE CONTROL
The dry particle size can be easily controlled
by atomization of the liquid and
the design of the hot gas inlet. The correct
dryer design and atomization technique can
eliminate the need for sizing/classification
equipment when the product average
particle size is less than 500 microns.
"Nondusting"
powders can be made which is
beneficial for hazardous products, animal
feeds, dyes, and other products.
2. EVAPORATIVE COOLING OF THE PRODUCT
The heat and mass transfer during drying
occurs in the air and vapor films surrounding
the droplet. This protective envelope of
vapor keeps the particle at the saturation
temperature. As long as the particle does
not become "bone-dry," evaporation is still
taking place and the temperature of the
solids will not approach the dryer outlet
temperature.This is why many heat sensitive
products can be spray dried easily at
relatively
high inlet temperatures.
3. SHORT RESIDENCE TIME REQUIRED
The surface area produced by atomization of
the liquid feed enables a short gas residence
time, ranging from 3-40 seconds depending
upon the application, which permits drying
without thermal degradation. This allows
for fast turn-around times and product
changes because there is no product hold
up in the drying equipment.
4. REDUCTION IN CORROSION
Because a spray dryer is a gas suspended
process, the dryer chamber remains dry by
design. Therefore, many corrosive materials

can be processed with carbon steel as

the primary material of construction,
which reduces capital and maintenance
costs.
5. HOMOGENEOUS SOLIDS MIXTURE IS PRODUCED
Spray drying produces the most homogeneous
product for multi-component solution/
slurries. Each particle will be of the
same chemical composition as the mixed
feed.
6. THE HIGH INLET TEMPERATURE PERMITTED
Because spray drying uses direct contact
heating, materials of construction is the
usual limit to inlet temperature. Exceptions
are extremely heat sensitive products
such as proteins, enzymes, and some highly
explosive products. Higher inlet temperatures
equate to better energy efficiency and
smaller equipment for a given process
heat load.
7. THE CHEMICAL REACTION POSSIBILITIES
The inherent advantage of surface area also
makes the spray drying process excellent
for gas/solid reactions. For example, recovery
of HC1 and SO2 from a flue gas can be
achieved by atomization of a hydrated lime
slurry. The combination of absorption and
drying results in a dry solid for disposal
instead of a liquid effluent.