Analysis of Algorithms-Day3

Analysis of Algorithms
Day 3
Plan for Day-3
• Analysis of well known algorithms

– Algorithm Design Techniques – Dynamic Programming
• Intractable problems
– Deterministic Vs Non-Deterministic machines
– P Vs NP
– NP Complete
– NP Hard
• Case Study ( for self study)
ER/CORP/CRS/SE15/003
Copyright © 2004, Infosys 2
Technologies Ltd Version No: 2.0
Dynamic Programming
• Dynamic Programming is a design principle which is used to solve problems
with overlapping sub problems
• It solves the problem by combining the solutions for the sub problems
• The difference between Dynamic Programming and Divide and Conquer is that
the sub problems in Divide and Conquer are considered to be disjoint and
distinct various in Dynamic Programming they are overlapping.
Dynamic Programming – Matrix multiplication
Matrix Multiplication:
• Consider the matrices M1 x M2 x M3 x M4

• The corresponding dimensions are (10,20), (20,50), (50,1), (1,100) respectively
• In recursion, the multiplication will be done in the following order:
• M1 x ( M2 x ( M3 x M4 ) )
– M3 x M4 will need 50 x 100 = 5000 multiplications
– M2 x ( M3 x M4 ) will need 20 x 50 x 100 = 100000 multiplications
– M1 x ( M2 x ( M3 x M4 ) ) will need 10 x 20 x 100 = 20000 multiplications
• So total number of multiplications = 125000
Dynamic Programming – Matrix multiplication
(Contd…)
• The same matrix multiplication is done in the following order:

• ( M1 x ( M2 x M3 ) ) x M4
– M2 x M3 will need 20 x 50 x 1 = 1000 multiplications
– M1 x ( M2 x M3 ) will need 10 x 20 x 1 = 200 multiplications
– ( M1 x ( M2 x M3 ) ) x M4 will need 10 x 1 x 100 = 1000 multiplications
• Total number of multiplications = 2200.
Dynamic Programming – Computing a Binomial
Coefficient
• The Binomial Coefficient, denoted by C(n,k), is the number of combinations of

k elements from a set of n elements.
• The Binomial Coefficient is computed using the following formula
• C(n,k) = C(n-1,k-1) + C(n-1,k) for all n > k > 0 and C(n,0) = C(n,n) = 1
Coefficient (Contd…)
0 1 2 . . . k-1 k
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
.
k 1 1
.
n-1 1 C(n-1,k-1) C(n-1,k)
n 1 C(n,k)
Coefficient (Contd…)
Computing a Binomial Coefficient:
1. Begin
2. For i = 0 to n do
2.1 For j = 0 to min(i,k) do
2.1.1 If j = 0 or j = k then C(i,j] = 1else C[i,j] = C[i-1, j-1] + C[i-1, j]
3. Output C[n,k]
4. End
Unit 5 - Intractable Problems
Intractable Problems
• Tractable Problems vs. Intractable Problems
• Polynomial Problems
• NP Problems
• P vs NP
• NP Complete and NP Hard Problems
Tractable Problems vs. Intractable Problems
• An algorithm for a given problem is said to be a polynomial time algorithm if it’s
worst case complexity belongs to O (nk) for a fixed integer k and an input size
of n.
• The set of all problems that can be solved in polynomial amount of time are
called Tractable Problems. These problems can run in a reasonable amount
of time for even very large amounts of input data.
• The set of all problems that cannot be solved in polynomial amount of time are
called Intractable Problems. It is of type O( kn). Intractable problems require
huge amounts of time for even modest input sizes.
(Contd…)
1 1 1 1 1
logn 3.3 4.3 4.9 5.3
n 10 20 30 40
nlogn 33 86 147 212
n2 100 400 900 1600
n3 1000 8000 27000 64000
2n 1024 1 million 1.1 billion 1.1 trillion
(Contd…)
All problems
Intractable solutions
Tractable
solutions
Solvable
problems
Deterministic Vs Non-Deterministic machines
• Deterministic machines:
– Conventional Digital machines are Deterministic in nature.
– Serialization of resource access
• Non – Deterministic machines:

– Hypothetical machine.
– More than one job can be done in one unit of time.
P-Class problems
• Polynomial problems are the set of problems which have polynomial time
algorithms
• A formal definition for the same is given below
The class of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time by

deterministic algorithms is called the P class or Polynomial problems.
Polynomial problems
O(1) -- Constant
O(log n) -- Sub-linear
O(n) -- Linear
O(n log n) -- Nearly linear
O(n2) -- Quadratic
NP Problems (Contd…)
• NP problems are the set of problems which have nondeterministic polynomial
time algorithms
The class of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time by

nondeterministic algorithms is called the NP class or Nondeterministic
Polynomial problems.
• P ⊆ NP NP
Not known
• NP ⊆ P
P
P Vs NP – Deterministic algorithm for searching an
element
d: depth
• A binary tree
• No of elements 2d+1-1
• Searching an element.
P Vs NP (Contd…)- Non deterministic algorithm for
searching an element
start
Machine having special capability- will check all numbers at

one level and it will take one unit of time. Hence this will take
only 4 unit of time
NP Complete problems
• A NP Complete problem is one which belongs to the NP class and which has a
surprising property. Every problem in NP class can be reduced to this problem
in polynomial time on a deterministic machine
A decision problem D is said to NP Complete if

1. If it belongs to NP class
2. Every problem in the NP class is polynomially reducible to D
Examples for NP Complete Problems
Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP): Given n cities and a salesman who is
required to visit each city once, find such a route.
Printed Circuit Board Problem (PCB): Consider a PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
manufacturing unit that churns out several thousands of etched and drilled PC
boards of the same type every day. The final stage of the process is drilling. To
minimize the drilling time required for each board, we need to decide on the
sequence in which holes will be drilled (The drilling time can be cut down by as
much as 50% by sequencing the holes using sophisticated algorithms rather than
relying on an intuitive or visually judged sequence).
Examples for NP Complete Problems ctd.,
Bin Packing Problem: Given a set of items, each with a certain weight and a set
of bins, each with a constant weight capacity. You are required to pack the items
using the minimum number of bins.
Knapsack Problem: Given a set of items, each with a certain weight and value
and a knapsack with a certain weight capacity. You are required to pack the
knapsack with items so as to maximize the value of the packed items.
Node Cover Problem: You are given a network that consists of a set nodes, and
a set of edges. An edge is a connection between two nodes. You are required to
find a minimal set of nodes S such that every other edge in this network is
connected to at least one node in S.
NP Hard Problems
• A problem P is said to be a NP Hard problem if any problem (not necessarily in
NP) is polynomially reducible to P
• NP Hard problems are basically the optimization versions of the problems in

NP Complete class
• The NP Hard problems are not mere yes/no problems. They are problems
where in we need to find the optimal solution
Summary of Unit-5
• Tractable Problems vs. Intractable Problems
• Need for polynomial time solutions
• Polynomial Problems
• Deterministic vs. Non Deterministic Algorithms
• NP Problems
• P vs. NP
• NP Complete and NP Hard Problems
Case study
SDLC
Requirements
gathering
Design
Build
Test
Deployment
Maintenance
Writing a computer program
Problem formulation
& specification
Design
implementation
Testing
Documentation
Models
Formalize a problem
Solve this problem Yes

No Discover what is
Solution
with the existing known about this
Exists?
solution model.
Use the properties

to get a good
solution
Solving a Problem
• (i) Get a mathematical model
• (ii) Construct an algorithm
• (iii) Analyse the Algorithm
Analysis of algorithms
• Help us in:
– How to solve a problem?
– How efficiently to solve the problem?
• Converting the problem into a formal model will help in doing the so.
Exercise
• Write a program which accepts a string as input and returns 1 if the number of
characters in the string is even, else returns 0
• Design an algorithm to solve the above problem.
• Analyse the algorithm in terms of the resources required.
Traffic signal design system
• Are all the traffic signal systems alike?
• If so, what is the generalised algorithm?
• If not, how to design one?
TSDS ( Cont.)
• What is the input to TSDS?
(i) The intersection (junction) of roads.
(ii) Left / Right Drive.
Objective: To make the maximum

flow of traffic at the intersection
without any permissible collision.
TSDS ( Cont.)
B D
A The roads A,B,C are two way roads and

D is a one way.
Here there are 9 possible turns
TSDS (Cont.)
Among the 9 possible turns certain turns can be done

simultaneously like AÆB and CÆD.
For simplicity, take AÆB as AB.
List of possible turns:

AB, AC, AD, BA, BC, BD, CA, CB, CD
Consider the Left drive as in our Indian Roads. C
B D
Graph representation of incompatible turns
AB AC AD
BA BC BD
C
B D
CA CB CD
Graph coloring
Graph coloring: the assignment of color to each

node such that no two nodes connected by an
edge have the same color.
Color Turns
Red AB, AC, AD, BC, CD
Blue BA, BD
Yellow CA, CB
B D
A
Graph coloring
AB AC AD
BA BC BD C
B D
CA CB CD
A
Analysis
• Where is the complexity of the problem “Traffic Signal Design System” lies?
• Number of roads intersecting?
• Right / Left drive?
• Finding the incompatible turns?
• Graph coloring?
Analysis – Number of roads intersecting
If n roads are intersecting,
there will be n * (n-1) turns possible.
Complexity in Big oh notation: O(n2)

It is polynomial in nature.
Analysis – Left / Right drive
• For the same junction the change of the drive will affect the number of
incompatible turns, but within the n* (n-1) turns.
• So, this won’t matter much
Analysis – finding the incompatible turns
• How to check for the incompatible turns?
• Take two possible turns and check for the compatibility ( i.e. can be turned
simultaneously)
• Do the above process with all possible combinations taking into consideration the nature
of the road (two/one way) and the drive (left/right).
• Its Brute force.
• Inefficient !
Analysis – Graph Coloring
• Coloring the graph with a few colors as possible, belongs to the class of
problems called “ NP Complete problems”
• Exhaustive checking to be done
• Inefficient!
• How to solve this graph coloring problem?
Analysis – Graph coloring
• A reasonable technique that can be applied here is “ greedy technique”
• A possible algorithm is:
• Step 1: select an uncolored vertex and color it with a new color.
• Step 2: check the uncolored vertices. For each uncolored vertices check if
there is any edge to a new colored vertex. If not, then color the present vertex
with the new color.
Summary of Day-3
• Analysis of well known algorithms (continued)

• Intractable problems
– Deterministic Vs Non-Deterministic machines

– P Vs NP
– NP Complete
– NP Hard
• Case Study
Thank You!

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Analysis of Algorithms

• Analysis of well known algorithms

• Case Study ( for self study)

• Consider the matrices M1 x M2 x M3 x M4

• The same matrix multiplication is done in the following order:

• Total number of multiplications = 2200.

• The Binomial Coefficient, denoted by C(n,k), is the number of combinations of

• The Binomial Coefficient is computed using the following formula

n-1 1 C(n-1,k-1) C(n-1,k)

• Tractable Problems vs. Intractable Problems

• NP Complete and NP Hard Problems

logn 3.3 4.3 4.9 5.3

nlogn 33 86 147 212

n2 100 400 900 1600

n3 1000 8000 27000 64000

2n 1024 1 million 1.1 billion 1.1 trillion

• Non – Deterministic machines:

• A formal definition for the same is given below

The class of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time by

• A formal definition for the same is given below

The class of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time by

Machine having special capability- will check all numbers at

• A formal definition for the same is given below

A decision problem D is said to NP Complete if

• NP Hard problems are basically the optimization versions of the problems in

• Need for polynomial time solutions

• Deterministic vs. Non Deterministic Algorithms

• NP Complete and NP Hard Problems

Solve this problem Yes

Use the properties

• (ii) Construct an algorithm

• (iii) Analyse the Algorithm

• Design an algorithm to solve the above problem.

• Analyse the algorithm in terms of the resources required.

• If so, what is the generalised algorithm?

• If not, how to design one?

Objective: To make the maximum

A The roads A,B,C are two way roads and

Among the 9 possible turns certain turns can be done

For simplicity, take AÆB as AB.

List of possible turns:

Graph coloring: the assignment of color to each

Red AB, AC, AD, BC, CD

• Number of roads intersecting?

• Right / Left drive?

• Finding the incompatible turns?

Complexity in Big oh notation: O(n2)

• So, this won’t matter much

• Analysis of well known algorithms (continued)

– Deterministic Vs Non-Deterministic machines

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