MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Exp. No: 2
AIM:
To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for given circuit experimentally
APPARATUS:
S. NO EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 Voltage source 0-30V 1
2 Resistors 22Ω 2
3 Resistors 10 Ω 2
4 Variable resister 470 Ω 1
5 Ammeter ( DMM ) 0-20mA 1
6 Voltmeter ( DMM ) 0-15V 1
7 Connecting wires

THEORY:
STATEMENT:
In a linear bilateral network containing an independent voltage source in series with
resistance Rs delivers maximum power to load resistance RL when RL= Rs.
Or
In a linear bilateral network containing an independent current source in parallel with
resistance Rs delivers maximum power to load resistance RL when RL= Rs.
EXPLANATION:
Maximum power P is given as
Vth2
Pmax = 4RL

Where
• Vth the open circuit voltage which is given by open circuiting the load resistance.
• Rth or source resistance Rs is the equivalent resistance which is given by short
circuiting the voltage source and open circuiting the load resistance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Short circuit the voltage source and measure the resistance (Rs) seen through the
terminals AB.
3. Now connect the voltage source and load resistance (10+ variable resistances) across
AB.
4. Connect ammeter in the branch AB.
5. Now vary the load resistance in steps and note down the corresponding ammeter
reading.
6. Tabulate the reading and find the power dissipated in the resistor using formula.
7. Draw the graph between power and resistance.
8. From the graph find resistance corresponding to max power.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. Voltage Load Current Load resistance Power
V ab I ab (RL) P = I2 R
(Volts) (mA) (ohms) (watts)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.

2
 2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.
3. Avoid loose connections
RESULT:

VOVA-VOCE:
1. State maximum power theorem.
2. Define power, and energy.
3. Give the condition for maximum power transfer.
4. What is the draw back of maximum power transfer theorem?
5. What is ratio of load voltage to source voltage?

SUPER POSITION THEOREM

Exp. No: 3(A)

3
AIM:
To verify superposition theorem for given circuit experimentally.
APPARATUS:

S. NO EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1 VOLTAGE SOURCE 0-30V 1
2 RESISTORS 1K Ω 3
3 AMMETER ( DMM ) 0-20mA 1
4 VOLTMETER ( DMM ) 0-15V 2
5 CONNECTING WIRES

THEORY:
STATEMENT:
In a linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources , the voltage
across or current through any branch is algebraic sum of individual voltages or currents
produced by each independent source acting separately with all the independent sources set
equal to zero.
EXPLANATION:
1. Select only one source and replace all other sources by there internal resistances. (If the
source is the ideal current source replace it by open ckt. if the source is the ideal voltage
source replaces it by short ckt.)
2. Find the current and its direction through the desired branch.
3. Add all the branch currents to obtain the actual branch current

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

4
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Adjust the V1 = 5V, V2 = 5V.
3. Measure the current through the branch AB using ammeter. I.e., Iamb.
4. Adjust V2 = 0V, and V1 = 5V and measure current (I’) in branch AB.
5. Adjust V2 = 5V, and V1 = 0V and measure current (I’’) in branch AB.
6. Tabulate the readings.
7. Repeat the procedure for different voltage values of V1, V2.
8. Then calculate I = I’ + I’’.
9. Compare I ab, I and observe that both should be equal.

OBSERVATIONS:
I ab
I’ I’’ I = I’+I’’
V1 V2 (Without using
S. No. (V2=0) (V1=0)
(volts) (volts) theorem)
(mA) (mA) (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.
2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.

5
 3. Avoid loose connections.

RESULT:

VIVA-VOCE:
1. State super position theorem.
2. Define linear network.
3. Define bilateral and unilateral networks.
4. State Kirchhoff’s laws.
5. Define ohm’s law.

RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Exp.No:3(B)
AIM: To verify the reciprocity theorem for a given network.
APPARATUS:

6
S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 RPS 0-30V 1
2 Ammeter 0-20 MA DMM 1
3 Resistance 1 KΩ 5
4 Voltmeter 0-15 V DMM 2
5 Connecting wires
THEORY:
STATEMENT:
It states that in any passive element linear, bilateral single source network if a
voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a current I to flow in another branch
the network then the same voltage source E acting in the second branch would cause an
identical current I to flowing the first branch.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1

7
 Fig 2

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1.
2. Find the current (I cd) in branch CD using ammeter and note down the values.
3. Now connect the circuit as shown in fig 2.
4. Compare I ad and I cd, and observe that both are equal.
5. Repeat the procedure for different values
OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO Applied Voltage V (volts) Current in branch Current in Branch
CD AB
Icd(mA) I ab (mA)

8
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.
2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.

RESULT:

VIVA-VOCE:
1. State reciprocity theorem?
2. Reciprocity theorem is applicable to__________________ only.

9
 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
Exp. No: 4
AIM:
To obtain frequency response of a series and parallel resonance circuit and also
calculate bandwidth and Q-factor.
APPARATUS:
S. NO EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY
1 FUNCTION GENERATOR 1MHz 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 RESISTORS 1K Ω 1
4 CAPACITOR 0.047µf 1
5 INDUCTOR 70mH 1
6 CONNECTING WIRES

THEORY:
RESONANCE: A RLC network is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage and
current are in phase and the frequency at which this phenomena occurs is known as resonance
frequency fr. Resonance occurs when inductive reactance is equal to capacitive reactance i.e.
XL = XC .
1
Resonant frequency fr =
2π LC

At resonance the impedance is pure resistance .At resonance frequency the current in
the circuit is maximum which is given by Imax.
1
BAND WIDTH: A band of frequencies at which the current or voltage is times its
2
maximum value. At that instant the power delivered to the circuit is half of the power at
resonance. Hence they are called as half power frequencies ω1 and ω2. The frequency ω1 is
termed as lower cut off frequency and ω2 is termed as upper cut off frequency. And hence the
difference between the two half power frequencies is known as Band width.

B.W = ω2 - ω1
QUALITY FACTOR: The ratio between resonance frequency fr to bandwidth B.W. It is also
given as the ratio of capacitor or inductor voltage at resonance to supply voltage.
VL VC
Q factor = or
V V

10
 maximum energy stored
Or Q factor = 2π energy dissipated per cycle

fr
Or Q factor =
B.W
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SERIES RESONANCE:

Fig.1
PARALLE RESONANCE:

Fig.2
PROCEDURE:
Series Resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1.

11
 2. Feed a sine wave of 5v (peak to peak) amplitude and of 1 KHz frequency from
function generator to the input terminals.
3. Vary the input frequency and observe the output on CRO and also note the output peak-
to-peak amplitude. Tabulate these values.
4. Draw the graph between input frequencies vs. output voltage
5. From the graph observe the resonant frequency.
6. And also calculate Cut-off frequencies f1 and f2, band width and Q-factor.
Parallel Resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.
2. Repeat the procedure from steps 2 to 6 for parallel resonance.
3. From the graph observe the resonant frequency i.e. frequency at witch voltage is
maximum
4. By using graph calculate cutoff frequency, f1, f2, bandwidth, and Q-factor.
OBSERVATIONS:
Series Resonance:
SI.N
Frequency(Hz) Output voltage(V)
O
1
2
,
,
20

Parallel Resonance
SI.N
Frequency(Hz) Output voltage(V)
O
1
2
,
,
20

MODEL GRAPH:
Series Resonance:

12
Parallel Resonance:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.
2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.

RESULT:

13
VIVA-VOCE:
1. Define resonance and give condition for resonance.
2. What is meant by half power band width?
3. Define quality factor and give expression for it?
4. Why at frequency less than resonance frequency the circuit behaves like a capacitive
ckt?

TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS

(Z & Y PARAMETRES)
Exp.No:5

14
AIM: To experimentally obtain the Open circuit (Z) and short circuit (Y) parameters of two-
port network
APPARATUS:
S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY
1 RPS 0-30V 1
2 RESISTERS 2K Ω 1
1K Ω 2
3 VOLTMETER 0-150 V 2
4 AMMETER 0-1 A 1
THEORY:
A network is said to be if it has a pair of terminals at which a signal may enter or leave.
External connections are permitted between these two terminals. A network that has two pair
of terminals is known as two-port network. For this network external connections are permitted
at both the ports.
Z-parameters:
The Z-parameters are also known as open circuit impedance parameters (Z-
parameters).Here the voltages V1 and V2 are expressed in terms of I1 & I2 as below.,
V1= Z11I1+ Z12I2

V2= Z21I1+ Z22I2

In matrix form
V1   Z 11 Z 12   I1 
V  = Z Z 22  I 
 2   21  2
V = [Z] [I]
The Z-parameters can be obtained with open circuit conditions at the input or output ports.
With input ports opened, that is with I1 = 0, we get the parameters

V2
Z 22 = I1 = 0
I2

With output port opened, that is with I2 = 0, we get the parameters

15
 V1
Z 11 = I2 = 0
I1

V2
Z 21 = I2 = 0
I1

The physical interpretations of these parameters are

Z11 = Input impedance with out port opened.
Z21 = Forward transfer impedance with output port opened.
Z12 = Reverse transfer impedance with input port opened.
Z22 = output impedance with input port opened.
Y- Parameters:
The Y- Parameters of the two- Port Network can be obtained by expressing I1 and I2 in
terms of V1 and V2. That is
I1= Y11V1+ Y12V2
I2= Y21V1+ Y22V2
In matrix form
 I 1  Y11 Y12  V1 
I  = Y Y22  V 
 2   21   2
The Y-parameters can be obtained with short circuit conditions at the input or output ports.
With input ports shorted, that is with V1 = 0, we get the parameters

With output ports shorted, that is with V2 = 0, we get the parameters

I1
Y11 = V2 = 0
V1

I2
Y21 = V2 = 0
V1

The physical interpretations of these parameters are

Y11= Input admittance with output short circuited.
Y21= Forward transfer admittance with output short circuited.

16
 Y12= Reverse transfer admittance with Input short circuited.
Y22= Output admittance with input short circuited
A. OPEN CIRCUIT PARAMETERS:
I. Port 2, 2’ is open circuited (when I2 = 0):

Circuit diagram (a)

II. Port 1, 1’ is open circuited (when I1 = 0):

Circuit diagram (b)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (a).
2. Switch ON the RPS and apply the voltage of 2V
3. Note down the voltmeter readings V1, V2 & ammeter reading I1. Switch OFF the power
supply.

17
 4. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (a).
5. Note down the voltmeter readings V1, V2 & ammeter reading I2. Switch OFF the power
supply
6. Tabulate the readings & calculate the Open circuit parameters.
TABULAR COLUMNS:
I. Port 2, 2’ is open circuited (when I2 = 0):
PORT No. Port-1 Port-2
V1 (V) I1 (A) V2 (V)
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

II. Port 1, 1’ is open circuited (when I1 = 0):

PORT No. Port-2 Port-1
V2 (V) I2 (A) V1 (V)
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

Open circuit (Z) parameters:

PORT No. Port-1 Port-2
Z11 Z21 Z12 Z22
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

B. SHORT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS:

III. Port 2, 2’ is short circuited (when V2 = 0):

18
 Circuit diagram (c)
IV. Port 1, 1’ is short circuited (when V1 = 0):

Circuit diagram (d)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (c).
2. Switch ON the RPS and apply the voltage of 2V
3. Note down the voltmeter reading V1, & ammeter readings I1, I2 .Switch OFF the power
supply.
4. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (d).

19
 5. Note down the voltmeter readings V2 & ammeter readings I1, I2. Switch OFF the power
supply
6. Tabulate the readings & calculate the Short circuit parameters.
TABULAR COLUMNS:
V. Port 2, 2’ is open circuited (when V2 = 0):
PORT No. Port-1 Port- 2
V1(V) I1 (A) I2 (A)
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

VI. Port 1, 1’ is open circuited (when V1 = 0):

PORT No. Port-2 Port-1
V2 (V) I2 (A) I1 (A)
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

Short Circuit(Y) Parameters:

PORT No. Port-1 Port-2
Y11 Y21 Y12 Y22
Parameters
Theoretical
Practical

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

20
VIVA-VOCE:
1. What is Z- Parameter equation?
2. What is the condition on Z- Parameters for a reciprocal network?
3. For a two-port network Z11 Y11=___________.
4. The two-port networks are connected in cascade. The combination is to be represented
as a single two-port network. The parameters of the network are_______________.

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT GENERATOR

Exp. No: 6
AIM:
1. To determine the magnetization characteristics (open circuit characteristics) of DC
Shunt Generator.

21
 2. To determine the Critical field Resistance.
APPARTUS:

S. No Equipment Type/ Rating Quantity

1 Rheostat Wire Wound / 1.5A/300ohms 2
2 Ammeter Moving Coil 0-2A 1
3 Voltmeter Moving Coil /0-300V 1
4 Tachometer Digital/0-10000 rpm 1
Connecting
5 - -
wires

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

THEORY:
An electrical generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy in this energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf i.e., when ever a moving conductor cuts the magnetic flux lines, an emf is induced
across the conductor terminals.
The performance of the generators can be determined by the following characteristics.
They are
• open circuit characteristics.(Eo/If)
• external characteristics.(V/I)
• internal characteristics.(E/Ia)
An open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristics. It shows the relation
ship between the no-load generator emf in armature and field current at constant speed.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

22
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Field rheostat of motor is kept minimum resistance position and that of Generator is
kept at maximum position
3. DC supply is switched on and DPST switch is closed
4. Motor is started using the starter slowly cutting the starter Resistance
5. Motor field rheostat is varied to run the at rated speed
6. Generator field rheostat is varied and field current (If) and generated no-load voltage
(Eo) is noted down up to 125% of rated voltage.
7. A Graph is drawn between If Vs Eo.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

23
 S. No. If (A) Eo (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.

MODEL GRAPHS:

RESULT:

VIVA-VOCE:

24
 1. Why do we use 3-point starter to start DC Motor?
2. What is critical field resistance?
3. At the time of starting of DC Motor the field resistance is kept in minimum
position why?
4. What is critical speed?

SWINBURNE’S TEST
Exp. No: 7
AIM:
To pre-determine the efficiency of a D.C. shunt machine considering it as a generator
or as a motor by performing Swinburne’s test on it.
APPARATUS:
S. No Equipment Type/ Rating Quantity

1 DC voltmeter (M.C) 0-300v 1 NO.

2 DC Ammeter (M.C) 0-20A 1 NO.
3 DC Ammeter (M.C) 0-2A 1 NO.
4 Tachometer 0-2000RPM 1 NO.

5 Variable Rheostat 300Ω/1.5A 1 NO.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

THEORY:
Testing of D.C .machines can be divided into three methods:
• Direct test
• Regenerative test
• Indirect. test

25
 Swinburne’s Test is an indirect method of testing a dc machine. In this method, the
constant losses of the DC machine are calculated at no-load. Hence, its efficiency either as
motor or as a generator can be pre-determined. In this method, the power requirement is very
small. Hence, this method can be used to pre-determine the efficiency of higher capacity dc
machines as a motor and as a generator.

Disadvantages:
(i) Efficiency at actual load is not accurately known
(ii) Temperature rise on load is not known and
(iii) Sparking at commutater on load is not known.
Power input at No-load = Constant losses + Armature copper losses (which is negligible)
Power input at No-load = Constant losses
Power input = V a Ia + V f If
LOSSES IN A DC MACHINE:
The losses in a D.C. machine can be divided as 1) Constant losses 2) Variable losses,
which changes with the load.
CONSTANT LOSSES:
Mechanical Losses: Friction and Wind age losses are called mechanical losses. They depend
upon the speed. A dc shunt machine is basically a constant speed machine both as a generator
and as a motor. Thus, the mechanical losses are constant.
Iron Losses: For a dc shunt machine, the field current hence the flux per pole is constant
(Neglecting the armature reaction which reduces the net flux in the air gap). Hence, hysterics
and eddy current losses (which are also called as iron losses) remain constant.

Field Copper Losses: Under normal operating conditions of a D.C. shunt machine, the field
current remains constant. Thus, power received by the field circuit (which is consumed as field
copper losses) is constant.
Constant losses in a dc shunt machine=Mechanical + losses Iron losses+ Field cu. Losses.
VARIABLE LOSSES:
The power lost in the armature circuit of a dc machine increases with the increase in load.
Thus, the armature copper losses are called as variable losses.

26
EFFICIENCY OF A DC MACHINE:
Outputpowe r
% Efficiency = Inputpower X 100

As a generator Input power Pin = Pout + Constant losses+ Armature copper losses at a
Given load I2a Ra
Pout = VLIL
Where Ia = IL + If Self excited generator
Ia= IL Separately excited generator
As a motor Input power Pin = VL IL + Vf If
Output power Pout = Pin – Constant losses – Armature Copper losses.

IL= Ia + If Self excited motor

(Vf If is not accounted for Pin)
IL = I a Separately excited motor>
Note: While calculating the armature copper losses on load condition, the hot resistance of
the armature= 1.2 Ra (Normal Temperature) is considered.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

27
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. At the time of starting keep the field rheostat of the motor at minimum position.
3. Motor is started under no load using the 3-point starter.
4. Motor is brought to the rated speed by varying the field rheostat.
5. At the rated speed No load readings of the ammeters and voltmeter are noted down.

OBSERVATIONS:
At no-load (separately excited dc motor):
Constant losses =

V (Pin - I2aRa)
IL IF Ia Pin= V IL I2aRa
(watts)
(volts) (Amps) (Amps) (Amps) (watts) (watts)

EFFICIENCY AS A MOTOR:
Let us assume that the current drawn by the armature =
Input to the motor = input to the armature + input to the field =
Total losses = constant losses + armature copper losses =
Output = Input – total losses =
Output
Efficiency ηm = Input X 100 =

EFFICIENCY AS A GENERATOR:
Let us assume that the current delivered by the armature =

28
Output =
Total losses =constant losses + armature copper losses =
Input = Output + Losses =
Output
Efficiency ηg = Input X 100 =

AS A MOTOR:
Power Copper Total Power
S. IL
Input Loss Loss input Efficiency
No. (Amps)
(watts) (watts) (watts) (watts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

AS A GENERATOR:
Power Copper Total Power
S. IL
Input Loss Loss Output Efficiency
No. (Amps)
(watts) (watts) (watts) (watts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CONCLUSION:
1. The power required to conduct the test is very less as compared to the direct loading
test.
2. Constant losses are calculated from this method are used to compute the efficiency of a
dc machine as a generator and as a motor without actually loading it.
3. Hence, this is an economic method.

29
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

VIVA-VOCE:
1. Why do we conduct this test?
2. What are the different types of losses present in a DC Machine?
3. Why armature of a DC Machine is laminated?
4. What are the advantages of Swinburns test?
5. Swinburne’s test is applicable to what type of machines and why?

30
 BRAKE TEST ON A DC SHUNT MOTOR
Exp. No: 8
AIM:
To obtain the performance characteristics of a DC Shunt motor by a load test.

APPARATUS:

S. NO EQUIPMENT TYPE/ RATING QUANTITY

1 DC voltmeter (M.C) 0-300v 1 NO.
2 DC Ammeter (M.C) 0-20A 1 NO.
3 DC Ammeter (M.C) 0-2A 1 NO.
4 Tachometer 0-2000RPM 1 NO.
5 Spring balance 0-10Kg 2 NO.
6 Rheostat 0-200Ω 1 NO.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

THEORY:
This is a direct method of testing a dc machine. It is a simple method of measuring
motor output, speed and efficiency etc., at different load conditions A rope is would round the
pulley and its two ends are attached to two spring balances S1 and S2 . The tensions provided
by the spring balances S1 and S2 are T1 and T2 the tensions of the rope can be adjusted with the
help of swivels.
The force acting tangentially on the pulley is equal to the difference between the
readings of the two spring balances in kg- force.

31
 The induced voltage Eb =V-Ia Ra and Eb= KΦN, Thus, KΦ=Eb /N
V= applied voltage, Ia =armature current, Ra =Armature resistance.
Total power input to the motor Pin =Field circuit power + Armature power
= VfIf + Va Ia

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE;-
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
2. Before giving supply, the field rheostat is kept in minimum position.
3. During starting load is not applied and by varying the field rheostat reading make the
motor to run at its rated speed and note down the no load values.

32
 4. The Motor is slowly loaded with the help of spring balances, tightening the rope.
5. At every equal increment of load, ammeter, voltmeter, and spring balances are noted.
6. The efficiency is calculated for different load conditions and maximum efficiency point
is indicated.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Voltag Speed Load Field W1 W2 Torque Input Output η =
e (rpm) Current Current (kg (kg (N-M) (Watt) (watt) (output/input)*100
(V) IL(A) If(A) ) )

MODEL GRAPHS:

RESULT:

VIVA VOCE
1. What are the disadvantages of this test?
2. Why do interpoles in DC machines have tapering shape?

33
 3. If the field of DC shunt motor gets opened while the motor is running then what
happens?
4. What will happen if the filled of a DC shunt motor is open?
5. What happens when a Dc motor is connected across AC supply?
OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS

ON A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Exp. No: 9
AIM:
1. To predetermine the efficiency and regulation of the given single phase transformer at
different power factors.
2. To draw equivalent circuit referred to the primary.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No: Apparatus Type Rating Quantity

1. Ammeter Moving iron 0-20A 1
2. Voltmeter Moving iron 0-300V 1
3. Wattmeter Dynamometer 5A/150V,LPF 1
4. Wattmeter Dynamometer 20A/150V,UPF 1

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

THEORY:

TRANSFORMER:
Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical power from one circuit to
another circuit without any electrical connection but through magnetic medium. It works on the
principle of Faraday law of electro magnetic induction. It transfers energy without change in
frequency but usually change in voltage and current.
The performance of transformer can be pre determined with reasonable accuracy the
parameters of its equivalent circuit. The parameters and losses in a transformer can be

34
determined by conducting two simple tests to estimate the efficiency and voltage regulation
without actually loading the transformers.

They are
• Open circuit or no load test.
• Short circuit test.
Open circuit test is conducted by opening the secondary (H.V) of the transformer.
By using open circuit test the core loss of the transformer can be determined.

From open circuit test data

RO= Vo / Ic

Xm=Vo / Im
Short circuit test is conducted by short circuiting the secondary (L.V) of the
transformer. By using short circuit test the copper loss of the transformer can be determined.
From short circuit test data:
Zh=Vsc/Isc
RH=Wsc/Isc2
XH=(ZH2-RH2 )1/2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Open Circuit Diagram:

35
Short Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE:

Open circuit test

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

36
 2. HV side is kept open and rated voltage is applied to the low voltage winding by
adjusting the autotransformer
3. The meter readings are noted down and tabulated

Short circuit test

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. LV side is short circuited and adjusting the autotransformer, rated current is send on the
HV side
3. The meter readings are noted down and tabulated

OBSERVATIONS:
Open circuit test:

Ic=Io* Im=Io*Sin
Vo Io Wo Cosφ o=Wo/ Cos
φ o
(A) (Vo*Io) φ o
(V) (W) (A)
(A)

Short circuit test:

Vsc Isc Wsc
(V) (A) (Watts)

Efficiency curve:
Efficiency at any load (X times full load) and at a given power factor can be calculated as
follows.

Output at X times full load =X*rated KVA*PF

37
Iron loss = Wo
Copper loss at x times full load =X2 *full load copper loss
%Efficiency = output*100/(output + losses)
Efficiency at different assumed loads for a given power factor are calculated and tabulated as
follows
S.No. Load(X) Output Iron Copper Input=output + losses %Efficiency
(watts) loss loss (watts)
(watts) (watts)

Regulation curve:

Percentage regulation= ∈r Cosφ ± ∈X sinφ

∈r, percentage resistance=I*R1*100/V
∈x, percentage reactance=I*X1*100/V
I, rated LV side current
V, rated LV side voltage
Positive sign for lagging power factor and negative sign for leading power factor percentage
regulation for full load for different power factors are calculated and results are tabulated as
shown bellow.

S.No Cosφ sinφ %Regulation

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wattmeter connections must be done as per the rating of the transformer
2. LPF wattmeter to be used for open circuit test
RESULT:

VIVA VOCE:
1. What is the operating principle of transformer?
2. Why OC and SC tests are convenient and very economical?
3. What is the main purpose of OC and SC test?
4. Why iron losses are negligible during SC test of a transformer?
5. What is the primary reason to conduct OC test only on the Low voltage winding of
the transformer?
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Exp. No: 1(A)
AIM:
To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for given circuit experimentally
APPARATUS:
S. NO EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 VOLTAGE SOURCE 0-30V 1
2 RESISTORS 2.2K Ω 3
3 RESISTORS 1K Ω 2
4 Variable Resister 560 Ω 1
5 AMMETER ( DMM ) 0-20mA 1
6 VOLTMETER ( DMM 0-15V 1
7 CONNECTING WIRES
THEORY:
STATEMENT:
It states that any linear active two terminal network containing resistance and voltage
sources and /or current sources can be replaced by single voltage source Vth in series with a
single resistance Rth. The thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage at the
network terminals, and thevenin resistance Rth is the resistance between the network terminals
when all the sources are replaced by their internal resistances.

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EXPLANATION:
a) Steps to find the Rth
• Open circuit current sources and short circuit voltage sources.
• Open circuit the load resistance
• Find out the equivalent resistance which is Rth across the open circuit
terminals.
b) Steps to find the Vth
• Open circuit the load resistance
• Find out the open circuit voltage Vth across the open circuit terminals by using
mesh analysis.
c) Find out the load current IL by connecting the load resistance to the given circuit.
d) Draw the equivalent circuit. Connect the voltage source Vth in series with Rth and RL .
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1

Fig.2

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1.
2. Adjust the input voltage to 4V.
3. Calculate Vth theoretically.
4. Find open circuit voltage Vth across AB using voltmeter with out connecting RL.
5. Connect the load resistance RL and measure load current I L through branch AB using
ammeter.
6. Short the voltage source and open the terminals A and B.
7. Measure the resistance (Rth) seen through the open circuit terminals AB using DMM.
8. Connect Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (shown in figure 2).
9. Measure the load current ILI and tabulate the readings.
10. Compare IL , ILI and observe both are equal.
11. Repeat the procedure for different voltage values.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No Vs (v) Rth (Ω) Vth(v) IL(mA) I’L(mA)

THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
Rth Computation:

Vth Computation:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.
2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.
3. Avoid loose connections.

41
 4. Selection & Connection must be proper when using DMM.

RESULT:

VIVA-VOCE:
1. State Thevenin’s theorem.
2. For what type of networks Thevenin’s theorem is applicable?
3. Is Thevenin’s voltage is open circuit voltage?
4. Advantages of Thevenin’s theorem.
NORTON’S THEOREM
Exp. No: 1(B)
AIM:
To verify Norton’s Theorem for given circuit experimentally
APPARATUS:
S. NO EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 VOLTAGE SOURCE 0-30V 1
2 RESISTORS 2.2K Ω 3
3 RESISTORS 1K Ω 2
4 VARIABLE RESISTER 560 Ω 1
5 AMMETER ( DMM ) 0-20mA 1
6 VOLTMETER ( DMM) 0-15V 1
7 CONNECTING WIRES

THEORY:
STATEMENT:
It states that any linear active two terminal network containing resistance and voltage
sources and /or current sources can be replaced by single current source IN in parallel with a
single resistance RN. The Norton’s equivalent current IN is the short circuit current through the
network terminals, and Norton’s resistance RN is the resistance between the network terminals
when all the sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
EXPLANATION:
a) steps to find the RN

42
 • Open circuit current sources and short circuit voltage sources.
• Open circuit the load resistance
• Find out the equivalent resistance RN across the open circuit terminals.
b) Steps to find the IN
• Short circuit the load resistance.
• Find out the short circuited current IN through the short circuit terminals by using
mesh analysis.
c) Find out the load current IL by connecting the load resistance to the given circuit.
d) Draw the equivalent circuit and connect the current source IN in parallel with RN and
RL.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1

Fig.2

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PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the input voltage to 4V
2. Calculate IN theoretically.
3. Find short circuit current IN through AB using ammeter by shorting terminals AB.
4. Connect the load resistance RL and measure load current I L through branch AB using
ammeter.
5. Short the voltage source and open the terminals A and B.
6. Measure the resistance (RN ) through the open circuit terminals AB using DMM.
7. Connect Norton’s equivalent circuit (shown in figure 2).
8. Measure the load current ILI and tabulate the readings.
9. Compare IL , ILI and observe both are equal.
10. Repeat the procedure for different voltage values.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No Vs (v) RN (Ω) IN(mA) IL(mA) I’L(mA)

THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
RN Computation:

IN Computation:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallel error.
2. Measuring instruments must be properly calibrated.
3. Avoid loose connections.
4. Selection & Connection must be proper when using DMM.
RESULT:

44
VIVA-VOCE:
1. State Norton’s theorem.
2. For what type of networks Norton’s theorem is applicable?
3. Is Norton’s current is short-circuit current?
4. Why we need to short voltage sources and open current sources to find RN
5. Relation between Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem

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