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51 - 040

Process control

Electro/Digital
Electrical energy
The central topic in this lesson is electrical energy. Terms such as internal and
external resistance of a power supply along with corresponding terms, such as
source voltage and terminal voltage, will be described. In addition, consideration
will also be given to unavoidable energy losses during conversions. Finally,
electrical energy and power will be discussed.

Contents of the lesson

1

Source and terminal voltage

Electrical work and energy

Losses and efficiency

Electrical power

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Lesson
1. Source and terminal voltage
As can be seen from the measurement circuit shown in figure 1, only a voltmeter
is connected to a battery. The voltmeter has a particularly high resistance and
therefore uses hardly any current from the battery.

5815-040-001-P

Figure 1
Measurement circuit for determining the source voltage

- internal voltage
loss

The internal voltage loss is caused by:

- the current which the connected resistor uses from the battery;
- the resistance of the materials from which the interior of the battery is made.

- internal resistance
(Ri)
- external resistance
(Re)

The resistance in the battery is called the internal resistance (Ri). The resistance,
which is connected externally is called the external resistance (Re). If there is no
current flowing (in a theoretical case), then the sum of the internal and external
voltage losses is zero.
Vi = I * Ri
Vi = 0 * Ri = 0 V

- source voltage
- electromotive
force (e.m.f.)

- terminal voltage
(Vt)

The voltmeter therefore indicates the voltage generated internally by the battery.
This voltage is called the source voltage or electromotive force (e.m.f.). This
source voltage is designated by E in equations.
In practice, a (particularly small) current must always be flowing, which causes
an internal voltage loss. The voltmeter therefore measures another voltage
between the supply terminals of the battery. This voltage is called the terminal
voltage. The terminal voltage is designated Vt in equations.
The relationship between source and terminal voltage is also given by the
following equations:
Vt = E - Vi
E = I (Ri + Re)
E = (I * Ri) + (I * Re)
Vt = I * Re

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- ideal voltage
source

The terminal voltage will be approximately equal to the source voltage for
higher values of Re. The terminal voltage drops for smaller values of Re.
Therefore, if a power supply source supplies a current to a load resistor with a
resistance which is much greater than the internal resistance, then the terminal
voltage will be virtually constant and will correspond to the source voltage. Such
a case is referred to as an ideal voltage source where the output voltage remains
constant irrespective of the load connected to it.
If a supply source supplies a current to a load resistor with a resistance which is
much smaller than the internal resistance of the source, then Re can be
disregarded, with respect to Ri. In this situation the following applies:
E = Ri * I

- ideal current
source

The current I is then virtually constant and approximately equal to the quotient
of the source voltage and the internal resistance (fixed resistance value). Such a
case is known as an ideal current source where the output current remains
constant irrespective of the load connected to it. In practice, a current source is
formed by connecting a large resistor (with a resistance which is many times
greater than that of the load resistor) in series with a power supply.
Question 1
How are the internal and external resistors connected to one another in a
current circuit?

2. Electrical work and energy

- work

We know from the natural sciences that work is caused if a force is displaced
over a distance. As an equation:
W=F*s
An electron that moves between the poles of a voltage source experiences the
effect of an electrical force from the poles. A force is exerted on the electron
which is displaced in the direction of this force. In this case, therefore, work is
generated, which must be supplied by the voltage source. The voltage required
by the voltage source indicates the amount of work which is necessary in order
to move an electrical charge from the negative pole to the positive pole.

- electrical energy

For an amount of electrically charged electrons, the following applies:

work = voltage * size of charge = voltage * current * time.
As an equation for the electrical energy, this is written as follows:
W =V*I*t
The voltage source supplies work and passes a greater energy to the electrons. If
the electrons pass through a resistor, then this energy is converted into other
forms of energy, such as light (lamp), heat (iron) and kinetic energy (electric
motor).
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3. Losses and efficiency

- energy loss

Energy loss will be discussed here using an example.

Example
A cup is filled is filled with a kilogram of water. A resistor with a resistance of
10 and a thermometer are placed into this cup. The thermometer measures the
temperature of the water as being 20C. The resistor is connected to a voltage of
30 V. Then the water is heated for ten minutes by the resistor. After this period
of time, the temperature of the water appears to have increased to 29C. This
corresponds to an increase of 9C. What has happened?

- electrical energy

The resistor has consumed electrical energy, converted it into heat and
transferred it to the water. The water therefore must have absorbed as much heat
as was supplied in the form of electrical energy to the resistor. To see if this is
correct, a calculation will be made.
Electrical energy is supplied to the resistor:
W=V*I*t
W = 30 * 3 * 10 * 60 = 54000 J
We know from the natural sciences that the relationship between an increase in
temperature and a change in energy is:
Qw = m * c * T
Qw = 1 * 4190 * 9 = 37710 J
If the amount of electrical energy (supplied) is compared with the amount of
(radiated) heat, then a difference can be observed between the two. This
difference, 54000 37710 = 16290 J, is lost to the environment. In practice, an
energy loss of this kind always occurs with equipment that transfers energy if no
proper precautions have been taken to prevent temperature losses.

- useful energy

The useful energy is the portion of the energy supplied which is actually
available for the application. The useful energy is equal to the difference
between the energy supplied and the energy losses.
Useful energy = energy supplied - energy loss.
In the example given above, the amount of useful energy is therefore 37.710 J.

- efficiency ()

Another equation is used to express how completely the energy is converted into
a useful form. This equation is called the efficiency ().
As an equation the following applies for the efficiency:
Wu = * Ws
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The efficiency indicates how much of the energy supplied is transferred usefully.
In the example used, the relationship between energy / energy supplied is equal
to:
37710
= 0.7
54000

The efficiency is often expressed in %.

= (W u * 100 %) / W s

4. Electrical power
- power (P)

Power (P) means a quantity of work per second. Generally, the following
equation is applicable:
P=

W
t

If we look at the case for electrical power, then the following applies:
P=

(V I t)
t

P=V*I
P is expressed in watt (W). The following also applies for the efficiency:
=
- watt (W)

Pu
Ps

The unit of power is the watt (W). In practice, other units are also used, such as:
1 J/s
1 VA
1 PK

=1W
=1W
= 736 W

Question 2
12 V/24 W is marked on a lamp. What is the electrical resistance of this lamp?
Question 3
How much heat does a hotplate of 1200 W supply in 20 minutes?
Question 4
An electric motor uses 3 kW from the mains power supply. The efficiency is
85%. How much useful power does this motor produce?

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Question 5
30 litres of water at 20C are brought to the boil within 15 minutes in a boiler.
How much electrical energy must be supplied if the efficiency in this case is
equal to 0.7?
Question 6
A starter motor in a car requires a current of 160 A at 4.6 V. The efficiency of
the starter motor is 0.8. How much power does this starter motor supply?

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Summary
The source voltage or the e.m.f. is the voltage which is supplied by a voltage
source when there is no current.
The terminal voltage is the source voltage minus the voltage loss that is caused
by the internal resistance. As an equation:
Vt = E - (I * Ri)
An ideal voltage source is a power supply with a constant voltage.
An ideal current source is a power supply with a constant current.
Generally, the amount of work is equal to the product of force and path. As an
equation:
W=F*s
The amount of electrical work is equal to the product of voltage and charge. As
an equation:
W=V*I*t
The useful energy is the portion of the energy supplied which is actually
available for an application. The useful energy is equal to the difference between
the energy supplied and the energy losses.
Supplied energy = useful energy + loss.
Efficiency () is often used to express how completely the energy is converted
into a useful form. As an equation, the following applies for the efficiency:
Wu = * Ws
The efficiency is often expressed in %.
=

Wu * 100%
Ws

The power (P) is the amount of work per second. Generally, the following
equation is applicable:
P=

W
t

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For electrical power, the following applies:

P=

(V * I * t)
t

P=V*I

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Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1.

A generator that is not under load supplies a voltage of 110 V.

If a resistor with a resistance of 5.4 is connected to the generator, then the
voltage is 108 V. Calculate the strength of the current and the internal
resistance of the generator.

2.

The e.m.f. and the internal resistance of a battery and a battery for a torch
are known. For the battery these are 2 V and 0.002 and for the torch
battery these are 3 V and 0.6 . Calculate the current supplied and the
terminal voltage in the event of a short circuit for both voltage sources (in
this case, Re = 0 ). Why may these types of voltage sources never be
short-circuited?

3.

How many seconds will it take a 6 kW motor to raise a lift cage by 6 m

weighing 5000 N? (Do not take losses into consideration.)

4.

In 15 minutes, a resistor with a resistance of 12 produces 270 kJ of heat.

Calculate the power of the resistor, the current passing through the resistor
and the voltage to which the resistor is connected.

5.

The water in a hot water appliance with a capacity of 50 litres is to be

heated from 15C to 85C within 125 minutes. Calculate the power in kW
of the heating element if the efficiency of the device is 90%.

6.

A battery supplies an e.m.f. of 4.5 V and has an internal resistance of 0.4 .

When a resistor is connected to the battery the terminal voltage drops to
3.5 V. What is the resistance of the external resistor?

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Answers to the questions in the lesson

1.

The external and internal resistors are connected in series to one another.

2.

Electrical power as an equation is expressed as follows:

P=V*I
By filling in the data, the value of the current intensity is obtained:
24 = 12 * I
I=2A
Using Ohms Law, the following is obtained for the resistance of the
resistor:
V =I*R
12 = 2 * R
R =6

3.

The amount of heat radiated by a hotplate of 1200 W in 20 minutes is equal

to:
W = P * t = 1200 * 20 * 60 = 1440 kJ

4.

As an equation the efficiency is expressed as follows:

Pu = * Pt
Pu = 0.85 * 3000 = 2550 W
The useful power produced is therefore equal to 2.55 kW.

5.

The relationship between the increase in temperature and the change in the
energy is as follows:
Qw = m * c * T
Qw = 30 * 4190 * (100 20) = 10056 kJ
This quantity is equal to the useful energy. For this purpose, altogether is
used as the energy supplied. The electrical energy therefore corresponds to
10056
= 14366 kJ.
0 .7
Ps =

6.

Ws
t

14366
15x60

= 15.96 kW

The electrical power fulfils the following equation:

Ps = V * I = 4.6 * 160 = 736 W
After correcting in terms of the energy losses, the power produced is as
follows:
Pu = * Ps = 0.8 * 736 = 589 W

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Answers to the exercises

1.

In the loaded state, the following equation applies:

Vt = I * Re
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
108 = I * 5.4
From this, it follows that the intensity of the current corresponds to 20 A.
In addition, the following applies to the entire current circuit:
E = I * (Ri + Re)
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
110 = 20 * (Ri + 5.4)
From this, it follows that Ri must be equal to 0.1

2.

3.

To calculate the short-circuit voltage, the following equation is used:

I=

E
Ri

a.

The battery short-circuit current equals

b.

Both batteries will explode.

0.002
battery, the short-circuit current equals to
3
= 5 A results.
0.6

= 1000 A For the torch

In order to be able to answer this part of the question, the following

equation is required:
P*t=F*s
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
6000 * t = 5000 * 6
From this, it follows that the time is equal to 5 seconds.

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4.

W=P*t
270000 = P * 15 * 60
From this, it follows that the power of the resistor is equal to 300 W.
P = V * I = I2 * R
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
300 = I2 * 12
From this, it follows that I = 5 A
Using the expression P = V * I, it can now be found that V is equal to
300
5

5.

= 60 V

The relationship between the increase in temperature and the change in

energy is as follows:
Qw = m * c * T
Qw = 50 * 4190 * 70 = 14.665 kJ
This quantity is equal to nett energy Qn. The supplied electrical energy is
Qn
14665
= 16294 kJ
. is
?
0.9
The question concerned the electrical power required. This can be
W
calculated from the electrical energy required, using P =
:
t
P=

6.

16294
(125 * 60)

= 2.1 kW

In the loaded state, the following equation applies:

Vi = I * Ri
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
1.0 = I * 0.4
From this, it follows that the current equals 2.5 A.
In addition, the following applies to the entire current circuit:
E = I * (Ri + Re)
By filling in the data, the following is obtained:
4.5 = 2.5 * (0.4 + Re)
From this, it follows that Re must be equal to 1.4

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