Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements

Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured and they consist of a numerical
magnitude and a unit.
Base quantities and units
Base Quantity

Base S.I. Unit

Symbol for base SI

Unit
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
Symbol
cd for base SI
unit
m2
m3
m s-1
kg m-3

Length
metre
Mass
kilogram
Time
second
Electric current
ampere
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin
Amount of substance
mole
Derived
Equation
Luminous
intensity
candela
Quantity
Area
Length width
Volume
Length width height
Speed
Distance / time
Density
Mass / volume

S.I.

units

for some
derived
quantities

Prefixes
Prefix
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
kilo
mega

Symbol
n

m
c
d
k
M

Factor
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
103
106

Orders of magnitude
A number rounded to the nearest power of 10 is called an order of magnitude.
Orders of magnitude of the sizes of common objects on earth:
Radius of an atom: 10-10 m; radius of earth: 107 m
Errors of measurements
Parallax error is an error due to incorrect positioning of the eye and the object is not at the
same level as the markings of the scale.
Zero error is an error which arises when instruments do not read zero exactly when there is
nothing being measured. Actual reading = Observed reading Zero error
Vernier Calipers
(a)

main scale
(fixed)
vernier scale
(movable)

(b)

vernier scale
(movable)

10

zero error = +0.01 cm

Observed reading
Micrometer Screw Gauge
mm

0
0

45
40

1
0

main scale
(fixed)

1
5

Zero error for (a)

Zero error for (b)
Reading on main scale
Reading on mm
vernier
0 scale5
Observed reading
Actual reading for (a)
Actual reading for (b)

10

+ 0.01
zerocm
error = - 0.02 cm
- 0.02 cm
25
2.4 cm
0.08 cm
2.48 cm
2.47 cm 20
2.50 cm
15

1
0

1
5

(a) Zero Error = - 0.03 mm

Observed reading

(b) Zero Error = + 0.43 mm

Zero Error for (a)

Zero Error for (b)
Reading on sleeve
Reading on thimble
Observed reading
Actual dimension of object for (a)
Actual dimension of object for (b)

- 0.03 mm
+ 0.43 mm
8.5 mm
0.18 mm
8.68 mm
8.71 mm
8.25 mm

Mass, Weight and Density

Mass is the measure of amount of matter in a body, while weight is the measure of force by
Earth. Weight = Mass x g where g = 10 ms-2; Density = Mass / Volume
Simple Pendulum
The period of a pendulum is time in which 1 complete oscillation occurs. Based
on the diagram, it is the time for pendulum bob to travel from A to B and back
to A.
Method of measuring:

Release the pendulum into oscillation.

Allow for a few oscillations before starting stop-watch.

A

Fix a point to start count of number of oscillations.

Record sufficient number of oscillations to ensure time taken is at least 10 seconds.

Repeat the experiment and take average of the 2 readings.

Chapter 2: Refraction of Light

Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction, or bending of light when it passes from one
medium to another.

normal

normal
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

Incident
ray

i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

Incident
ray
i

Glas
s
Air

Air
Glass
r
r
Refracted
ray

Refracted
ray

Laws of Refraction
First Law of Refraction
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
Second Law of Refraction (Snells Law)
For two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction, (sin i / sin r) is a constant.
(Absolute) Refractive Index
Refractive index, n, of a medium with respect to vacuum (or air) is given by n = sin i /
sin r, for light passing from vacuum into that medium.
If light passes from the medium into vacuum, the relation becomes 1/n = sin i / sin r.
Refractive Index and Speed of Light
Refractive index of a medium may also be defined as the ratio between the speed of
light in vacuum (or air), c, and the speed of light in that medium, v. Equation: n = c /
v
The higher the refractive index of a medium, the slower will the speed of light through
it.
Absolute Refractive index and Relative Refractive Index
Absolute refractive index refers to the refractive index of a medium with respect
vacuum of air.
Relative refractive index refers to the refractive index of a medium with respect to a
second medium.
Relative refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2
= speed of light in medium 2 / speed of light in medium 1
Total Internal Reflection
Critical angle, c, is the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which
the angle of refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90 o.
Normal

Normal
Strong refracted ray
r = 90

incident
ray
i = c, r = 90

Weak,
internally
reflected
ray

incident
ray
i > c, r = i

Strong
internally
reflected
ray

Total internal reflection occurs when the refracted ray does not leave the optically
denser medium at all, but reflected internally within the optically denser medium.
For total internal reflection to occur,

the light ray must travel from an optically denser medium towards a less dense
medium,

the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

Application: The use of optical fibres in telecommunication

A light ray entering the pipe is internally

reflected totally. If a bundle of parallel fibres is used to construct an optical
transmission line, images can be transferred from one point to another.
Advantages of optical fibres in telecommunications:

thinner and lighter

cheaper: being made of glass compared to metals such as copper

allow high quality transmission of information over very long distances with
negligible signal loss

carry a much higher volume of telephone calls, computer data or television

pictures than electrical wires

Chapter 3: Lenses
Lenses

Converging Lens

Diverging Lens

Structure
Use

thicker in the middle

converge: bring together to a
point a parallel beam of light
passing through it
correct long-sightedness

thinner in the middle

diverge: spread out a parallel beam
of light passing through it

Example

correct short-sightedness

A thin converging lens can be defined as a lens whose thickness is small compared with the focal
length
converging
lens

parallel rays
of light

Focal plane

principal axis
C
f

Optical centre, C

For a symmetrical biconvex lens, this is the point midway between

the lens surfaces on its principal axis. (Rays passing through the
optical centre are not deviated)
Line passing symmetrically through the optical centre of the lens
All rays close to and parallel to the principal axis will converge
after refraction by the lens at a point known as the principal focus.
It is also commonly known as the focal point.
This is the distance between the optical centre, C and the principal
focus F.
This is the plane which passes through F. The focal plane is
perpendicular to the principal axis.

Principal axis
rincipal Focus, F
Focal length, f
Focal plane
Drawing ray diagram

converging
lens
F1

principal axis

1.
2.
3.

C
F2

Incident ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point, F1
Incident ray which passes through the optical centre, C, is not deviated
Incident ray passing through F2 becomes parallel to the principal axis

Linear magnification, m is defined as

height of image, hi dist of image from lens, v

dist of object from lens, u
height of object, ho

Nature of Image

Image Size, distance

Uses

real, inverted

Diminished, v = f

To determine the focal length of a

convex lens, telescope

real, inverted

Diminished, f < v < 2f

camera, eye

real, inverted

same size as object, v = 2f

Photocopier making equal size

copy

real, inverted

Magnified, v > 2f

slide projector, overhead projector

Upright, virtual,
(image cannot be
formed on a screen)

Magnified, Image at infinity; same

side of the lens

spotlight

virtual, upright

Magnified, behind the object; on

the same side of lens

magnifying glass

Case
Case 2:
2: uu >
> 2f
2f

Case
Case 1:
1: uu =
=

__
parallel rays from
distant object

F1

F1

F2

F2

Case
Case 3:
3: uu =
= 2f
2f

Case
Case 4:
4: ff <
< uu <
< 2f
2f

F1

F1
C

F2

F2

I
v

I
Case
Case 6:
6: uu <
< ff

Case
Case 5:
5: uu =
= ff

Image at
infinity

F1
C

F2

Chapter 5: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Specific Learning Objectives

F1
C

F2

----

--

state that all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel with
the same high speed in vacuo and state the magnitude of this speed
describe the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum
discuss the role of the following components in the stated applications:
(i) radiowaves in radio and television communication
(ii) microwaves in satellite television and microwave oven
(iii) infra-red waves in infra-red remote controllers and intruder alarms
(iv) light in optical fibres for medical uses and telecommunications
(v) ultra-violet in sunbeds, and sterilisation
(vi) X-rays in radiological and engineering applications
(vii) Gamma rays in medical treatment
describe the effects of absorbing electromagnetic waves, e.g. heating,
ionisation and damage to living cells and tissue

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. They are all transverse waves.
2. They travel at a speed of 3.0 108 ms-1 in vacuum but slow down in
other media.
3. They do not require any material medium to spread from one point to
another.
4. They transfer energy from one place to another.
5. They obey the laws of refraction and reflection.
6. They can be emitted and absorbed by matter.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is continuous i.e. there are no gaps in it

and no frequencies anywhere in the range which does not exist.
There is no sharp boundary between one type of waves and the next.

High Frequency
1020 Hz

1018 Hz

1016 Hz

1014 Hz

1012 Hz

1010 Hz

Gamma rays

X-rays

Ultraviolet

Visible light

Infrared

Microwave

3 10-12 m

3 10-10 m

3 10-8 m

3 10-6 m

3 10-4 m

3 10-2 m

91.3 Mhz
108 Hz
Radio wave

3m

How to obtain an electromagnetic spectrum in the visible light

region?

When white light is incident at an angle on a prism, an electromagnetic

spectrum can be observed. White light is made up of a continuous spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths in the visible light region.
Having different wavelengths will mean that they will travel in different speeds
in the prism. As refractive index is inversely proportional to the speed of light
in a medium, the angle of refraction will be different for light of different
wavelengths. Hence, the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum can
be observed by passing white light through a prism at an angle.
Sources, Detectors and Uses of the different types of electromagnetic
waves
EM Waves

Sources

Detectors

Uses

Gamma
rays

Cosmic rays,
nuclear reaction

Photographic plates
Ionisation/cloud chamber

Gamma rays to kill cancer

cells

X-rays

Ultra Violet
rays

Deceleration of
fast moving
electrons in X-ray
tubes
Sun, mercury
vapour lamps

Visible
light

X-ray radiography
Analysis of crystal
structure
Check welds
Photographic plates
Photoelectric cells
Fluorescent Screen

Forgery detection, sun

lamps, Sterilising medical
equipment, absorbed by
glass

Hot bodies, sun,

lasers

Photographic plates
Photoelectric cells
Eye

Optical fibres for medical

uses and communication
Photosynthesis

Infra red

Warm bodies, sun

Special photographic plates

Special heating effect
Thermocouples, blackened
thermometers

Haze photography
TV remote controllers
Radiant heaters
Intruder alarms

Microwave

Electronic
devices, e.g.
klystron tube

Microwave receiver (valve

circuit)

Radar communications
Microwave cooking
Satellite television

Radio
waves

TV & radio
transmitters

Radio receiver (tuned

circuits)

Radar communications
Radio and television
communication

Effects of absorbing electromagnetic waves

The frequency of electromagnetic waves determines their energy which will
result in heating.
The higher the frequency of electromagnetic waves, the greater the amount of
heating effect they can produce.
For very high frequency electromagnetic waves like gamma rays and x-rays,
they are penetrating and can cause damage to living tissues and organisms.

Chapter 6: Kinematics
1.

Distance and displacement

1.1.

Distance is the actual or total length travelled by an object irrespective of the

direction of motion.

1.2.

Displacement is the difference between the starting and ending position.

1.3.

It is the distance measured along a straight line in a stated direction.

In one dimension or travel along a straight line, direction can also be denoted
by + or -, with reference to a stated direction from a fixed point (,normally
the starting position).

1.4.
2.

The gradient of the displacement-time graph gives the velocity of an object.

Velocity and speed

2.1.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time.

2.2.

How is velocity different from speed?

Velocity is a vector quantity while speed is a scalar quantity. It has a specific

direction, unlike speed.

2.3.

Since most objects do not move with constant velocity, two other terms to
describe the rate of change of distance/displacement of a body are

2.4.

Instantaneous speed

Average speed

Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any instant (any point in

time).

2.5.

It can be obtained from a velocity/speed-time graph

Average speed of an object is defined as the total distance travelled by the

object divided by the total time taken.

2.6.

The area under the speed-time graph gives the distance travelled by an object.

2.7.

From the shape and gradient of a curved displacement-time graph, we can tell
whether velocity is increasing or decreasing and in a positive or negative
direction.

3.

Acceleration

3.1.

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time.

3.2.

For an object undergoing uniform acceleration, mathematically: a = (v u) / t

3.3.

The value for acceleration due to Earths gravity, g is 9.8 (or 10) ms -2.

3.4.

Acceleration can be due to a change in magnitude and/or direction of the

velocity.

3.5.

When an object experiences a negative change of velocity, we can say that the
object is experiencing

3.6.

deceleration / retardation

acceleration in opposite direction to the objects motion

In many cases, when motion is in the positive direction, a deceleration means

that the object slows down (speed becomes smaller)

3.7.

In general, slowing down does not necessarily mean deceleration. Slowing

down simply means that the direction of acceleration is in opposite direction to
the objects motion.

3.8.
4.

Gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of a moving body.

Acceleration due to gravity

4.1.

All objects fall freely towards the centre of the earth and have the same
acceleration (acceleration of free fall).

4.2.

All objects fall freely at g 9.8 ms-2 when near the earth and air resistance is
negligible.

4.3.

Although the acceleration due to gravity is considered constant, it tends to

vary slightly over the earth since the earth is not a perfect sphere.

5.

Kinematics Equations
Equations relating the 4 quantities displacement, velocity, acceleration and time:
v = u + at
s = (u + v) t / 2
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ut + at2
where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, a = acceleration and t = time

Chapter 7: Dynamics
6.

Forces
6.1.

Forces are vectors. They are described by both magnitude and direction.

6.2.

The SI unit is the Newton, N.

6.3.

For addition of Forces

6.4.

1D (along a straight line) : Just add and subtract

2D : Parallelogram or head-to-tail method

A force can be defined as an action (push or pull) that produces or tends to

produce a change in

2.

Shape of an object

Size of an object

State of rest or motion of an object

Change the direction of motion of an object

Free-Body Diagram
2.1.

A free-body diagram shows all the external forces acting on a body.

2.2.

External force is one whose source lies outside of the body being considered,
e.g. weight of a body due to gravity, friction (non-example: intermolecular
forces).

2.3.

To draw the free-body diagram of an object

Isolate the object and consider all the external forces acting on it.
For every Act-at-a-Distance force identified:

Draw in the force as an arrow, indicating the direction and magnitude.

Weight must always act from the centre of gravity of the object.

For every other object it is in contact with

Identify what contact forces between the two, e.g. applied force, tension,
normal force, thrust, air resistance, friction etc. (Normal contact force is
exerted perpendicularly to the surface by the surface on the object.)

3.

Draw in the force as a arrow, indicating the direction and magnitude.

Newtons First Law of motion

3.1Newtons First Law of motion: An object tends to stay at rest or continue in
uniform motion unless acted upon by an external net force.
3.2When two or more external forces acting on a body produce no net force, i.e. the
vector sum of forces is zero, we say that the forces are balanced.

The lack of a net force produces no net change in velocity (i.e. no acceleration)
and hence, the body will either remain at rest or move at its original velocity in
a straight line.
3.3

A body at rest does not necessarily have no force acting on it. Only the net

force is zero.
4

Newtons Second Law of motion

4.1

When two or more external forces acting on a body produce a net force, i.e.
vector sum of forces is not zero, we say that the forces are unbalanced.

4.2

Newtons Second Law of Motion states that the resultant force acting on a body
produces a net acceleration and causes the body to accelerate in the direction
of the resultant force.

4.3

For a body of constant mass, Newtons Second Law can be expressed as:
Summation of forces (or net force) F = mass, m acceleration, a

Newtons Third Law

5.1

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

5.2

ACTION: When object A exerts a force on object B ...

5.3

REACTION: There will also be a force exerted by object B on object A

5.4

Conditions for action reaction pair:

Action- reaction forces must have the same magnitude

They must act in the opposite direction.

Action, reaction forces must act on different bodies.

Friction
6.1

Friction is the force that resists motion of one surface relative to another which
it is in contact. It is parallel to the contact surface and opposite to the direction
of motion.

6.2

S.I. unit of friction is Newton, N. It is a vector quantity.

6.3

The major cause of friction in solids is the force of attraction between the
contact regions of the surfaces, which are microscopically irregular.

6.4

When a body is in motion, friction will tend to slow it down. (kinetic friction)

6.5

When a body is at rest, friction will have to be overcome before the object can
start to move. (static friction)

6.6

The force required to start motion, or to overcome static friction, is always

greater than the force required to continue motion, or to overcome kinetic
friction e.g. pushing a wheelchair, pulling a trolley

6.7

When a force F is applied to a stationary object, static frictional force increases

itself to be equal to the applied force and prevents any motion.

7.

Other important concepts

7.1

Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force.

7.2

Gravitational field strength g is the gravitational force per unit mass.

7.3

Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on an object

7.4

Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

7.5

Upthrust is the upward force acting on an object in a fluid due to pressure

difference between the upper and lower surfaces.

7.6

Viscous force is resistive force experienced by an object in a fluid and depends

on velocity in the fluid.

Chapter 8: Work, Energy, Power

7. Work

Work done (W) by a constant force (F) is given by the product of the force
and the displacement (s) in the direction of the force.

Work done is force-specific. We can talk about work done by any the real
force or the total work done.

Equation: W = F s

General formula of work: For a constant force F, W = Fs cos , where is

the angle between F and s.

S.I. units: joule (J) = N m

Work is a scalar.

Even though work is scalar, it can be positive or negative.

Positive work is done by a force when a non-zero component of the force

exerted is in the same direction as the displacement of the object.

Negative work is done by a force when a non-zero component of the force

exerted is in the opposite direction to the displacement of the object.

No work is done:
o

when the point of application of the force does not move;

when the direction of the force and the direction in which the point of
application moves are perpendicular to one another;

2.

when the force being referred to is zero;

by the net force when the object is moving at constant speed.

Work and Energy

Work is a process of transferring energy from one form to another. This may
involve transferring energy from one body to another.

3.

The amount of work done is simply the energy that is transferred or used.

Conversion of energy

Forms of energy: kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic

potential energy, chemical energy, light energy, electrical energy, sound
energy, thermal energy (heat)

Gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and elastic potential energy

are forms of mechanical energy.

Gravitational potential energy = mgh

Kinetic energy = mv2

Elastic potential energy = kx2 (k is spring constant; x is extension or

compression of spring)

E.g. for a geo-thermal power generator, gravitational potential energy is

converted to kinetic energy of water entering turbine which is then
converted to kinetic energy of rotating turbine and generator which is
eventually converted to electrical energy output from the generator.

4.

Conservation of Energy

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be

created or destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another.

This means that total energy in a system is constant throughout.

For a free falling object, can use conservation of mechanical energy instead:
loss in gravitational potential energy equals gain in kinetic energy, i.e.
GPEi GPEf = KEf - KEi, where i represents initial and f represents final.

5.

Power

Power is defined as the rate of work being done or energy being converted

P=W/t=E/t

Units: watt (W) = J s-1

1 kWh

= 1000 x 60 x 60
= 3.6 x 106 J (kWh is a unit of power, not work.)

6.

Efficiciency

Efficiency =
o

useful energy output / total energy input

Or useful power output / total power input

Or useful energy output x 100% / total energy input

Or useful power output x 100%/ total power input

(Note: when calculating the ratio, do not leave your answer in fraction.)

In real life, there is no way to achieve 100% efficiency.

Energy input = useful energy output + wasted energy

output

Chapter 10: Kinetic Model of Matter

1. Kinetic Model
1.1.The Kinetic Model of Matter states that all matter is made up of a large
number of tiny atoms or molecules which are in continuous random motion.
1.2.This is supported by evidence from Brownian Motion.
1.3.Observations from Brownian Motion Experiment:

Smoke particles scatter the light shining on them, appearing as bright spots

Smoke particles darting about in a continuous random manner.

Random motion is due to collisions between the invisible air molecules and
the smoke particles. The smaller the smoke particle, the faster it moves.

1.4.Conclusions

Since we cannot see the air molecules, they are presumably very small.

The smoke particles are being observed to move in a haphazard way

because of uneven bombardments by the air molecules on its sides.

To cause the Brownian motion of the smoke particles, the air molecules
must be moving moving continuously, randomly and at high speed when
they collide with the smoke particles.

1.5 Molecular structures and properties of solids, liquids and gases

Forces
between
molecules
Distances
between

Solids
Very strong forces of
attraction between
molecules, holding
them in fixed
positions
Molecules are
closely packed and

Liquids
Strong attractive forces
between molecules
keep them moving
within a fixed volume
Slightly further apart
than in solid

Gases
Negligible attractive
force between molecules
Intermolecular forces act
only at moments of
collision
Very far apart
Mainly empty space

molecules
Motion of
molecules

arranged in a
regular pattern
Vibrate about fixed
mean positions

between molecules
Molecules free to move
throughout liquid at
random either gliding
round or colliding into
each other
Cannot be compressed
Molecules are still close
together
Fixed volume but no
fixed shape

Move at high speed

randomly & continuously,
colliding with one
another and with the
walls of the containers
Properties Cannot be
Can be easily
compressed
compressed
Little space between
Mainly empty space
them
between molecules
Fixed shape and
No fixed shape and
volume
volume
1.6As temperature increases, thermal energy is transferred to the molecules
and the molecules gain kinetic energy causing molecules to move faster. If
heat is supplied in the Brownian motion experiment, the motion of the
smoke particles becomes more vigorous. (More collisions with one another,
more bombardments on the side of walls and molecules have faster
speeds.)
2. Pressure exerted by a gas
2.1When molecule bounces against wall, they exerts force on wall

Pressure = Sum of forces due to collisions on wall divided by the area

2.2Pressure exerted by a gas is affected by:

Frequency of collisions

Average force of each collision

2.3Factors affecting motion of molecules and pressure of a gas:

Number of molecules in the gas

Temperature of the gas

Volume occupied by the gas

3 Use Kinetic Model of Matter to explain these 3 important cases:

(i) At constant temperature, a change in pressure of a fixed mass of gas is
caused by a change in volume of the gas.
(for a syringe) As volume of container decreases, there will be more frequent
collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of the container. Pressure
increases. Note that average kinetic energy of the molecules remain
unchanged because temperature is constant.
(ii) At constant pressure, a change in volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas is
caused by a change in temperature of the gas.

(For a balloon) As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the

molecules will increase. A greater force will be exerted on the wall of the inner
balloon surface. The pressure of the balloon must equal the surrounding
atmospheric pressure when steady state is reached, so the pressure is
constant (assuming the balloon remains at the same height). The balloon will
expand. Hence, its volume will increase.
(iii)At constant volume, a change in pressure of a fixed mass of gas is caused by a
change in temperature of the gas.
(For a pressure cooker) As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy
of the molecules will increase. A greater force will be exerted on the wall of the
container. As the pressure cooker cannot expand, the pressure within the
pressure cooker will increase. This can help solve the problem of water boiling
at lower temperature as a result of low atmospheric pressure at high altitude.

Chapter 11: Transfer of Thermal Energy

1.

Thermal Energy and Heat

1.1

Thermal energy of a body represents the total kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules in the body.

1.2

Heat is thermal energy in transit from a high temperature object to a lower

temperature object or from a higher temperature section of an object to a
lower temperature section.

1.3

Thermal energy can be transferred through conduction, convection and

radiation.

2.

Conduction

2.1

Conduction is the process by which thermal energy is transferred in a medium

from faster vibrating particles to slower ones through collisions.

2.2

Conduction requires a medium to take place.

2.3

When the end of an object is heated, the molecules there gain energy and
vibrate faster. These molecules collide with their neighbours and some energy
is transferred to them.

2.4

Thermal conduction in metal far better than other solids, because metals
contain free electrons. When heated, the free electrons gain transfer thermal
energy as they move from one atom to another. Transfer of thermal energy is
much faster than just vibration of molecules.

2.5

Applications: Good conductors pans; kettles. Poor conductors (and insulators):

oven mitten, handles of cooking utensils are made of plastic

3.

Convection

3.1Convection is the process by which thermal energy is transmitted from one place
to another by the actual movement of heated portion of a gas or liquid.
3.2It is the most significant process of thermal energy transfer in fluids (liquids and
gases).
3.3Convection requires a medium to transfer thermal energy.
3.4Convection is caused by density changes in heated or cooled portion of a fluid.
3.5The hotter portion of a fluid rises as it expands causing its density to decrease,
while the colder portion sinks to take its place. This process keeps repeating
itself as the entire fluid gets heated up.
3.6Applications: Hot water system, air conditioner, refrigerator, sea and land breezes

4.

Radiation

4.1

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves mainly in

the infrared region.

4.2

Key point: Radiation do not require a medium for the transfer of thermal
energy.

4.3

Energy from the sun reaches Earth by means of radiation.

4.4

Rate of energy transfer is affected by

(a) Surface temperature - The higher the temperature, the more energy
radiated
(b) Colour of the surface
(c) Surface area - The larger the surface area, the more energy is radiated

4.5

Dull black surfaces are good absorbers, good emitters and poor reflectors.
Silver or white surfaces are good reflectors, poor absorbers and poor emitters.

4.6

Applications:

Colour of surface of
(a) solar panels,
(b) interior of vacuum flask
(c) desert gear
Infrared sensors

MCQ
(J91/I/18)
1.
Which of the following is the poorest conductor of heat energy?
A
Air
B
Brass

C
D
E

Vacuum
Water
Wool

(J96/I/18)
2.
When you stand in bare feet with one foot on a stone floor and the other on a
carpet, the stone floor feels colder than the carpet
The most likely explanation is that
A
air is unable to circulate through the carpet fibres
B
more energy flows from the carpet to your foot than from the stone floor
to your foot
C
more energy flows from your foot to the stone floor than to the carpet.
D
the stone floor is at a lower temperature than the carpet
(J94/I/17)
3.
Which types of surfaces are the best absorbers and the best emitters of infrared radiation
Best absorber
Best emitter
A. Black and dull
Black and dull
B. Black and shiny
White and dull
C. White and dull
Black and shiny
D. White and shiny
White and shiny

Chapter 12: Temperature

1.

Temperature

1.1

Distinguish heat and temperature: Heat is thermal energy in transit while

temperature is a measure of degree of hotness.

2.

Thermometer

2.1

A device used to measure temperature eg alcohol-in-glass thermometer and

digital thermometer.

2.2

Desirable features of a thermometer

- Responsiveness:
This measures how quickly the thermometer can register changes in
temperature.
- Sensitivity:
This measures the amount of change in thermometric property (e.g. change
in length of liquid column) per unit change in temperature.
- Range:
This denotes the minimum and maximum temperatures that the
thermometer can measure.

3.

Construct a temperature scale on a thermometer

3.1

Choose a physical property which changes with temperature.

Physcial Properties

Thermometer

Volume of a fixed mass of liquid

Electrical resistance of a metal
wire
Electromotive force (e.m.f)
Pressure of a fixed mass of gas
at constant volume

Mercury-in-glass thermometer
Resistance thermometer
Thermocouple thermometer
Constant
volume
gas
thermometer

3.2

Choose 2 fixed points.

- To obtain a standard scale on a thermometer, two fixed points must be first
marked.
- The fixed points will always be constant under given conditions so that they
can be easily reproduced.
- Each fixed point means the same temperature on all thermometers.

3.3

Divide the temperature between 2 fixed points.

Centigrade scale (an empirical or experimental scale).
- Ice point - 0C & Steam point 100 C.
- Divide interval between ice point and steam point into 100 equal divisions.
- Each division equals one degree Centigrade (C).
- Do not confuse with Celsius scale when both units are oC.

3.4

Find the unknown temperature.

- Read off from the scale directly.
- Otherwise, obtain from calculation. If the lengths of mercury thread at ice
point, steam point and when immersed in a liquid of unknown temperature
are l 100, l 0 and l respectively, the unknown temperature can be calculated
0
l l 0
by

100 0 l100 l 0
- This equation assumes a linear relationship between physical property and
temperature. Actually, all physical properties vary linearly with temperature
only for certain temperature ranges and also vary with temperature in
different ways. Hence, temperature readings from 2 thermometers using
different thermometric properties may only coincide at the fixed points.
- (Question 1) The lengths of mercury thread in the uniform tube above the
bulb of a mercury thermometer are:
20 mm when the bulb is in melting ice; 170 mm when the bulb is in the
steam above boiling water; 50 mm when the bulb is in a liquid X
What is the temperature of liquid X?
A 20C
B 25 C C 30 C D 33.3C E 50C
0
l l 0

[ Ans: B . Working:
100 0 l100 l 0

= (50 20) x 100 / (170 20) = 20 oC ]

3.5

Kelvin or Absolute Scale

- Devised by Lord Kelvin.
- An absolute or theoretical scale based on the efficiency of heat engines.
- Fixed point: Triple point of water (the state where the 3 phases of water coexist together).
- Absolute zero: The lowest possible temperature.
- Unit is kelvin (K) which is also the SI base unit for temperature.

3.6

Kelvin and Celsius Scale

- A shift of the Kelvin by 273.16 (normally taken as 273) gives the Celsius
scale.
- Celsius scale is an absolute scale.
- The magnitude of a unit on the Kelvin scale is the same as that on the
Celsius scale.
- Temperature in kelvins (T) = Temperature in Celsius () + 273

4.

Thermocouple Thermometers

4.1

Construction
- A thermocouple consists of two wires of different metals joined together at
the ends to form two junctions.
- If the junctions are at different temperatures, a small electromotive force
(e.m.f) is produced.
- The larger the temperature difference, the larger is the e.m.f produced.

4.2

Advantages of a Thermocouple
- It can operate over a very wide range of temperature from -200 oC to 1700
o
C. Hence, it can measure high temperatures.
- It has a quick response and can be used to measure rapidly changing
temperature.
- As the wire junctions are very small, it can measure the temperature at a
point.
(Question 2) A thermocouple with the cold junction in melting ice gives the
following readings: 5.00 mV when the hot junction is in water of a known
temperature at 70 oC; 1.50 mV when the hot junction is in a liquid. What is the
temperature of the liquid?

4.3

[ Ans:

0
l l 0

70 0 l 70 l 0
= (1.50 x 10-3 0) x 70 / (5.00 x 10-3 0) = 21 oC ]

Chapter 13: Thermal Properties of Matter

1

Internal Energy

1.1

The internal energy of a body is the combination of the total kinetic energy and
potential energy of the molecules in the body.

1.2When the temperature of a body increases, the internal energy of the body also
increases.
2

Heat capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

2.1

The heat capacity, C, of a body is defined as the amount of thermal energy

required to raise the temperature of the body by 1 K or 1C.
C = Q / ,
where Q is the thermal energy absorbed and is the change in temperature.
The SI unit of heat capacity is J K-1 or J C-1.

2.2

The specific heat capacity, c, of a material is defined to as the amount of

thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the material
by 1K or 1C.
c = Q / m , where Q is the thermal energy absorbed, is the change in
temperature and m is the mass of the body.
The SI unit of heat capacity is J kg-1 K-1 or J kg-1 C-1.
3

Melting and Freezing

3.1

Melting is a process whereby energy supplied changes from a solid phase to a

liquid phase, without a change in temperature. The reverse process is called
freezing.

3.2

The temperature at which melting takes place is called the melting point. The
temperature at which freezing takes place is called the freezing point.

3.3

For a pure substance, melting and freezing occur at definite point at a fixed
pressure.

3.4
Cooling curve of lead

Latent Heat of fusion and Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

4.1

Latent heat of fusion is the energy needed to change a substance from solid to
liquid without a change in temperature.

4.2

At the melting point, even though latent heat is being absorbed, temperature
remains constant. The thermal energy is used to do work in breaking the bonds
between molecules.
The specific latent heat of fusion (lf) of a substance is the amount of energy
needed to change a unit mass of the substance from solid to liquid without a
change in temperature. lf = Q / m

4.3

Boiling and Condensation

5.1

Boiling is a process whereby energy supplied changes the state of a substance

from liquid phase to gaseous phase without a change in temperature. The
reverse process is known as condensation.

5.2

The temperature at which boiling takes place is known as the boiling point. The
temperature at which condensation takes place is known as the condensation
point.

5.3For pure substances, boiling take place at definite temperature at a fixed pressure.

Latent Heat of Vaporisation and Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation

6.1

Latent heat of vaporisation is the energy needed to change a substance from

liquid to gas without a change in temperature.

6.2When water is boiling, the latent heat supplied to it is used to do work in breaking
the bonds between the molecules and expanding against the surrounding
atmosphere.
6.3

The specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv) of a substance is the amount of

energy needed to change a unit mass of the substance from liquid to gas
without a change in temperature.
lv = Q / m

Evaporation

7.1

Evaporation is the process whereby water changes into vapour without boiling.

7.2

Since there is a change of state from liquid to gaseous, latent heat of

vaporisation is needed and the energy required is absorbed from the
environment. Hence, evaporation is accompanied by cooling.

7.3

Difference between boiling and evaporation.

Boiling

Evaporation

Quick
Bubbles form
Occurs throughout the liquid
Occurs at one temperature - Boiling
point
Source of energy needed
7.4

Slow
No visible sign
Occurs from surface only
Occurs at all temperatures
Energy supplied by
surroundings

Factors affecting rate of evaporation: temperature, area of exposed surface,

humidity of the surrounding air, motion of the air, external pressure and nature
of liquid. Out of the 6 factors, only humidity of surrounding air and external
pressure are inversely related to the rate of evaporation.

Chapter 14: Waves

8. Describing wave motion
8.1.

A wave is a phenomenon in which energy is transferred through vibrations.

8.2.

A wave carries energy away from the wave source.

8.3.

The effect of rope waves can be seen by fixing one end of a rope by tying it
around a rod and moving the other end up and down.

Each section of the rope is set into an up-and-down motion by the previous
section as the wave passes along the rope.

8.4.

The rope is the medium through which the wave propagates.

A series of crests and troughs can be seen to pass along the rope.

Note that particles in the rope itself do not move forward with the wave.

A water wave is another way to illustrate the phenomena in which energy is

transferred through vibrations.

8.5.

8.6.

Water is the medium through which energy is transmitted.

A cork on the water surface bobs up and down as the wave passes.

It does not travel forward with the wave.

Waves are produced by dipping either a

horizontal bar into the water to obtain plane waves;

ball-ended dipper to obtain circular waves.

A motor fixed to the bar or dipper will cause it to move up and down to
generate continuous waves.

8.7.

Recap

A wave may be thought of as a spreading of disturbance from one place to

another.

The source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation.

Wave motion provides a mechanism for the transfer of energy from one
point to another without the physical transfer of any material between the 2
points.

2. Wavefronts
2.1.

Water waves can be used to illustrate wavefronts.

2.2.

The imaginary line on wave that joins all points which have the same phase of
vibration (e.g. all the crests of the water wave) is called the wavefront.

2.3.

The direction of travel of waves is always perpendicular to the wave front.

2.4.

The behavior of water waves are be studied in a ripple tank projected onto a
screen using an overhead projector.

3. Terms used to describe waves

3.1.

We make use of 2 types of graphs to describe the terms associated with

wave motion.

The displacement-position graph paints an instantaneous picture of how

much all particles at various positions have been displaced from their
original rest positions.

The displacement-time graph is a plot of the displacement of a single

particle over a continuous duration of time.

3.2.

Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the rest position in either

direction. SI unit is the metre (m).

3.3.

Wavelength is the shortest distance between any 2 points on a wave that are
in phase. The 2 easiest points to choose for a distance of 1 wavelength are 2
successive crests or trough. SI unit is the metre (m).

3.4.

2 points (e.g. X & Y) are in phase if they always move in the same direction
with the same speed & have the same displacement from the rest position. Any
2 crests or troughs are in phase.

3.5.

Frequency is the number of complete waves produced per second. Hertz (Hz)
is the SI unit for frequency.

3.6.

Period is the time taken to produce one complete wave. S.I. unit is the second
(s).

3.7.

This implies that relation between period T and frequency f is 1 / T.

3.8.

Wave speed is the distance travelled by a wave in 1 second. S.I. unit is (ms -1).

3.9.

In a time of 1 period (T), a crest will have moved a distance of one wavelength
(). Therefore the speed of the wave, v is given by / T.
But since f = 1 / T , therefore v = f .

4. Transverse and Longitudinal waves

4.1.

Transverse waves are waves which travel in a direction perpendicular to the

direction of the vibrations. Examples of transverse waves are: water waves,
rope waves, light waves and other electro-magnetic waves.

4.2.

Longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction parallel to the

direction of the vibrations. An example of a longitudinal wave is sound wave.

4.3.

The equation for wave speed is valid for both transverse and longitudinal
waves.

4.4.

For transverse waves, we use of the wave crests and troughs to determine the
distance travelled by a wave in unit time. They are the high & low points that
characterise transverse waves only.

4.5.

For longitudinal waves we use of compressions and rarefactions.

a) Compression is the part where particles are closest to one another.
b) Rarefaction is the part where particles are furthest apart.