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An Over vi ew
of Di sast er
Management
Disaster Management Training Programme
An Over vi ew
of Di sast er
Management
2nd Edition
Di sast er Management Tr ai ni ng Pr ogr amme
1992
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Table of Contents
Foreword........................................................................
................................. 7
Introduction ...................................................................
................................. 9
PART ONE: HAZARDS AND DISASTERS ................................................
. 13
Chapter 1:Introduction to disasters ............................................
..............13
The disaster problem ...........................................................
......................... 14
Causal factors of disasters ....................................................
........................ 15
Chapter 2: Disaster terminology and phases .....................................
...... 21
Disaster terms .................................................................
.............................. 21
Phases of a disaster ...........................................................
............................ 22
Chapter 3:Linking disaster and development......................................
.....25
Disruption of development by disasters .........................................
.............. 26
How development may cause disasters ............................................
............ 28
Development opportunities afforded by disasters ................................
........ 29
Chapter 4: Natural hazards......................................................
...................31
Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters ............................
........... 32
Chapter 5: Compound and complex disasters1......................................
...47
Socio/political forces .........................................................
........................... 47
Displaced persons ..............................................................
........................... 48
The role of the UN in complex emergencies ......................................
.......... 49
Safety of relief teams in conflict zones .......................................
................. 50
PART TWO: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS................................................
51
Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53
.................... 112
Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ..................................
.......... 113
Actions to reduce risk .........................................................
........................ 114
The menu of mitigation actions .................................................
................. 115
Classification of mitigation measures ..........................................
.............. 116
Timing for mitigation ..........................................................
....................... 117
Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation..........................................
........ 118
Disaster mitigation as a development theme .....................................
......... 118
Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ...................
.. 119
Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ..........................
..... 122
Project identification and formulation..........................................
.............. 122
Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas .....................
...... 123
Disaster risk reduction planning checklist .....................................
............. 124
Appendix........................................................................
............................ 126
GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian
Emergency Assistance of the United Nations
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Foreword to the 2nd edition
The informal name for this text has been the Foundation Module. The
information it includes is regarded as the foundation for the much of the UNDP/
UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP). This training
module describes the components of disaster management and their context
within the overall framework of United Nations agencies actively involved in
disaster and emergency issues.
This training module has been produced for the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Management Training Programme by the University of Wisconsin Disaster
Management Center. The Technical Operational Partners for the DMTP
provided valuable advice on the format and content. The principal sources for
the content include the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and six complementary
training modules prepared for the DMTP. Intertect Training Services has edited
the material and prepared the educational components.
For those of you familiar with the first edition, you will see many changes in t
he
second edition. It has been significantly reorganized. The chapters which focus
on the UN have been moved adjacent to chapters on related topicsinstead of
being collected together in the former Part 4.
The chapter on Natural Hazards has been condensed. Each hazard type is
described in a one-page summary. More extensive coverage is now available in
the companion module, Introduction to Hazards.
A new chapter on Compound and Complex Emergencies has been added,
highlighting this topic as an issue that has recently emerged into our collectiv
e
consciousness. Many other chapters have been modified or rewritten with new
annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of its
neighbouring inhabitants.
Definition of emergency
Another term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module is
emergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of an
emergency. Disaster suggests an intense time period and level of urgency.
Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential
property are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general
period in which
! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group o
r
community, or
! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or
community or by external intervention.
The disaster problem
This section will describe certain phenomena leading to disasters and emergencies: disaster trends, where they occur and who is most affected by them.
From the outset it is worth reminding ourselves that disasters and
emergencies are all too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from normal
life. In reality, however, the opposite is true. Disasters and emergencies are
fundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the ways
societies structure themselves, economically and socially; the ways that societi
es
and states interact; and the ways that relationships between the decision makers
are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquake is not a disaster in and of itself
.
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The disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced t
o
settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic erupti
on. It
is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recogni
ze
that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the
societys vulnerability.
The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces.
Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:
1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that togethe
r
form and maintain vulnerability.
2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a
negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of
basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces
3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property are
exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is one
element; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels.
Causal factors of disasters
The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for a
given developing country increases with the increased marginalization of the
population. This is caused by a high birthrate, problems of land tenure and
economic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of resources to meet the
basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the
best land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land for
farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. These offer less
productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety. The following section considers each of these issues.
Figure 1.1
The Disaster Crunch
Model
This material has been drawn
from the first chapter of the
forthcoming book: At RiskVulnerability and Disasters, by
Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, Ian
Davis and Ben Wisner (Harper
Collins, London and New York)
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
todisasters
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Poverty
The most important single influence on the
impact of a disaster is poverty. All other factors
could be lessened if the affected population were
not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster
studies show that the wealthiest of the population either survive the disaster unaffected or are
able to recover quickly. Across the broad spectrum of disasters, poverty generally makes
people vulnerable to the impact of hazards.
Poverty explains why people in urban areas are
forced to live on hills that are prone to landslides, or why people settle near volcanos or
rivers that invariably flood their banks. Poverty
explains why droughts claim poor peasant
farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and
why famines more other than not are the result
of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather
than an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty
also explains why many people are forced to
move from their homes to other parts of their
countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration poses
considerable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displaced
and of longer-term development.
Population growth
There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster an
d
the increase in population. If there are more people and structures where a
disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growth
of
population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will b
e
affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe area
s.
Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources
(such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. This
conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predominantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters.
Figure. 1.2
Population growth
1750-2100
Source: Thomas Merrick,
to disasters
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Q. Of the seven causal factors of disasters discussed above,
how would you rank them for the region in which you live?
A. List the most serious contributor first.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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CHAPTER 2
Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di sast er t er Di sast
er t er mi nol o mi nol o mi nol o mi nol o mi nol og gg ggy and phases y a
nd phases y and phases y and phases y and phases
Disaster terms
Some terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in this
module. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions.
This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draft
of A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to be
included in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary prepared by
UNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However,
consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners or
academicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universally
accepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist withi
n
the next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort
toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials are
encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and to
be tolerant of other groups definitions.
Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Write
your example in the space below each definition.
Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions and
operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all
levels.
A.
Human-made disasters are disasters or emergency situations where the
principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwi
se.
Apart from technological and ecological disasters, this mainly involves
situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property,
basic
services and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example
.
Human-made disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, and
in the case of internal conflict, can lead to complex emergencies as well.
A.
An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all
disasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason,
to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people.
A.
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CHAPTER 2
Disaster terminology
and phases
Disaster
management
Human-made
disaster
!
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Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and
disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product
of hazard and vulnerability.
A.
Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
A.
The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their
impact on populations.
Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass
migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes to
seek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result from
the effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic support
systems.
A.
Complex emergencies are a form of human-made emergency in which the cause
of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intense
levels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is normally associate
d
with the problems of displaced people during times of civil conflict or with
people in need caught in areas of conflict.
A.
Phases of a disaster
Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time
continuum. Identifying and understanding these phases
helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptualize appropriate disaster management activities.
Rapid onset disasters
The definitions below correspond to the time sequence
following the occurrence of a rapid onset disaster.
See Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1.
Rapid onset disaster
management
continuum
Risk
Vulnerability
Population
displacements
Complex emergencies
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The relief phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a
Figure 3.1
This figure charts
aspects of a communitys
development and
vulnerability to disaster.
It shows the various
orientations with
which you may analyze
the field of development and disaster
vulnerability.
The field is divided into
positive and negative
aspects of the disaster/
development relationship
by the vertical axis. The
right half reflects the
positive or optimistic
side of the relationship
and the left side of the
diagram deals with the
negative aspects of the
relationship. The statement in each quadrant
sums up the basic concept derived from the
overlap of the two
realms.
!
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CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development
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The growing body of knowledge on the relationships between disasters
and development indicates four basic themes. The themes presented in the
preceeding figure may be expanded as follows:
1. Disasters set back development programming destroying years of
development initiatives.
- Infrastructure improvement e.g. transport and utility systems are
destroyed by a flood.
2. Rebuilding after a disaster provides significant opportunities to initiate
development programs.
- A self-help housing program to rebuild housing destroyed by an
earthquake teaches new skills, strengthens community pride and
leadership and retains development dollars that otherwise would
be exported to large construction companies.
3. Development programs can increase an areas susceptibility to
disasters.
- A major increase in livestock development leads to overgrazing,
which contributes to desertification and increases vulnerability to
famine.
4. Development programs can be designed to decrease the susceptibility
to disasters and their negative consequences.
- Housing projects constructed under building codes designed to
withstand high winds result in less destruction during the next
tropical storm.
Decision-makers who ignore these relationships between disasters and
development do a disservice to the people who place their trust in them.
Increasingly, around the world, forward thinking Ministries of Planning and
Finance with the support of United Nations and Non-Governmental
Organization (NGO) officials are assessing development projects in the
context of disaster mitigation and are designing disaster recovery programs
with long term development needs in mind.
Disruption of development by disasters
Disasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, including:
" Loss of resources
" Interruption of programs
" Impact on investment climate
" Impact on the non-formal sector
" Political destabilization
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Loss of resources
Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of
investmentit shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect
development through:
" Impact on capital stock and inventory
" Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increased
cost of goods and services
" The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of payment
problems, increase in fiscal expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves
" Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a countrys debt position
could be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has less
resources available to invest in productive enterprises
" The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth,
delays to development programs, cancellation of programmes, and
disincentives to new investment
" There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility
recovery activitya diversion from long-term to short-term needs.
Interruption of programs
Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally
planned uses.
Impact on investment climate
Disasters, especially when they have occurred repeatedly within a short period
of time, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. Investo
rs
need a climate of stability and certainty to be encouraged to risk their money.
The disaster further clouds the investment picture when it has caused loss of
employment, thereby depressing market demand, and resulting in a stagnation
which limits overall growth.
Impact on non-formal sector
Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector where
approximate costs of disasters are often underestimated. Disasters depress the
non-formal economy through the direct costs of lost equipment and housing
(which often also serves as business sites). The indirect costs of disasters inc
lude
lost employment, and lost income. Sometimes the importation of relief items
creates disincentives to producers.
Political destabilization
The stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilizatio
n of
the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, the
government may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading to
discontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have had
unmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form of
protest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyond
its control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very common
for a
government to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a major
disaster.
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Linking disaster
and development
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Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Based
on that experience, respond to the following.
A.
1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out of
service.
2. Name one development project that was interrupted.
3. Identify one case of an investment that was withdrawn or reduced
because of the disaster.
4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost because
disaster relief displaced the need for it.
5. Describe and example of how the government may have been
destabilized by the disaster.
How development may cause disasters
The side effects of well-meaning development efforts sometimes have disastrous
consequences. Development projects implemented without taking into account
existing environmental hazards may increase vulnerability to natural disasters.
For example, projects designed to increase employment opportunities, and thus
income, usually attract additional population growth. Low-income people may
then have to seek housing in areas previously avoided, on hillsides or in
floodplains. The costs of relief assistance after a landslide or flood can easil
y
outweigh the benefits to the economy of more jobs. Similarly, development
projects may lead to negative political consequences that increase the
vulnerability to civil conflict.
Some types of development projects commence without fully assessing their
impact on the environment. This can occur even in programmes resulting from a
disaster, such as reconstruction projects that increase demand for wood to forti
fy
houses. The resulting deforestation can then bring increased vulnerability to
mudslides and possibly long-term environmental changes.
Development projects may even consciously force a choice between reducing
disaster vulnerability and economic vulnerability. A projects design may require
a trade-off between the two and force a decision between the lesser of two evils
.
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Q. Can you describe how development can contribute to vulnerability
based on the following examples of negative consequences?
A.
Watershed erosion
Deforestation
Loss of biological diversity
Lack of soil and land management
Air and water pollution
Inadequate urban sanitation and waste disposal
Marine and coastal zone development
Development opportunities afforded by disasters
Despite an increasing disaster awareness in the international community, and the
recognition of the importance of developing coherent plans for relief activities
, it
often takes the actual or imminent occurrence of a large-scale destructive event
to
stimulate individual governments to think about a developmental approach.
Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation activities.
Few development workers realize the opportunities that disasters can
provide in the development field. Disasters often create a political and economi
c
atmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than under
normal circumstances. For example, in the aftermath of a disaster, there may be
major opportunities to execute land reform programmes, to improve the overall
housing stock, to create new jobs and job skills, and to expand and modernize
the economic base of the community-opportunities that would not otherwise
be possible. The collective will to take action is an advantage that should not
be
wasted.
Disasters can also highlight high-risk areas where action must be taken
before another disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivate
policy-makers and the public to participate in mitigation activities. Disasters
may
also serve to highlight the fact that the country is seriously under-developed.
They can thus bring in funding and the attention of donor communities to apply
to long-term development needs. (Henderson, 1990)
See table on the next
page for examples of
answers to this
question.
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CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development
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DI SASTER AND
ECONOMI CS
Table 3.1
Examples of
development
leading to
disasters or
increased
vulnerability
From Disasters and
Development: A Study
in Institution Building,
Intertect, January, 1991.
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CHAPTER 4
Na Na Na Na Nat ur t ur t ur t ur t ur al hazar al hazar al hazar al haz
ar al hazar ds ds ds ds ds
In earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resulting
from natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms.
However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significance
and implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basic
understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type.
The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a
very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in
areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.
However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful
to
distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of
limited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog,
frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest is
less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and th
e
countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in
place to respond without external assistance.
There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. They
can be categorized as follows:
Sudden onset hazards(geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides
Slow onset hazards(environmental hazards) drought, famine,
environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest
infestation
Industrial/technologicalsystem failures/accidents, spillages,
explosions, fires
Wars and civil strifearmed agression, insurgency, terrorism, and
other actions leading to displaced persons and refugees
Epidemics-water and/or foodborne diseases, person-to-person
diseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-borne diseases and
complications from wounds
These hazard types are highlighted in this training material. The
international community has an interest in them because they frequently affect
large populations and the need for outside assistance is evident. Many disasters
are themselves international events and have an impact on entire regions.
A brief description of each hazard type is presented below. It will be
your responsibility to determine which hazards are of concern to your country
and then to read the material about them.
!
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Natural hazards
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Q. Which hazards are of concern to your country?
A. List the most important hazards in order of their severity of impact.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows.
Geological Hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunamis
Volcanic eruptions
Landslides
Climatic Hazards
Tropical cyclones
Floods
Drought
Environmental Hazards
Environmental pollution
Deforestation
Desertification
Pest Infestation
Epidemics
I ndustrial Accidents
Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters
1
This section provides an indication of the general characteristics of each of th
e
hazard types listed and the kinds of counter-disaster measures which may be
required. You should note that disasters have collateral or indirect effects tha
t
may endure even after a particular type of disaster has been directly addressed.
The problem of displaced people after a sudden onset disaster, such as a cyclone
,
may continue well after immediate relief, recovery and even rehabilitation
programmes have been implemented. Such collateral impact can turn a
seemingly rapid onset disaster into a continuing emergency situation.
1
The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from th
e
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
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A further issue that must be borne in mind concerns the consequence of a
sudden onset disaster when relief assistance is stymied because civil conflict
makes access impossible. In other words, the perverse permutations are many.
Nevertheless, the basic characteristics of certain types of disasters and
emergencies and appropriate response measures can be structured as follows:
! Causal phenomena ! Typical effects
! General characteristics ! Possible risk reduction measures
! Predictability ! Specific preparedness measures
! Factors contributing to vulnerability ! Typical post-disaster needs
Different types of disasters have characteristic effects while retaining unique
aspects. Risk reduction and preparedness measures, and emergency and postdisaster response can all be facilitated by some rules of thumbas outlined in
this sectionbut must also be tailored to the specificity of local conditions.
Remember:
(a) where different types of disaster occur in combinatione.g. floods
accompanying tropical stormsthe combined effects must be
considered; and where one disaster leads to another (for example a famine
leading to civil strife) the compound effects must be anticipated
(b) the severity of the actual impact on the society depends on human and
organization factors as well as natural and topographical ones.
Legend
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Natural hazards
T TT TTsunami s sunami s sunami s sunami s sunami s
Causal Fault movement on sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake
phenomena A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, then plunging into
the water.
Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore.
General Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 k
m
characteristics between wave crests
May consist of ten or more wave crests
Move up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as the
wave approaches shore
May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land
Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tides
Predictability Tsunami Warning System in Pacific monitors seismic activity and d
eclares
watches and warnings. Waves generated by local earthquakes may strike nearby
shores within minutes and warnings to public may not be possible.
Factors contributing Location of settlements in low lying coastal regions
to vulnerability Lack of tsunami resistant buildings
Lack of timely warning systems and evacuation plans
Unawareness of public to destructive forces of tsunamis
Typical Physical damageThe force of water can raze everything in its path but the
adverse majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding
.
effects Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse p
orts
and buildings and batter boats.
Casualties and public healthDeaths occur principally by drowning and injuries
from battering by debris.
Water supplyContamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make
clean drinking water unavailable.
Crops and food suppliesHarvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements and
fishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water
incursion.
Possible risk Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stilts
reduction Building barriers such as breakwaters
measures
Specific Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routes
preparedness measures Establish warning systems
Community education
Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assista
nce; conduct disaster
needs assessment, provide food, water and shelter
Impact Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning sy
stems
assessment and evacuation plans.
tools
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Causal Magma pushed upward through volcanic vent by pressure and effervescence o
f
phenomena dissolved gases.
General Types of volcanoes are cindercones, shield volcanoes,composite volcanoes
and
characteristics lava domes.
Magma flowing out onto surface is lava and all solid particles ejected are tephr
a.
Damage results from type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows
(blasts of gas containing ash and fragments), mud, debris, and lava flows.
Predictability Study of the geological history of volcanoes mainly located in a
clearly defined
volcanic belt, along with seismic activity and other observations, may indicate
an
impending volcano. No reliable indicator has been discovered and precursory
signs do not always occur.
Factors contributing Settlements on the flanks of volcanoes
to vulnerability Settlements in the historical paths of mud or lava lows
Structures with roof designs not resistant to ash accumulation
Presence of combustible materials
Lack of evacuation plan or warning systems
Typical Casualties and healthDeath from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possibly
adverse lava flows and toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock, burns; respirato
ry
effects difficulties from gas and ash.
Settlements, infrastructure and agricultureComplete destruction of everything in
the path of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows; collapse of structures under weight
of
wet ash, flooding, blockage of roads or communication systems
Crops and food suppliesDestruction of crops in path of flows, ash may break
tree branches, livestock may inhale toxic gas or ash; grazing lands may be
contaminated.
Possible risk Land use planning for settlements around volcanoes
reduction measures Protective structural measures
Specific National volcanic emergency plans
preparedness measures Volcano monitoring and warning system
Training for government officials and community participation in search and
rescue, fire fighting
Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and res
cue; provide food,
needs water and shelter; relocate victims; provide financial assistance
Impact Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation plan
and
assessment emergency response
tools
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Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des Landsl i des
Causal Downslope transport of soil and rock resulting from
phenomena naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct
water content, removal of lateral support, loading
with weight, and weathering, or human
manipulation of water courses and slope
composition.
General Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides,
charasteristics topples, lateral spread, flows), and may be
secondary effects of heavy storms, earthquakes, and
volcanic eruptions. Landslides are more widespread
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1 11 11
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Deser Deser Deser Deser Deser t i f t i f t i f t i f t i f i c a i
c a i c a i c a i c at i on t i on t i on t i on t i on
Basic conducive climatic conditions such as low or uncertain rainfall and
higher temperatures as found in dryland areas.
Poor land use management practices particularly overcultivation, overgrazing,
deforestation and poor irrigation practices.
Soil degradation by water erosion, wind erosion, soil compaction and
waterlogging (salinization and alkalinization)
Degradation of vegetation initially by reduction in density of biomass and then
by
change of vegetation types to less productive forms.
Global surveillance of drylands can be achieved through remote sensing and
aerial surveys. As land use increases without measures to conserve soil and
vegetation, desertification will likely increase. One estimate claims 202,000
square km are desertified each year.
Low rainfall and high temperatures
Heavy land use
Deforested areas
Poor irrigation management
Lack of conservation measures
Poverty and lack of appropriate agricultural technologies
Desertification contributes to other hazards by reducing the productivity of the
land. These include drought and famine. Reduced productivity has
socioeconomic impacts and may reduce standards of living.
Establish community programs to meet needs and improve practices and
institutions.
Increase monitoring of desertification
Develop policies for sustainable agricultural systems
Develop agricultural institutions and train personnel
Promote projects to improve agricultural and livestock production
Promote soil and water conservation
Socioeconomic surveys are needed to ascertain needs of people and for
agricultural development. Aerial and remote sensing surveys will help
determine the rate and scope of desertification.
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Impact
assessment tools
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ac c i dent s
Disaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substances
Accidents during the transportation of chemicals
Contamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicals
Improper waste management of toxic chemicals
Technological system failures
Failures of plant safety design or components
Natural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslides
Arson or sabotage
Incidences of chemical and industrial accidents are expected to increase as
industrialization increases in developing countries.
Those persons, structures, livestock, crops, and environment closest to the scen
e
of an accident are most vulnerable, however, large scale releases of airborne
pollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometres.
Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.
Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger.
Physical damage Damage or destruction may occur to structures and
infrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on
impact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.
Casualties Many people may be killed or injured and require medical
treatment.
Environmental Contamination of air, water supply, land, and animal life may
occur. Areas may become uninhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological
systems may be disrupted even on a global scale.
Development of a plan, such as the APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for
Emergencies at the Local Level) process, to assist decision makers and technical
personnel to improve community awareness of hazardous installations and aid
them in preparing disaster response plans.
Hazard mapping
Hazardous materials identification
Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities
Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures
Improve fire fighting capacity
Monitoring pollution levels
Prepare and practice evacuation plans
Test warning sirens
Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative sources of water; cleanup;
monitor environmental effects.
APELL process forms for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC
(Chemical Transportation Emergency Centre) information systems.
Causal
phenomena
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Impact
assessment tools
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CHAPTER 5
Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl e Compound and c ompl e Compound
and c ompl e Compound and c ompl ex di sast er x di sast er x di sast
er x di sast er x di sast er s ss ss
1
Socio/political forces
Increasingly throughout many parts of the world one type of hazard can trigger
a disaster which in turn triggers another hazard and subsequent disaster. For
example, a drought may lead to a famine which in turn leads to a civil conflict
that results in the mass displacement of people. A flood may force people to see
k
refuge across an international border where conflicts ensue between refugees
and local communities.
Such compound hazards and disasters need not happen sequentially; they can
also occur simultaneously. Thus, people caught between contending forces in a
civil war find that in the midst of a major drought they have no means either to
grow food or to receive outside assistance.
In a growing number of countries, complex disasters are also becoming more
evident. Essentially a complex disaster is a form of a human-made emergency in
which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are
bound by intense levels of political considerations. The single most prevalent
political condition of a complex emergency is civil conflict, resulting in a col
lapse
of political authority in all or part of a country. In such cases, at least one
of three
situations arise:
1. The governments ability to assist the disaster-afflicted becomes severely
constrained.
2. The government becomes extremely suspicious of or uninterested in
afflicted people who have fled from non-government to government held
areas.
3. The government or opposition groups actually create or compound a
disaster through actions that generate refugees and the mass displacement
of people.
In fact, many affected people live in areas outside of government control.
They are often the persons who are most in need and they are often the most
difficult to reach with aid.
The disaster becomes complex because either the collapse or diffusion of
political control makes assistance highly problematic. Solutions ultimately
depend upon agreements with all parties involved in the conflict to permit
assistance to be provided to recognize civilian non-combatants. These solutions
may be agreements that are seen essentially as compromising fundamental
aspects of sovereignty for what have been labelled as new mechanisms of
humanitarian assistance (for example, corridors of tranquility).
1
The material from this chapter is drawn from the DMTP special topic module Disp
laced Persons in
Civil Conflict by Frederich Cuny; General Assembly Resolution 46/182; The Execut
ive Summary of
the 1992 Consolidated Appeal for the Horn of Africa; and the Themes of Emergenci
es stated in the
First SEPHA Situation Report.
1 11 11
CHAPTER 5
Compound and
complex disasters
!
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An acute example of a situation illustrating the characteristics of both
compound and complex emergencies is the Horn of Africa. For the past several
years the situation in the Horn of Africa has been characterized by internal
conflicts in Ethiopia, Sudan, an Somalia. These conflicts have been exacerbated
by recurrent droughts and have resulted in famines on a massive scale and the
flight of large numbers of people across national borders. After years of drough
t
in some parts of the region, by 1991 food shortages were widespread. It became
apparent that the crisis in the region was less the result of inadequate rainfal
l
than that of a human-made emergency.
During the last half of 1991, the situation in many parts of the Horn
remained highly volatile and fragile, largely due to conflict and a break down o
f
law and order. This resulted in further population displacement and in intense
misery for millions of people.
Displaced persons
One of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies is
the creation of populations of displaced persons. The example of the Horn of
Africa refers to many of the displaced populations but there are millions more i
n
other parts of the world.
The term displaced person applies in several contexts. These include
people who are:
! forced to leave their homes as a result of drought, famine, or other disaster,
usually in search of food
! non-combatant individuals and families forced to leave their homes because
of the direct or indirect consequences of conflict but who remain inside their
country
! forcibly resettled by their government if the resettlement is ethnically,
tribally or racially motivated
! expelled from a country, especially as an ethnic or national group, forced out
for economic or political reasons.
Reasons for concern
The international humanitarian relief system is just now beginning to meet the
challenge of working with the displaced. There are three principle reasons for
concern by relief agencies. One is that displaced persons are often ineligible t
o
receive relief and assistance available to refugees (individuals who have crosse
d
an international border seeking protection). A second reason is that the displac
ed
are often insecure about relying on their own government for protection. A third
reason is the obstacle of national sovereignty that limits outside agencies to a
ssist
this population.
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Consequences and effects
The variety of possible situations generating displaced persons makes generalizations difficult, but the following may be experienced in varying degrees.
! loss of means of livelihood
! communities becoming separated from any services previously provided
! loss of normal sources of food
ators
of assistance for the displaced, the UN staff bears a special responsibility for
ensuring that all personnel operating in or adjacent to conflict zones work in
conditions of minimum risk and maximum security. Guidelines and procedures
for personnel should be established in conjunction with the host government
and, where possible, with insurgent groups. The UN is often charged with the
responsibility of notifying relief workers and other organizations about the ris
ks
they may face from military operations in or near their relief activities. In th
is
regard, the UN is often able to obtain clearances for special flights into conte
sted
areas on airplanes bearing United Nations markings, to arrange for safe transpor
t
through the front lines in specially-marked UN vehicles, and to establish specia
l
relief corridors whereby food and relief supplies can be delivered under flags o
f
truce or through designated corridors, without undue restraint. It is important
for the UN to carefully assess the risks before encouraging relief organizations
to
commit personnel and resources to operations in non-secure areas. A UN
assurance that an area or means of transport is safe carries much weight and
responsibility.
Two of the most important aspects of working in remote and insecure areas are
communications and stand-by evacuation support. To the greatest extent
possible, UN coordinators should ensure that relief personnel have immediate
and 24-hour access to telecommunications facilities and that suitable means are
immediately available to evacuate personnel in case of an emergency. This may
entail the assignment of light aircraft to be available on short notice to evacu
ate
staff.
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2 22 22
CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS
Introduction....................................................................
............................ 52
Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53
The UN Disaster Management Team ................................................
........... 53
Country Disaster Management Team ...............................................
............ 54
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ...........................................
................ 55
Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies................ 55
Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ..........................
. 60
Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness.................................................
............. 62
Components of disaster preparedness ............................................
.............. 63
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .........................
..... 66
Preparedness within the United Nations .........................................
............. 67
Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT ............................
.. 68
Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment.....................................
...... 74
Risk management.................................................................
........................ 74
Risk probability................................................................
............................ 74
Acceptable levels of risk.......................................................
....................... 75
Assessing risk and vulnerability................................................
................... 75
How is risk determined?.........................................................
...................... 76
Vulnerability evaluation........................................................
....................... 77
Reducing vulnerability for displaced persons....................................
.......... 79
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DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREPA
REDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS
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3
DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREP DI SASTER PREPA
REDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS AREDNESS
Introduction
Part One of this module introduced background information regarding hazards,
disasters, and the disaster continuum. The rest of the module will address each
of the phases of the disaster continuum with a special focus on preparedness,
response and mitigation.
The framework for studying these disaster phases is disaster management which
has been defined as
the body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which
pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.
The scope of disaster management, therefore, can include all disaster-related
activities. These activities become so inclusive that no one individual is respo
nsible for the entire range. Instead the responsibility is divided according to j
ob
descriptions and limited by the organizations primary functions. The Red
Cross/Red Crescent Societies, for example, work mainly in preparedness and
emergency response phases and less often in reconstruction. Some NGOs work
only in reconstruction. Even government, with its broad responsibility for
overall aspects of disaster management, breaks down these components to be
managed by several of its agencies. The UN has similar allocations of responsibility as a function of its agencies mandates and sectoral expertise.
The following chapters will discuss the component activities of disaster
management. You will be asked to examine your individual and organizational
responsibilities in relation to each phase of activity.
After reading this part of the text and completing the exercises, you should kno
w
the basic concepts, aims and elements of disaster and emergency management.
You will be able to:
! describe the UN and country disaster management teams and the role of each
member
! identify the components of disaster preparedness planning
! describe the role of vulnerability and risk assessment as a prerequisite to di
saster
mitigation
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LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
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CHAPTER 6
T TT TThe Di sast er Mana he Di sast er Mana he Di sast er Mana he Di
sast er Mana he Di sast er Manag gg ggement ement ement ement ement
T TT TTeam eam eam eam eam
Part One was a brief introduction to hazards and disasters. But, before we go
further into describing the nature of disasters, we will introduce part of your
role
in the management of them.
One of the primary purposes of this overall training program is to introduce
the concept of managing disasters as a team. The objectives of disaster management through teamwork include:
" a forum for communication, information exchange and developing consensus
" a format for coordination, eliminating duplication and reducing gaps in
services
" the possibility of being more effective through pooled resources
The UN Disaster Management Team
The United Nations General Assembly believes that the objectives of team
management are applicable to the UN agencies oriented to emergencies.
They have mandated that a standing
UN Disaster Management Team
(UN-DMT) be formed in each disaster-prone country, convened
and chaired by the UN resident
coordinator. The composition of the
UN-DMT is determined by taking into
account the types of disaster to which
the country is prone and the organizations present, but should normally
include a core group consisting of the
country-level representatives of FAO,
UNDP/UNDRO, UNICEF, WFP,
WHO and, where present, UNHCR. It
may be enlarged to include additional
representatives or project personnel
from other relevant agencies when
an emergency arises.
The original and primary purpose
of the UN-DMT is to ensure a prompt,
effective and concerted response by the
UN system at country level in the
event of a disaster. The team should
also ensure similar coordination of
UN assistance to the Government in
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CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN
This part of the chapter is condensed from Chapter 1 of the UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management Manual. It describes the role of the UN system and its
agencies in disaster management.
Organizational tasks and general roles
Primary responsibility for all aspects of disaster management rests with the
Government of the affected country. This includes: planning and implementing
long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures; requesting and administering disaster relief and rehabilitation operations, requesting international
assistance if required; and coordinating all disaster-related assistance program
s,
both nationally and internationally-funded.
Each UN organization or agency is responsible for providing advice and
assistance to the Government of a disaster-prone or disaster-affected country, i
n
accordance with its mandate and the resources available to it. In so doing, each
agency is accountable to its own governing body, but it is also called upon to a
ct
as a member of a united team. In the case of refugee emergencies, UNHCR
remains responsible for their protection and the coordination of international
assistance for the refugees.
In relation to disaster relief and other post-disaster assistance, each organiza
tion and agency of the UN system is called on to:
" Mobilize and provide timely technical assistance and material support
to disaster-affected countries, according to its own mandate and the resources
available to it.
" Co-operate with the UN resident coordinator, UNDRO, or any other
coordination mechanism established by the Secretary-General to ensure
appropriate, coordinated UN system assistance in the context of a concerted
plan and program.
Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and
other UN agencies
The role of UNDP
UNDP focuses primarily on the development-related aspects of disaster risks
and occurrences, and on providing technical assistance to institution-building i
n
relation to all aspects of disaster management. Its emphasis is therefore on:
a) Incorporating long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures in
normal development planning and programs, including support for specific
mitigation measures where required.
b) Assisting in the planning and implementation of post-disaster rehabilitation
and reconstruction, including the definition of new development strategies
that incorporate risk reduction measures relevant to the affected area.
c) Reviewing the impact of large settlements of refugees or displaced persons
on development and seeking ways to incorporate the refugees and displaced
persons in development strategies.
d) Providing technical assistance to the authorities managing major emergency
assistance operations of extended duration (especially in relation to displaced persons and the possibilities for achieving durable solutions in such
cases).
Government
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In addition, UNDP provides administrative and operational support to
the resident coordinator function, particularly at country level, but also at
headquarters.
In the event of a disaster, UNDP may grant a maximum of $50,000 from SPR
funds to provide immediate relief. UNDP is not otherwise involved in the
provision of relief using any of its own resources or other funds administered
by the Program.
Where a major emergency substantially affects the whole development
process within a country, IPF resources may be used to provide technical assistance to plan and manage the operation, with the agreement of the Government.
Technical and material assistance in support of long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures is included in the country program, and may be funded
from IPF resources or from other UNDP-administered funds. The same can also
be used to assist rehabilitation and reconstruction. Special additional grants (
up
to $1.1 million) may be made from SPR funds for technical assistance to such
post-disaster recovery efforts following natural disasters.
The particular responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative are
summarized in the following panel.
Disaster management responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative
The resident representative is responsible for:
a) Ensuring that all concerned in planning development programs are aware of
any known or potential hazards and their likely effects, and that these are
appropriately taken into account in the country program.
b) Designating a disaster focal point, and ensuring that the field office is
adequately prepared to respond to an emergency.
c) In the event of a disaster:
" Mobilizing UNDP staff and technical assistance personnel and other
resources that meet the needs of the situation, particularly those needed
for the initial assessment and immediate response.
" Ensuring that UNDP assistance is used to good effect, and the capacity
of the office is strengthened if necessary to ensure effective response.
In all disaster-prone country field offices, a senior national
officer is designated a disaster focal point for all disaster-related
matters including mitigation, response and international UN/
UNDP preparedness. Section 3A and appendix 3A of the UNDP/
UNDRO Disaster Manual provide detail on the duties and qualifications of the disaster focal point.
In a major or complex emergency of extended duration (typically
involving displaced populations), UNDP may temporarily assign an
additional deputy resident representative. That deputy may either
manage normal UNDP business while the resident representative
concentrates on the resident coordinator functions, or may take day-today responsibility for matters relating to the emergency which are within
the UNDP mandate. In the countries with the most severe or prolonged
emergencies UNDP has established UN Emergency Units. These units
are able to focus exclusively on addressing the emergency and are often
Disaster focal point
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staffed by persons seconded from sister UN agencies that are operational in that
country.
In the event of a sudden influx of refugees into a country in which there is no
UNHCR representation, the resident representative immediately notifies
UNHCR and initiates the assessment process on behalf of the UNHCR. (See
section 4A.5 of the manual.)
The role of UNDRO
UNDRO is the focal point for disaster management in the UN system (except in
those countries where a UN Emergency Unit is established). In relief it provides
a framework for coordination of assistance by the UN agencies and helps to
coordinate such assistance with that from other sources. In addition, UNDRO
has an important role in mobilizing external assistance and serving as a clearin
g
house for information concerning disasters. In the area of mitigation, UNDRO
promotes long-term measures to reduce disaster-related risks and enhance
preparedness in disaster-prone countries. UNDRO is represented at country
level on a permanent basis by the resident coordinator/representative.
Coordination at headquarters level is often effected by contacts between the
Head of Agencies concerned at the beginning of a relief operation, and through
frequent ongoing contacts between the relevant focal points. At the country leve
l,
coordination is undertaken by the resident coordinator who is also the UNDRO
representative. Whenever possible and required, UNDRO supports the resident
coordinator by dispatching an UNDRO delegate or emergency assistance team.
UNDRO concentrates on problems related to natural hazards and sudden
disasters, but as its mandate covers all kinds of emergencies UNDRO may also
offer its services and advice in situations including droughts, and cases of war
and civil conflicts, unless and until the Secretary-General makes other arrangements.
Following a disaster, UNDRO, acting on behalf of the Secretary-General,
offers its services to the Government of the disaster-stricken state in assessin
g the
need for external relief assistance, and communicating that information to
prospective donors and others concerned. (Contacts with The Government are
conducted through the resident coordinator /representative and the countrys
mission in Geneva or New York.) Where international assistance is required or
requested, UNDRO:
" Helps to identify priority needs on the basis of information from the Government, the resident coordinator/representative, UN-DMT, and other competent bodies.
" Issues international appeals and acts as a clearing house for information on
needs and contributions, the assistance extended or planned by all donors,
and the progress of relief operations.
" Seeks to mobilize resources and coordinate relief assistance by various UN
organizations and agencies, bilateral donors, and inter-and non-govern
mental organizations and administers funds channelled through it.
Depending on the particular situation after consultations, wherever possible,
with the Government or the resident coordinator/ representative, UNDRO may:
" Assign one or more delegates on mission to assist the national authorities in
organizing the assessment and administering relief operations, and assist the
resident coordinator/representative in information management, the local
2 22 22
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Disaster management team, roles
and resources
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CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
Role of other UN organizations and agencies
A number of other UN organizations and agencies have specific responsibilities,
organizational arrangements, and capabilities relating to disaster mitigation,
and/or relief or recovery assistance. UNDP, UNDRO, and resident coordinators
must respect the mandates and skills of these agencies, and seek to ensure that
all work together in harmony. All should use their expertise and resources to
best effect in helping people in disaster-prone and disaster-affected areas.
UN system resources available to initiate responses to disasters and emergency n
eeds
Up to $20,000 at discretion of FAOR within the context of an ongoing emergency
or long-term aid project.
Up to $50,000 per occurrence for immediate relief; approved by the Director DOF
following a request from the resident representative.
Up to $1.1 million for technical assistance for rehabilitation and reconstructio
n;
approved by the Administrator or Governing Council.
IPF funds for technical assistance to emergency management is major operations a
greed with
Government; approved by Director PCO.
Up to $50,000 per disaster, subject to the availability of resources; approved b
y
the UNDRO co-ordinator following a request by the Government and proposal by
the resident representative or other UN organization or agency.
Allocations from a global emergency reserve for assistance to refugees, approved
by the High Commissioner.
Up to $25,000 diversion of existing programme funds or in-country supplies at
discretion of the country representative in agreement with Government. Larger
amounts from global emergency reserve ($4 million per year); approved by
Executive Director following a specific proposal by the country representative.
Possibility of diverting some existing country programme funds in case of a majo
r
national catastrophe.
Possibility of borrowing food food aid commodities from ongoing WFP-assisted
development projects, governmental or other donor stocks, subject to headquarters
approval to assure replacement.
Up to $50,000 for local purchases of commodities at the discretion of the Direct
or
of Operations where there are no other means of arranging timely deliveries.
Allocations primarily from the International Emergency Food Reserve (IEFR),
managed by WFP, and from WFP general resources ($45 million annually).
Global reserve from which allocations can be made for priority medical needs in
anticipation of special donor contributions; approved by the Director ERO.
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Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT
The national Government is ultimately responsible for requesting and
ccoordinating all international assistance. It also approves all programs and
emergency work in the country. However, the UN system stands ready to assist
analysis, the most important test of efficiency is that those in need are adequa
tely
provided for.
Components of disaster preparedness
There are nine major components involved in disaster
preparedness which provide a framework upon which a
national disaster preparedness strategy can be developed.
Assessing vulnerability
Fundamental to all aspects of disaster management is
information. It is a point that may appear obvious, but it
is frequently overlooked. The disaster manager may know
that a particular geographic region or community is
susceptible to the impacts of sudden or slow-onset
hazards. However, in reality, until a decision is made
on systematic ways to compile and assess information
about disaster vulnerabilities, the manager is and will
be working in a void.
Developing and compiling vulnerability assessments is one way of
approaching a systematic means of establishing an essential disaster
management tool. There will be more on this subject in the next chapter.
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4
Planning
Throughout all the activities designed to promote disaster preparedness,
the ultimate objective is to have plans in place that are agreed upon, that are
implementable and for which commitment and resources are relatively assured.
The plan itself will have to address other points in this framework.
Institutional framework
A coordinated disaster preparedness and response system is a prerequisite to
any disaster preparedness plan. Each system design will depend upon the
traditions and governmental structure of the country under review. However,
without ensuring that there is horizontal coordination at central government
levels among ministries and specialized government bodies and vertical
coordination between central and local authorities, a plan will rapidly
disintegrate. This requires a structure for decision-making, inter-ministerial
committees to coordinate the plan, focal points within each ministry to be
responsible for the plan implementation and communication, as well as
regional and community structures to implement the plan at the local level.
Information systems
The preparedness plan must have an information system. For slow onset
disasters this should consist of a formalized data collection process, and early
warning system (especially for regions prone to famine), and monitoring system
to update the early warning information. For sudden onset disasters a similar
system must be in place for prediction, warning, and evacuation communication.
Resource base
The requirements to meet an emergency situation will clearly depend upon the
types of hazards the plan anticipates. Such requirements should be made explicit
,
and should cover all aspects of disaster relief and recovery implementation. The
range of relief requirements is too extensive to put in this module, but this li
st
indicates some of the major requirements:
shelter
medicines
food
supplementary food
communications systems
logistics systems
relief workers
clearance equipment
Warning systems
For most types of rapid onset disasters, a warning system can save many lives.
By giving a vulnerable population adequate notice of an impending disaster,
they can either escape the event or take precautions to reduce the dangers.
However, you must assume that functioning communications systems, such as
telephones and telexes, may not be available in times of a major disaster. Begin
to plan a warning system around that assumption. Consider what type of
communications equipment will be needed and sustainable if power lines and
receiving stations are destroyed. Preparedness plans should include provisions
for access to alternative communication systems among police, military and
government networks.
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Warning is also critical for slow onset disasters and population
displacements. In this case it is called early warning and has to do with
information and its distribution regarding either:
giving timely notice of an impending world crisis in the supply of food
making ready for or preventing forced migrations of people.
Response mechanisms
The plans ultimate test is the effectiveness of response to warnings and disaster
impacts. At a certain stage in the warning process, various responses will have
to
be mobilized. The staging of responses becomes an essential factor in designing
a
preparedness plan. Chapter 9 lays out the required responses.
Public education and training
The focus of a disaster preparedness plan should be to anticipate, to the extent
possible, the types of requirements needed for action or responses to warnings
and a disaster relief operation. The plan should also specify the most effective
ways of ensuring that such requirements are met. Yet, the process will only be
effective if those who are the ultimate beneficiaries know what to do in times o
f
disasters and know what to expect. For this reason, an essential part of a disas
ter
preparedness plan is the education of those who may be threatened by disaster.
Such education takes many forms, such as: (1) Public education in schools for
children and young adults, emphasizing what actions should be taken in case of
a disaster threat (for example, earthquake tremors); (2) Special training course
s,
designed for an adult population either specifically or as an extra dimension of
on-going programmes such as Preventive Health Care or Maternal and Child
Health programmes; (3) Extension programmes, in which community and
village-based extension workers are instructed to provide relevant information
and trained for the tasks they should undertake during the event; (4) Public
information, through mass media, be they television, radio or the printed word,
will never really replace the impact of direct instruction. However, if sensitiv
ely
designed and presented, mass media may provide a useful supplement to the
overall educational process.
Rehearsals (drills)
As military maneuvers cannot fully portray the
reality of battle, neither can disaster preparedness rehearsals portray the full
dynamics and potential chaos of a disaster
Disaster
preparedness
Preparedness within the United Nations
2
The UN system at the country level must be able to facilitate and deliver
appropriate and co-ordinated assistance in an emergency. The UN Disaster
Management Team (UN-DMT) is the standing inter-agency body for this.
The UN-DMT should meet at regular intervals to:
" review prevention and preparedness arrangements within the country,
including the progress of any relevant ongoing development projects
" review preparedness arrangements within the UN team of agencies (as
described below)
" discuss the analysis and interpretation of data from in-country and external
famine early warning systems
" decide on any specific actions to be taken by members of the group
individually and/or collectively
Q. Match the list of disaster preparedness components with the list of
examples of each component.
A.
Disaster preparedness components
1. Vulnerability assessment
2. Planning
3. Institutional framework
4. Information systems
5. Resource base
6. Warning systems
7. Response mechanisms
8. Public education and training
9. Rehearsals
Examples
A. Updates to vulnerability assessments
B. Assessment teams and search and rescue
C. A map showing a population living in a flood zone
D. Practice
E. Designing the activities promoting disaster preparedness
F. The required material and logistical support for an emergency
G. Organizational arrangements to maximize coordination
H. A poster explaining what to do when an earthquake hits
I. Communications procedures as part of the system
2
The remainder of this chapter is from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
A N S W E R
1 - C
2 - E
3 - G
4 - A
5 - F
6 - I
7 - B
8 - H
9 - D
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Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT
3
In order to facilitate rapid, appropriate responses to disasters, the following
kinds of information should be readily available in advance to all members of th
e
UN-DMT.
The Government should have much of this information incorporated and
maintained up-to-date in the framework of a national disaster preparedness
plan. This information should be made available to the Resident Coordinator,
and member agencies of the UN-DMT.
If this information is not available, or only partially available, the UN-DMT
should compile and maintain it as a team effort, normally in collaboration with
national counterparts. The specialized agencies would each address respective
areas of concern. The resident coordinator should see that all sectors are cover
ed.
The check list presented here should be adapted to local circumstances.
Special care and attention should be given to information relevant to areas and
communities which are particularly vulnerable and disaster-prone.
This checklist often refers to agency or organizational contacts. To keep your
information current, you should have for all contacts:
" name
" office address and telephone, fax, and telex numbers
" home address and telephone number
" electronic mail address, if the person has one
You should have the same information for any alternates or deputies.
Disaster profile of country
$ The history of the incidence and magnitude of particular types of disasters in
different
areas, their impacts on the population and the economy.
$ The types of emergency and post-disaster assistance provided from all sources
in the
past; the effectiveness of that assistance given the problems faced the lessons
learned.
$ The kinds of needs which can therefore be anticipated in particular areas and
circumstances, and the kinds of assistance interventions which might be required
.
National policies, objectives and standards
Policies with regard to the soliciting, acceptance and use of international assi
stance,
including external personnel.
$ The authority delegated to local institutions, and the possible roles of natio
nal NGOs
and outside assistance agencies.
$ Policies (both whether or not and how) regarding vaccinations, prophylactic
distribution of drugs, the care of unaccompanied children, and salvaging of mate
rials.
$ Policies and criteria for any distribution of relief: whether to be on a free,
for-sale or
on-credit basis; what, if any, differentiation should be encouraged within and b
etween
different population subgroups.
$ The particular objectives and standards which should be applied to ration scal
es for
food and water, and any distribution of shelter materials and household supplies
.
$ Specifications of the kinds of food and other commodities which are appropriat
e and
acceptable as donations, and those which are not.
$ General specifications for the kind of energy sources normally preferred for v
ehicles
(diesel or petrol) and generators and pumps (diesel or electric).
$ General priorities for the restoration of infrastructure and services.
$ Policies and arrangements for importing emergency assistance supplies, such as
arrangements for waiving fees and taxes, and for the clearance of special relief
flights.
$
3
From UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual, Appendix 3B
National
policies
DISASTER
PROFILE
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Disaster
preparedness
Government structures for warning and emergency response
$ The contact responsible for all national hazard forecasting and warning system
s.
$ The government contact (and deputy) normally responsible for the management of
emergency relief and post-disaster assistance operations in a central co-ordinat
ion
body, if one exists. Contracts in individual ministries.
$ The address and telephone/fax/telex numbers of any national disaster co-ordina
tion
centre, and whether and how foreign donor officials will have access to the cent
re
during emergencies.
$ The procedures established (at national and local levels) for assessing damage
,
needs and resources following the impact of a disaster.
$ The contacts in the national disaster management body or the sectoral ministri
es
responsible for arranging and assuring:
" Coordination and liaison with the international community (UN system,
embassies, NGOs)
" Search and rescue operations
" Post-disaster surveys and assessments
" Food supply assistance, where needed
" Medical and preventive health care
" Water supplies
" Environmental sanitation
" Emergency shelter and other relief supplies
" Communications
" Logistic services (transport, storage and handling)
" Information management (including records and reports)
" Security
$ Role of the national armed forces and relationship between the civil and milit
ary
authorities in directing operations.
Other external and national assistance organizations
$ The contacts at the principal embassies and donor agencies, the potential
contributions of their governments and organizations to post-disaster assistance
operations, and the resources they have on immediate call locally.
$ The contacts at the national Red Cross/Red Crescent Society and the principal
NGOs,
their potential contributions to emergency and post-disaster assistance operatio
ns,
and the resources (human, material, and financial) they have on immediate call.
Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area
$ Demographic details: the location, size and socio-economic characteristics of
communities, including average family size, sources and levels of income, and an
y
traditional patterns of seasonal migration.
$ Formal and informal leadership structures, any particular social or religious
considerations, traditional community support processes at times of disaster,
and any taboos.
$ General climatic conditions, including day and night temperatures at different
times of
year.
$ Local food habits, including weaning practices, of the various socio-economic
groups.
$ Normal nutritional status of children, including any normal seasonal variations
.
$ Diseases endemic to the area, including prevailing patterns of mortality and m
orbidity.
$ Normal sources of water: sources and methods of extraction; treatment;
and distribution.
DMT
CHECKLIST
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$ Food supply systems and local production: types, seasonal production cycles an
d
normal yields of both major crops and small gardens, and average on-farm stock
retention levels.
$ Services operating (official and non-official): health, education, rural devel
opment,
public works, and social welfare. This should include the location and specific
nature
of the services provided and the personnel employed.
$ Coverage and general condition of the infrastructure, including roads,
telecommunications, and electricity supplies.
Resources: material and human
Resources include supplies and services which can be mobilized in-country for
emergency and post-disaster assistance operations. Potential sources include
government bodies, commercial companies (locally or in a neighbouring country),
NGOs
and other aid organizations and development projects operating in or near the ar
eas at
risk.
Medical/health care
4
$ Hospitals, clinics and other health facilities: number of beds, ambulances, av
ailability
of special equipment, number of trained doctors, nurses and nurses aides, contact
s at
all facilities.
$ Stocks and sources of medical supplies: names, addresses, and telephone/fax/te
lex
numbers of all medical supply stores; manufacturers of pharmaceuticals and suppl
ies;
and laboratories producing vaccines and serums.
Food supplies
$ Location, capacities, and normal stock levels of food stores, telephone/fax/te
lex
prove
performance
$ Sea and river ports
" Harbor depths, quay lengths, cargo handling equipment
" Daily discharge capacity, and seasonal patterns of exports and imports
" Size of covered and open storage areas, and amount normally available at
different seasons
" Normal offtake capacities: road and rail.
$ Coastal and river craft
" Government craft: the numbers and condition of boats, tugs and barges (of
specified types and capacities) in different locations which might be available
for
rescue operations or to transport relief supplies
" Commercial capacity: contacts with private shipping contractors able to operat
e in
the areas concerned, including details of their fleets and normal rates
$ Airports and air-strips
" The precise locations and the length, width, surface and load classification o
f
runways in the affected areas
" Largest type of aircraft able to operate
" Fuel availability (avgas and jet fuel)
" Navigation and landing aids, and hours open for flying
" Cargo handling equipment and storage capacity
$ Aircraft and air transport
" Government: number and types of aircraft and helicopters likely to be availabl
e to
transport personnel and relief supplies; the approximate costs of operation of
military and other government aircraft and helicopters
" National airline and other companies: number and types of aircraft and helicop
ters
likely to be available to transport personnel and relief supplies; approximate
charter costs
$ Storage and handling
" Government warehouses: the location, size, and type of stores in different are
as
which might be available for relief supplies; the general condition of the sores
,
level of security, access to road and rail transport, the availability of pallet
s, hand
trucks, and forklifts, and the adequacy of staff and record systems
" Private warehouses: as above for stores which might be requisitioned or rented
.
$ Fuel supplies (diesel and petrol)
" The locations, capacities, and normal stock levels of government and commercia
l
fuel storage deports; the arrangements by which fuel can be drawn or delivered
from those depots.
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Disaster
preparedness
Q. The information referred to in the checklist must be assembled from a
variety of sources. Where would you be able to obtain the information
requested under each main heading?
A.
Disaster profile of country
National policies, objectives and standards
Govt structures for warning/post-disaster response
Other external and national assistance organizations
Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area
Human and material resources:
Medical/health care
Food supplies
Nutrition and epidemiology
Water supplies, hygiene and environmental sanitation
Emergency shelter and relief materials
Construction equipment
Communications
Logistics systems and facilities:
Roads
Trucking capacity
Railways
Sea and river ports
Coastal and river craft
Airports and air-strips
Aircraft and air transport
Storage and handling
Fuel supplies
Q. In your opinion what agency should be responsible for collecting,
up-dating and communicating this information.
A.
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CHAPTER 8
V VV VVul ner ul ner ul ner ul ner ul ner a aa aabi l i t y and r i sk asses
sment bi l i t y and r i sk assessment bi l i t y and r i sk assessment
bi l i t y and r i sk assessment bi l i t y and r i sk assessment
1
This chapter considers the nature of risk; discusses the techniques by
which natural hazards and the accompanying risk of future losses can be
estimated; and it discusses the ways in wich future risk estimates can be
used to assist the choice of the optimum disaster mitigation strategy.
First, let us review the definitions of the key terms. Risk is the
expected lives lost, persons injured, property damaged, and economic
activity disrupted due to a particular hazard. Risk is the probability of a
disaster occurring and resulting in a particular level of loss.
Risk assessment determines the scale of the estimated losses which can be
anticipated in particular areas during a specified time period.
Risk management
One of the underlying principles of this training module is that most
people working in development are involved in disaster management at
one time or another. Even if you, as a generalist or a sectoral specialist, do
not have an active role to play in some of the other disaster phases, you
do play an important role when it comes to risk management. The design
of development projects should include an exercise in risk management.
The overall task of risk management must include both an estimation
of the magnitude of a particular risk and an evaluation of how important
to us the risk is. The process of risk management therefore has two parts:
risk assessment and risk evaluation. Risk assessment requires the
quantification of the risk from data and understanding the processes
involved. Risk evaluation is the judgement that a society places on the
risks that face them in deciding what to do about them.
Risk probability
Risks are often quantified in generalized ways. For example, there is a
probability of an individual dying in any one year of : 1 in 200 if he or she
smokes 10 cigarettes a day; 1 in 23,000 in an earthquake in Iran; and 1 in
10,000,000 of being hit by lightning in the USA. Such gross risk estimates
can be useful for comparative purposes, but usually conceal large
variations in the risk to individuals or different regions. In the case of
Iran, people who live closer to an earthquake fault are at greater risk than
those that live far away. Similarly, people who live in poorly constructed
masonry houses near a fault are more at risk than those who may live
nearby in well built wood structures.
1
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Vulnerability a
nd Risk
Assessment written by A.W. Cobum, R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis
!
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The first step in risk management, therefore, is quantifying the probability of
the risk. The second step is evaluating the risk, that is, passing judgement on
how
serious it is. The importance a community places on the risk of a disaster is li
kely
to be influenced by the type and level of other everyday risks it faces. Even if
the
risk from a natural hazard is quite significant, it is unlikely to compare, for
example, with the risk of child mortality in a society with minimal primary
health care. Villages in the hazardous mountain valleys of Northern Pakistan,
regularly afflicted by floods, earthquakes, and landslides, do not perceive
disaster mitigation to be one of their priorities. Their priorities are protecti
on
against the greater risks of disease and irrigation failures.
As societies develop economically, risk reduction is likely to assume greater
importance to them. Development itself can increase the likelihood of disasters,
but as societies become richer more resources can be made available to invest in
some degree of protection. Protection of the development process itself becomes
a disaster mitigation issue.
Acceptable levels of risk
Many risks are associated with benefits. Living close to a volcano may bring the
benefit of fertile soils for good agriculture. Generally, though, the exposure t
o
natural and environmental hazards does not have any specific benefit associated
with itthe exposure is a simple consequence of living or working in a
particular location. This can have the effects of making such risks less accepta
ble
than those from which some benefit is obtained. Generally the acceptable levels
of risk appear to increase according to the benefits derived from being exposed
to
it. However, the acceptable level of risk appears to decrease over time as more
people become exposed to a particular type of risk.
Assessing risk and vulnerability
The estimation of probably future losses is a matter of increasing interest to t
hose
concerned with development planning in hazard-prone regions. Fundamental to
disaster preparedness and mitigation planning is an understanding of what to
expect. This needs to be quantified, if only in a crude and approximate way, in
terms of the degree of risk faced, the size of event that is likely, and the
1HAZARD
2ELEMENTS AT RISK
(population)
3VULNERABILITY
4CASUALTY RISK
(potential loss of life)
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It is the interface between these vulnerable conditions and natural hazards
such as an earthquake, tropical storm, drought, and heavy rains, that results in
a
disaster or protracted emergency. (See Fig. 1.1 on page 17.)
Vulnerability derived from poverty can best be addressed by long-term
development projects targeted at the underlying reasons that large population
groups remain poor, while at the same time introducing measure to mitigate
disaster effects.
Vulnerability may also be a result of factors more easily solved by specific
risk reduction measures. These factors include inappropriate building codes and
materials, and a lack of public awareness. However, many of these measures
depend on the extent of a societys development. For example, it is unrealistic to
expect building codes to be enforced where governments do not have staff and
resources to carry out inspections. Likewise, public awareness depends, to some
extent, on the communitys educational level and the availability of
communication facilities, which are frequently deficient in developing countries
.
Vulnerability and risk assessment is the link between development project
implementation and disaster mitigation. In UNDP, for example, a proposed project
should be examined against the vulnerability and risk of the project location. I
f
the location or the nature of the project design are inherently vulnerable to
disasters, then the location should be reconsidered or disaster mitigation/risk
reduction measures must be taken. (See Chapter 13 for additional discussion on
how this may be achieved.)
Reducing vulnerability for displaced persons
Much of the preceding discussion on vulnerability and risk relates more to
sudden onset disasters than slow onset disasters and population displacements.
Nevertheless, much of the assessment process and technologies apply to these
situations. For example, mapping of hazards is also of prime concern to identify
areas subject to drought, or even civil conflict. Meeting the needs of a migrati
ng
population or one recently arrived at a new location will be assisted by mapping
the best routes and survival resources along the way. Strategies for vulnerabili
ty
reduction in zones of conflict might include development inputs which can
reduce the conflict, such as installing water points for nomads in areas where
water is a scarce resource subject to competition.
These topics are discussed in more detail in the special topic modules
Disaster Mitigation and Vulnerability and Risk Assessment.
In summary, because hazards tend to be uncontrollable, much mitigation
work is centred on reducing vulnerability. Improved economic conditions
reduce many aspects of vulnerability and a sound economy may in many cases
be the best defense against disasters and emergencies.
2 22 22
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Vulnerability and
risk assessment
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Q. Imagine that you are working for an agency responsible for the
economic development of a community in an area where tropical storms
occur. You want to do an analysis of the most appropriate types of
projects to achieve economic development. As part of your analysis how
would you conduct a risk and vulnerability assessment?
A.
A N S W E R
S t e p o n e : R e v i e w t h e
h i s t o r y o f t r o p i c a l s t o r m s t o
e s t i m a t e t h e p r o b a b l i t y o f
o n e o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e
l i f e t i m e o f y o u r p r o j e c t .
S t e p t w o : I n v e n t o r y t h e
e l e m e n t s a t r i s k .
S t e p t h r e e : D e t e r m i n e t h e
v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e e l e m e n t s
a t r i s k b y e s t i m a t i n g
a )
h o w b a d l y d a m a g e d
t h e b u i l d i n g s m i g h t b e ,
b )
t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e
p o t e n t i a l l y k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d
c )
t h e l e v e l o f d i s r u p t i o n
o f e m p l o y m e n t o r t h e
e c o n o m i c b a s e o f y o u r
p r o j e c t .
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3 33 33
CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS
3
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DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE
DI SASTER RESPONSE
Chapter 9 Disaster reponse......................................................
.................. 82
Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance..................................
........ 83
Warning.........................................................................
......................... 83
Evacuation/migration............................................................
................. 83
Search and rescue...............................................................
................... 84
Post-disaster assesment.........................................................
................ 84
Emergency relief................................................................
................... 84
Logistics and supply............................................................
.................. 84
Communication and information management..................................... 85
Victim response and coping......................................................
............. 85
Security........................................................................
.......................... 85
Emergency operations management.................................................
..... 85
Rehabilitation and reconstruction...............................................
........... 85
Chapter 10 Disaster assessment..................................................
.............. 87
Objectives of assessment .......................................................
....................... 87
The assessment process .........................................................
....................... 89
Assessments for different disaster types .......................................
............... 89
How assessment data is used ....................................................
.................... 90
Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster...............................................
............. 92
Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster.................
. 92
Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO ......................................
...... 94
Alert message and field sitreps ................................................
..................... 95
The importance of coordination and information..................................
....... 96
Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction....................................
.... 98
Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction1 .............
.. 99
A case study: Zenon hurricane...................................................
..................101
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DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE DI SASTER RESPONSE
DI SASTER RESPONSE
After reading the material and completing the exercises in Part 3 you should be
able to:
! identify the major categories of activities and responsibilities of disaster r
esponse
! identify the objectives of disaster assessment and how assessment data is used
! describe the role of your UN organization in the various disaster response act
ivities
! identify key points for action in coordination and information management
! describe development opportunities within the disaster reconstruction phase
CHAPTER 9
Di sas Di sas Di sas Di sas Di sast er r t er r t er r t er r t er r e
sponse esponse esponse esponse esponse
Disaster response is the sum total of actions
taken by people and institutions in the face of
disaster. These actions commence with the
warning of an oncoming threatening event or
with the event itself if it occurs without warning. Disaster response includes the implementation of disaster preparedness plans and procedures, thus overlaping with disaster preparedness. The end of disaster response comes with
SLOW ONSET Emergency relief may need to be provided for extended periods
in the case of neglected or deteriorated slow-onset emergency situations and
population displacements (refugees, internally and externally displaced
people). The impact of the disaster may be mitigated for these populations
through additional assistance to the host community as well.
Logistics and supply
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET The delivery of emergency relief will require
logistical facilities and capacity. A well-organized supply service is crucial f
or
handling the procurement or receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies fo
r
distribution to disaster victims. The logistical system is perhaps more vital an
d
of higher priority for slow onset emergencies.
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Communication and information management
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET All. of the above activities are dependent on
communication. There are two aspects to communications in disasters. One is the
equipment that is essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and
their supporting systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines. The o
ther
is information management: the protocol of knowing who communicates what
information to whom, what priority is given to it, and how is disseminated and
interpreted.
Survivor response and coping
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is
easy to overlook the real needs and resources of the survivors. The assessment
must take into account existing social coping mechanisms that negate the need to
bring in outside assistance. On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new
and special needs for social services to help adjust to the trauma and disruptio
n
caused by the disaster.
Participation in the disaster response process by individuals to community
organizations is a key to healthy recovery. Through them appropriate coping
mechanisms will be most successfully utilized.
Security
SUDDEN ONSET Security is not always a priority issue after sudden onset
natural disasters. It is typically handled by civil defense or police department
s.
SLOW ONSET The protection of the human rights and safety of displaced
populations and refugees can be of paramount importance requiring international monitoring.
Emergency operations management
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET None of the above activities can be implemented
without some degree of emergency operations management. Policies and
procedures for management requirements need to be established well in advance
of the disaster. More attention is given to this subject in the following chapte
r on
Responding to a sudden disaster.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction
Rehabilitation and reconstruction complete the disaster response activities. As
much of this activity is within the scope of UNDPs concern, Chapter 12 is
devoted to it.
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Disaster
reponse
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Q. In the following matrix of disaster response activities and agencies, select
a disaster type of interest to
you and fill in the matrix with the agency that has primary responsibility for t
hat activity. Indicate agencies
with secondary responsibilities.
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CHAPTER 10
Di sast er assessment Di sast er assessment Di sast er assessment Di sast
er assessment Di sast er assessment
1
Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society.
The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to
save and sustain the lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the
possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and
involving on-the-spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation o
f
information from various sources. These surveys concern both direct and indirect
losses as well as the short- and long-term effects. Assessment involves
determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed,
but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided
to the victims.
Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They
include the preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage
resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment may also include
recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of
structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities.
Objectives of assessment
The first objective of a post-disaster assessment is to determine when an
emergency exists. Next, define the actions and resources needed to reduce
immediate threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems.
A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or
survival needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead
the assessment must also identify the local response capacity, including
organizational, medical, and logistical resources. The assessment must help
decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the
priorities of the affected people themselves.
Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the
disaster area may have a difficult time distinguishing chronic needs from
problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to
identify the starting point for post-disaster needs. This information is
established in the preparedness checklist in Chapter 7.
If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster
response program, then the response agency must also know the policies of the
government with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the
estimate for the additional support required from national and international
sources for relief.
1
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Disaster
Assessment by Rob Stephenson of the Relief and Development Institute.
!
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Disaster
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EVOLVING OBJECTIVES OF ASSESSMENT
Warning Phase
! Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures
to protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact
! Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the
implementation of assessment
Emergency Phase
! Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude
of the damage
! Identify, characterize and quantify populations at risk in
the disaster
! Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed
to reduce immediate risks
! Identify local response capacity, including organizational,
medical and logistic resources
! Help anticipate future serious problems
! Help manage and control the immediate response
Rehabilitation Phase
! Identify the priorities of the affected people
! Identify the policies of the government with regard to
post-disaster assistance
! Estimate the additional support required from national and
international sources for relief and recovery
! Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and
rehabilitation measures
Recovery Phase
! Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its
implications for development policy
! Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs
! Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster
Figure 10.1
Evolving objectives
of assessment
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Disaster
assessment
Identify information,
needs and resources
Collect data
Analyze and interpret
Report conclusions
Design/modify disaster response
Figure 10.2
This figure identifies
how the objectives of
assessment evolve as
A
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Contacting UNDRO, Geneva
UNDRO maintains a 24-hour duty system, 365 days-a-year. To contact:
Telephone (4122)-7332010 (Direct line for use in case of an
emergency: out of office hours the call is
received by Air Call answering service
which conveys the message to the
UNDRO duty officer who then calls back)
or (4122)-7346011 (United Nations Office Geneva
switchboard: ask for UNDRO duty officer)
Telex 414242 DRO CH
Fax (4122)-7335623
Electronic mail UNX008 Use the UNDP E-mail facility. (Message
is delivered to UNDRO via UNIENET)
Alert message and field sitreps
To ensure a timely, appropriate, and coordinated international response, it is
essential that the resident coordinator report rapidly to UNDRO any disaster
occurrence, with an early assessment of damage and needs, however tentative.
This must then be followed up by regular and systematic reporting of increasing
detail.
Send an alert message to UNDRO as soon as information of a disaster
occurrence is received, or an occurrence in a remote area is confirmed. This
serves to let UNDRO know that something has happened and that the field office
is following up. Don not delay while waiting to get more information.
Send the first field sitrep as quickly as possible, and in any case not more
than 24 hours after the disaster occurrence. Send whatever relevant information
is available: do not delay because certain information is lacking. Send
information as it becomes available, indicating what additional information is
anticipated and arrangements made to gather more.
Send field sitreps regularly, at least daily during the initial emergency period
(typically 10-20 days) and until a reduced frequency is agreed with UNDRO.
Always follow the basic format but, if necessary, adapt the sub-headings of the
individual sections depending on the needs of the particular situation.
Send sitreps by fax (or Email) when possible. This takes full advantage of
word processing facilities in preparing and updating the reports.
Involve the UN-DMT in the preparation of the sitreps to help ensure
comprehensive reporting and a unified UN system presentation to the
Government and the international community. The UNDP disaster focal point
should normally be responsible for collating information from the various
agencies and preparing the first draft. Arrange for copies of the field sitreps
to
be sent promptly to the headquarters of the UN agencies most directly concerned
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UN reponse to
disasters
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(normally the core members of the UN-DMT).
Main headings for field sitreps
1. General situation
2. National response
3. Country-level international response
4. Requirements for international assistance
5. Channels for delivery of international aid
6. International pledges and contributions
7. Other information
The importance of coordination and information
Coordination is even more important in emergency assistance operations than
in development work: lives might be at risk, logistic and other resources are
likely to be limited, and decisions are made quickly. There are many possibiliti
es
for duplicating effort, wasting resources, and leaving gaps in both geographic
and sectoral coverage.
Timely, reliable information is crucial to planning and implementing
emergency and postdisaster assistance operations, and to mobilizing national
and international resources. The regular dissemination of relevant information i
s
a precondition for effective coordination and co-operationat national and
local levels-between sectors and between Government, operational agencies,
and donors.
For detailed guidelines
for the format of the
field sitrep see the
UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual, Chapter 4,
Appendix 4A.
Fig.11.1
Sitreps and
international
information flows
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UN reponse to
disasters
Key action points in co-ordination and information management
# Maintain frequent, direct contacts with government focal point, operational de
partments, donors, and
NGOs.
# Review within the UN-DMT and discuss with the government focal point whether h
elp from the resident
co-ordinator or UN-DMT is required in:
" Compiling and analyzing information and preparing reports on needs for and use
of international
assistance
" Establishing and operating more comprehensive management information systems i
n support of the
responsible government authorities
" Convening information and co-ordination meetings involving government bodies,
donors, NGOs, and
the UN organizations and agencies.
# Ensure the convening of regular, broad-based co-ordination meetings (probably
weekly); encourage
constructive discussion; promote consensus on actions by all concerned; provide
secretariat service, if
required.
# Specify the information management functions to be fulfilled by the resident c
o-ordinator and UN-DMT,
and the resources (staff, equipment, office space, budget) required.
# Initiate the needed information systems and services using existing staff faci
The aim is to promote and assist recovery. Assistance during the postdisaster phase must be planned and implemented with this clearly in mind.
Damaged structures and services which are essential to the society must be
repaired or replaced, duly protected against future risks. At the same time, and
no less important, ways must be found to help people recover, particularly those
people who have the least resources to call on.
As noted earlier, the majority of people affected are the poor. For the poor,
disasters represent lost property, jobs, and economic opportunity. In real terms
that can represent an enormous economic setback. Therefore, reconstruction
assistance should be designed to:
" relieve economic constraints and reduce the cost of reconstruction
" inject capital into the community
" create employment opportunities
" support and strengthen existing economic enterprises.
2
1
The rest of this chapter is taken from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manua
l.
2
Frederick C. Cuny, quoted by lan Davis in "Disasters and the small dwelling, pr
ogress in the past
decade and key issues for IDNDR," outline position paper, September 1990.
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Timely and imaginative planning is therefore required to dovetail
rehabilitation and reconstruction with short-term relief measures, and to make
the most effective use of external financial resources, materials, and technical
assistance in achieving development gains while satisfying humanitarian needs.
The danger of planning and conducting reconstruction in haste
Post-disaster programmeseven reconstruction programmes, are often
planned and carried out in haste. The rush may occur because of the
reconstruction planners perceived need to return the community to
normal as soon as possible or because of time constraints on donor
funding. Thus the sort of careful planning and community involvement
necessary for development planning is often overlooked. Without such
planning, these programmes may infringe on longer-term development
efforts or delay their implementation. Reconstruction programmes that are
ill-planned and merely return communities to the status quo may leave
them almost as vulnerable again to a future disaster, while at the same time
creating a sense of complacency because something has been seen to have
been done.
From Disasters and Developmenta study in institution building prepared by INTERTECT
for UNDP, April 1990.
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Zenon hurricane: A case study
3
The following is a fictitious case study. However, it is constructed from events
as
they often occur and demonstrated how each part of the disaster system works or
does not work. All of the events and actions of the agencies are based on actual
occurrences.
A hurricane has been chosen for this exercise because it enables us to look
not only at post-disaster actions, but also at activities that occur prior to a
disaster when there is a warning period. While each type of disaster is unique,
the following scenario is typical of all sudden natural disasters. Although base
d
on actual occurrences, the examples here are intended for educational purposes
only and do not reflect on the ability or capacity of any individual or agency.
Most agency names are fictitious.
Your assignment is to read the following account and to analyze each
management action regarding its appropriateness. That is, was the management
action an example of good or bad judgement, was it the right or wrong decision,
good or poor planning, was appropriate action taken upon the available
information or was there oversight? You are encouraged to make notes in the
margin about your analysis of these management actions. Perhaps you could
circle the sentence in the text to which your analysis refers.
3
This case study has been adapted from Disasters and Development by Frederick C.
Cuny, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1983.
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The setting
The Republic of Zenon is a small, heavily populated country situated on the
coast of a major landmass in the Tropics. The land bulges out into a shallow gul
f,
and coastline forms 60 percent of its border. Isolated fishing villages dot the
coast, but most of the fertile coastal plain is inhabited by farmers who work sm
all
subsistence rice paddies. The remainder of the countryside is mountainous, and
here small farmers strive to eke a living from eroded hillsides denuded by years
of deforestation.
The poverty of the mountains has driven thousands of families to the capital,
which lies on the south coast of the country. Many families live in squalid shan
ty
towns scattered throughout the city, and many have recently been moved to Port
Sound, a controversial new town built on a marshy area several kilometers from
the capital. Port Sound, touted by the government as a model community and
criticized by the opposition as an instant slum, is less than one meter above th
e
high-tide level.
Chronology of events for the Zenon Republic hurricane
August 27
Ships passing through the central tropics report a rapid
drop in barometric pressure to weather stations nearby.
The weather stations pass this information to the
International Hurricane Tracking Network (IHTN),
which soon verifies the formation of a tropical depression
and notifies the surrounding countries.
August 28
Satellite observation and aircraft monitoring indicate that
the depression has become a tropical storm.
In Zenon, the chief weather service forecaster follows procedure and notifies th
e
clear that most are for actions that should have been taken long ago, and there
is
little that can be done before the disaster strikes. Nevertheless, at the end of
its
meeting, the director notifies the government that the Red Cross is ready.
August 31
At 1:00 a.m., the storm intensifies again. At 1:15 a.m., the weather service iss
ues a
hurricane warning.
The prime minister calls the EPC to check on its activities. The director assure
s
the prime minister that everything possible is being done. At the same moment,
the EPC is trying to develop an evacuation plan and to find a list of buildings
designated as hurricane shelters to give to the news media.
At dawn, the citizens of Zenon awake to hear the radio announce the hurricane
warning. The newspaper publishes the newly found list of buildings designated
as hurricane shelters, some of which no longer exist. The EPC later goes on the
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radio with a new list of shelters and urges persons in low-lying areas along the
coast to evacuate.
By noon the only signs of the approaching hurricane are the rising tides along
the upper portions of the eastern coast. Winds are now gusting, and there are
intermittent rain showers.
Members of the EPC are running out of time. Hundreds of details remain, and
each minute someone thinks of some new precautionary measure that should be
taken.
At 4:30 p.m., the foreign news teams arrive and begin their live televised repor
ts.
The first story describes the profiteering in the sale of emergency supplies and
shows pictures of several well-armed store owners defending their property
against looters.
At 5:00 p.m., the weather service announces that the hurricanes course has
now changed, putting it on a track for the central and southern portions of the
country. The impact is predicted for the early morning hours of the following
day. Winds are now gusting up to 60 kilometers per hour.
The EPC receives the news with great anxiety. Most of the preparedness
activities have focused on the northern regions, not the south. Warnings are
quickly issued to evacuate Port Sound.
Twenty minutes later, the prime minister goes on the national radio and
television to issue a plea to all persons in low-lying areas to evacuate as quic
kly
as possible. He suggests that those who cannot escape should seek shelter in
churches and schools.
In Port Sound, the sea level is one meter above normal. Water is coming across
the road that separates the community from the sea, and large breakers are
quickly eroding the roadbed. Vehicles attempting to evacuate have stalled. The
residents of Port Sound begin moving away from the sea on the only other road
that links the area with higher ground, but this road is
also low and crosses two streams that are now flooding.
At 10:00 p.m., a bridge collapses and the people are
stranded.
Word of the plight of Port Sound is flashed to the EPC.
It orders an army engineering battalion to attempt to
food and medicine by helicopter, but now truck convoys are able to take larger
amounts and a wider variety of aid to the rural areas.
At the airport, a call goes out for
volunteers to help sort relief
materials. The sheer volume
of the material and the
confusion caused by poor
packaging require several
thousand people working at
the airport and at other
sorting centers.
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Throughout the affected area, a tremendous salvage effort is taking place. Peopl
e
are busy trying to gather up as much building material as possible, especially t
he
tin roofs found wrapped around trees, curled on the ground, or lying intact.
Thousands of makeshift shelters have been built out of the rubble. Several
foreign press correspondents assigned to do a story about the need for tents ask
a
group of victims to stop hammering so that their sound technician can record an
interview with a relief official arriving with a shipment of tents.
September 5
Helicopters arrive from the overseas military bases of a friendly government.
Their first activity is to airlift a complete field hospital to the delta region
.
In the capital, the Disaster Relief Committee (DRC) calls a meeting of relief
agencies. To reduce duplication of effort, the government asks each agency to
take responsibility for relief and reconstruction in one particular sector. A li
st of
communities is placed on the board and each agency selects one to assist. Severa
l
voluntary agencies that have worked in the country for many years are not
present at the meeting (later referred to as the lottery), and the areas where
they have had extensive experience are assigned to other agencies. No attempt is
made to verify the qualifications or capacities of any of the new agencies
present at the meeting.
September 6
Reports of corruption and favoritism in the distribution of relief supplies are
reported in the press. The prime minister asks the churches to form committees
to oversee the distribution of relief goods in each community.
During the day, three different voluntary agencies call coordination meetings in
separate locations.
September 7
At 10:00 a.m., the Disaster Relief Committee calls a coordination meeting
between the government and voluntary agencies to discuss housing
reconstruction.
September 8-14 (Week Two)
During the week, numerous coordination meetings are heldsome under
government sponsorship, others at the instigation of one or more of the
voluntary agencies.
Early in the week, the relief agencies in Zenon are offered large donations from
foundations, intergovernmental organizations, and their own government. Most
of the donors are anxious that the money benefit the victims as soon as possible
;
therefore they attach a restriction that the money be spent within thirty to nin
ety
days.
Daily, new relief agencies (some instant agencies, such as Friends of Zenon)
arrive. They are assigned areas of responsibility by the DRC. Expatriate
volunteers also start to arrive. Among this group are several doctors who pester
local medical officials for assignments and interpreters.
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Also arriving are number of manufacturers representatives from companies that
produce small prefabricated buildings. Each claims to have the ultimate solution
for rebuilding low-cost housing. Some houses are touted as temporary and others
as permanent. The DRC, unable to choose among them, decides to hold a housing
fair where the manufacturers can set up their units and show them to the public.
The peoples preferences will be determined and a housing system will be
selected.
At a meeting of the DRC, many village relief committees report long lines for fo
od
at distribution centers. The same day, the government is offered a huge food-aid
package of surplus commodities. There is one restriction: the food must be given
away. Despite some opposition from farmers and cooperatives the government
signs the food-aid agreement.
At a meeting of DRC, several agencies point out that the distribution of free
aid to the victims can be counterproductive. The chair of the DRC reacts firmly,
saying that to ask victims to pay for food or other aid would be against the
humanitarian principles of disaster relief, and he orders that all aid be given
free
to the victims. Several local development groups argue that this will create
dependencies, but the government is adamant.
In the private sector, architects and engineers offer their
services to the voluntary agencies as advisors. At first the
agencies are excited at the prospect of having this technical assistance, but they soon discover that few of the
professionals are familiar with the traditional housing
built by the majority of the people in the country and that
their idea of low-income housing is far too expensive for
most of the agencies, not to mention the survivors
themselves.
September 15-21 (Week Three)
During the third week, emphasis begins to shift away from emergency relief
activities to concern about interim recovery and longer-term reconstruction need
s.
The prime minister, sensing a change in mood, appoints a National Reconstruction
Committee to coordinate long-term recovery, but announces that the Disaster
Relief Committee will remain active until all relief needs have been met.
Late in the week, groups of international banking officials arrive for talks on
reconstruction loans to the government. The prime minister orders the Finance
Ministry to give top priority to refinancing the national debt.
There are reports that a boom economy is developing and prices are climbing at
an astounding rate, especially for materials and tools that will be used in
reconstruction. The government, fearful of creating a black market, hesitates to
establish price controls.
Local farmers protest the distribution of free food, and farmers organizations
report that, if the food donations continue, farmers who have been able to salva
ge
reconstruction
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Midyear marks the end of the first post-disaster harvest. Observers notice a
resurgence in housing demand, as people now have the time and capital to
rebuild. However, only a few agencies remain to provide technical or financial
assistance. Even among those agencies that want to stay, funds for continued
operations are not available. To help meet the new demand, the government
seeks a loan from the International Bank to finance other reconstruction
activities. After two months, the loan is approved in principle, but funds canno
t
be made available until the next fiscal year, further delaying reconstruction.
In the agricultural sector, surveys indicate that decreased agricultural product
ion
necessitates continued food aid for another year. A report by the Agricultural
Ministry that the number of small farmers has declined by seven to ten percent,
and that a significant portion of the land formerly devoted to growing rice in
the delta region is now used to produce cotton and other cash crops, goes
unnoticed.
Q. Identify three key issues that subverted the reconstruction process
and prevented it from becoming a good development opportunity.
A.
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DI SASTER MI TI GA DI SASTER MI TI GA DI SASTER MI TI GA DI SASTER MI TI GA
DI SASTER MI TI GATI ON TI ON TI ON TI ON TI ON 4
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4 44 44
CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS
Chapter 13 Mitigation...........................................................
.................... 112
Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ..................................
.......... 113
Actions to reduce risk .........................................................
........................ 114
The menu of mitigation actions .................................................
................. 115
Classification of mitigation measures ..........................................
.............. 116
Timing for mitigation ..........................................................
....................... 117
Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation..........................................
........ 118
Disaster mitigation as a development theme .....................................
......... 118
Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ...................
.. 119
Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ..........................
..... 122
Project identification and formulation..........................................
.............. 122
Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas .....................
...... 123
Disaster risk reduction planning checklist .....................................
............. 124
Disasters and Development (DAD) Project Review Form......................... 125
Appendix........................................................................
............................ 126
GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of
Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations
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After reading Part Four and completing the exercises, you should know the basic
concepts, aims and elements of disaster mitigation. You will be able to describe
:
! the principle objectives of disaster mitigation
! several available mitigation techniques
! how to consider disaster mitigation as a development theme
! how to appraise a countrys capacity to implement disaster mitigation projects
! how to take hazards into account in project identification and formulation
CHAPTER 13
Mi t i g Mi t i g Mi t i g Mi t i g Mi t i ga aa aat i on t i on t i on t i on t
i on
1
Mitigation is one of the positive links between disasters
and development. Agencies, communities, and
individuals can use their development resources to
reduce the risk of hazards through mitigation projects.
They can also ensure that their other development
initiatives contain components that mitigate against
future disaster.
In its broadest usage, mitigation has become a
collective term used to encompass all actions taken
prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster
measures). This includes long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures.
Many individuals and institutions, however, apply
a narrower definition to mitigation. They use mitigation
to mean actions taken to reduce both human suffering
and property loss resulting from extreme natural
phenomena. The concept of mitigation accepts the fact
that some hazard event may occur but tries to lessen the
impact by improving the communitys ability to absorb
the impact with minimum damage or disruptive effect. More simply stated, for
this group, mitigation is risk reduction.
Mitigation applies to a wide range of activities and protection measures that
might be instigated: from the physical, like constructing stronger buildings or
agricultural diversification, to the procedural, like standard techniques for
incorporating hazard assessment in land-use planning.
In the 1990s, a major effort is underway to encourage the implementation of
disaster mitigation techniques in development projects around the world. The
General Assembly of the United Nations has adopted the decade of the 1990s as
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The aim is to make a
significant reduction in the losses of life and material damage caused by disast
ers
by the end of the decade.
1
Adapted from the UNDP/UNDRO training module, Disaster Mitigation by A.W. Coburn
, R.J.S.
Spence, and A. Pomonis, Cambridge, June 1991.
" economic
" management and institutionalization
" societal
" conflict reduction
Engineering
Engineering measures are those that result in stronger individual structures tha
t
are more resistant to hazards. This is sometimes referred to as hardening
facilities against hazard forces. Building codes are critical defensive measures
for
achieving stronger engineered structures. Training techniques to teach builders
the practicalities of disaster resistant construction are now well understood an
d
form part of the menu of mitigation actions available to the disaster planner.
Spatial planning
Many hazards are localized with their likely effects confined to specific known
areas. For example, floods affect flood plains, and landslides affect steep soft
slopes. The effects can be greatly reduced if it is possible to avoid having
hazardous areas used for settlements or as sites for important structures. Urban
planning needs to integrate awareness of natural disaster risk mitigation into t
he
normal procedures of planning a city.
For populations displaced by hazards or conflict, opportunities to reduce
their risk include the identification of safe zones for resettlement in areas wi
th
adequate security and resources to support displaced persons.
Economic
Economic development is key to disaster mitigation. A strong economy is the
best protection against a future disaster. A strong economy means more money
to spend on stronger buildings, safer sites, and larger financial reserves to co
pe
with future losses.
Mitigation measures can help a community reduce future economic losses.
They can help members withstand losses and improve their recoverability after
loss and measures that make it possible for communities to afford higher levels
of safety are important elements of an overall mitigation programme.
Economic activities which help a community which hosts displaced persons
to absorb this population can mitigate against the development of serious social
or political problems.
Some aspects of economic planning are directly relevant to reducing disaster
risk. Diversification of economic activity is an important economic principle. A
single-industry economy is always more vulnerable than an economy made up
of many different activities. The linkages between different sectors of an
economythe transportation of goods, the flow of information, and the labor
market may be more vulnerable to disruption from a disaster than the physical
infrastructure that is the means of production.
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Management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation
Disaster mitigation also requires certain organizational and procedural measures
.
The time scale over which a significant reduction can be achieved in the potenti
al
impact of a disaster is medium and long term. Changes in location planning,
and which have a short life or usefulness such as sand bag reinforcements of a
dyke. Long-term measures may include a process that is itself long in
implementation, consider an extended timeframe, and change public attitudes
through education.
Restrictive and incentive: Restrictive measures result in practices that promote
safety by making some actions or development unlawful or prohibitively
expensive. Incentive measures provide financial, legal or other advantages to
promote activities which are also beneficial in terms of mitigation.
Sectoral based activities: Sectoral based activities start from the vantage poin
t of a
sector, such as agriculture, and ask: within this sector, what can be done to
reduce risk? A response might be to introduce hazard resistant crops, or to
diversify cropping patterns.
Timing for mitigation
The risk reduction measures of mitigation are often placed in the pre-disaster
time frame. In fact, the most opportune time to implement mitigation is in the
period after a disaster. Public awareness of the problems posed by hazards is
high and the political will to act may also be at its peak. This period probably
will not last for more than two to three years before other development prioriti
es
take precedence.
Q. Select one of the mitigation activities from the preceding discussion
and apply it to the element most at risk that you identified in the
previous question. Describe one example of a mitigation activity that will
reduce the vulnerability to an element at risk.
A.
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CHAPTER 14
UN assi st ance t o di sast er mi t i g UN assi st ance t o di sast er m
i t i g UN assi st ance t o di sast er mi t i g UN assi st ance t o di sa
st er mi t i g UN assi st ance t o di sast er mi t i ga aa aat i on t i on t
i on t i on t i on
Including risk reduction and preparedness in the UNDP country programme
1
This chapter focuses primarily on promoting disaster mitigation in the context o
f
long-term development planning and programs, in particular through the UNDP
country program and other projects funded through UNDRO. Mitigation
measures must also be actively promoted in the context of post-disaster
rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Disaster mitigation as a development theme
Hazards are a part of the natural and human-made environment. Exposure to
hazards and the risks of disastrous consequences must be considered in all
development planning. They must certainly be considered by UNDP at an early
stage of program and project formulation and design.
An awareness of the relationship between disasters and development must be
maintained in the UNDP country program and project cycles. The needs and
options for mitigation must be specifically addressed in:
" The continuing dialogue between UNDP, other UN agencies, the
Government, and aid donors.
" The country program cycle: in the preparation of the UNDP Advisory Note
and the Administrators Note, and in the country program document, review
and evaluation processes.
" The project cycle: in project identification, design and formulation, approval
(PAC/A.C), implementation (PPER, TPR), and evaluation.
It is essential that government bodies responsible for development priorities an
d
planning be fully aware of the impact of natural and man-made hazards on
societies and economies. This itself may require certain institution-building
initiatives during both the preparation and the implementation of the country
program.
The UN-DMT should review the priorities and possibilities for international
assistance, especially in cases where technical assistance is anticipated in
different sectors and different UN organizations or agencies and expected to be
involved or provide financing.
The context for disaster mitigation efforts lies within the policy for UNDP and
UNDRO as set forth in the following panel.
1
This chapter is adapted from Chapter 2 of the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Man
ual.
!
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Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy goals of UNDP and UNDRO
With the aim of ensuring that developing countries are fully aware of disaster r
isks
and take advantage of the most effective techniques for disaster mitigation,
UNDP and UNDRO seek to:
" Strengthen the ability of societies to avoid, or protect themselves, their
property and means of livelihood, against the risks associated with natural and
human-made hazards.
" Encourage the integration of disaster risk reduction and preparedness
measures in planning and budgetary processes related to development in all
sectors.
" Build on local understanding and experience of disaster threats and coping
mechanisms.
" Facilitate exchanges between disaster-prone countries of experience,
knowledge and skills related to disaster management.
" Ensure that programmes and projects funded by UNDP contribute to lessening
of risks, are not themselves subject to major risks and do not exacerbate the
potential adverse effects of hazards.
Q. At what point in the UNDP country programming and project
cycle can a program officer address mitigation opportunities?
A.
Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity
Almost all countries have established some institutional arrangements for the
various aspects of disaster management. Many have instituted some risk
reduction and/or disaster preparedness measures. Some countries are welladvanced, others less so. This national capacity for risk assessment, mitigation
planning, and implementation will need to be determined, based on an appraisal
of the Governments mitigation policies, strategies, and measures.
Appraisal is needed and must enable the resident representative to determine,
with the Government:
" Whether technical assistance is required for hazard and risk assessments.
" The priority to assign to risk reduction and preparedness in the country
program.
" The extent to which risk reduction measures can be incorporated into
projects being planned or undertaken in various sectors.
" The need for freestanding risk reduction and/or preparedness projects.
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Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy
goals of UNDP and
UNDRO.
From UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual.
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Informed judgements must be made concerning the likely hazard effects, the
adequacy and cost-effectiveness of existing risk reduction and preparedness
measures, and on the capacity of all concerned to act on these measures.
Appendix 2B of the manual lists what to consider in this appraisal.
The appraisal will be the basis for the inclusion of disaster-related concerns i
n the
UNDP Advisory Note and Administrators Note, which draw on or address the
issues listed in panel 2B/1 of the manual. They may also refer to UNDPs policy
with respect to reaching the objectives of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction.
Panel 2B/1
Elements to be explicitly considered during the early stages of country
programme development
" The experience of recent disasters.
" The extent to which the relationship between hazards and socio-economic
objectives is explicitly addressed in national development plan, sectoral or
multi-sectoral studies.
" The effects of natural disasters on past development activities, including tho
se
funded by UNDP through the country programme.
" Discussions in World Bank Consultative Group meetings, and UNDP-assisted
Round Tables, that underscored the link between disaster and development.
" The options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and setbacks
to development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into
general development activities.
" Specific possibilities for reducing risks and enhancing national and local-lev
el
preparedness through technical assistance within sectoral programmes.
" The availability of national and international resources for mitigation.
" The possible usefulness of technical assistance to assess needs in disaster
mitigation.
" The institutional arrangements for inter-sectoral co-ordination of disaster
mitigation activities.
Panel 2B/1
Elements to be
explicitly considered
during the early
stages of country
programme
development.
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Management Manual.
121
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Q. Choose one sector with which you are familiar, such as housing,
health, agriculture, etc. Then, with this sector in mind, analyze your own
experiences and responsibilities with the elements in Panel 2B/1.
A.
Identify the most recent major disaster in your country.
Is the extent of the relationship between hazards and socio-economic objectives
explicitly addressed
in national development plan, sectoral or multi-sectoral studies?
What have been the effects of natural disasters on past development activities?
Are there discussions in World Bank Consultative Group meetings and UNDP-assiste
d Round Tables
that underscore the link between disaster and development?
What are the options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and se
tbacks to
development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into general
development
activities?
Identify one specific possibility for reducing risks and enhancing national and
local-level preparedness
through technical assistance within sectoral programs.
What is the availability of national and international resources for mitigation?
What is the possible usefulness of technical assistance to assess needs in disas
ter mitigation?
What institutional arrangements exist for inter-sectoral coordination of disaste
r mitigation activities?
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Sources of information: needs for technical expertise
The integration of all elements involved in risk assessment is a complex,
multidisciplinary task. The resident representative, in collaboration with other
members of the UN-DMT, should:
a) Determine whether the relevant government ministries or other organizations
have already compiled relevant risk assessment data, or whether they are
capable of doing so.
b) Review the available information, and identify any gaps or inadequacies in th
e
available information.
Where more data collection and analysis is required, the resident representative
and the UN-DMT should:
a) Identify in-country and regional institutions that could be approached to
gather and consolidate the required data.
b) Encourage the Government to begin the required studies.
c) Define requirements for technical assistance in data gathering and analysis,
where needed.
Technical assistance from UNDRO should be requested as necessary.
The analysis should be undertaken before the Advisory Note is prepared, where
possible. With Government and UNDP Headquarters consent, SPR funds may be
made available for this purpose if required.
The analysis and the consequent discussions with the government and other
concerned agencies should lead to the definition of a strategy that addresses
disaster-related issues in the country program.
Project identification and formulation
Project identification and selection must take into account hazard-related risks
and national mitigation policies and strategies. There are two contexts to consi
der:
a) Possible interaction between proposed projects in all sectors, and known
hazards in the project areas. The chief aim of such projects is improvement in
the sector concerned. But because a project is in a known hazard area, it must:
" Be protected from the hazard
" Not increase the vulnerability of the population to the hazard
" Not worsen the existing hazard or create a new one.
b) Possible need for freestanding disaster mitigation projects to reduce the risk
of disaster or enhance national preparedness. The chief aim of such projects is
to improve some aspect of disaster managementfor example to prepare
national and local-level preparedness plans, or to equip and train officials and
community leaders for effective disaster response.
Freestanding disaster mitigation projects aim at reducing the risk of disaster b
y
reducing or eliminating the hazard or societys vulnerability to it, or by increas
ing
the capacities of organizations, officials, and communities to prepare for and
respond to the hazard. Such projects can be placed within one organizational
sector, for example a Ministry of Health or Interior. However, the multi-sectoral
impact of disasters makes it more appropriate to place the project in more than
one sector, or under the domain of a lead entity responsible for coordinating
multiple sectors.
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Typical freestanding disaster mitigation projects are:
a) Institution-building projects which strengthen the capacity of governmental
institutions to incorporate disaster management considerations in the
planning process, or to undertake risk assessment.
b) Projects to prepare national or sub-national disaster preparedness plans,
develop warning and response mechanisms, and ensure the necessary
training.
c) Projects to introduce or strengthen particular kinds of protective measures,
such as controlling floods or introducing cycloneor earthquake-resistant
construction.
d) Projects to strengthen famine early warning systems, and the links between
these systems and disaster management bodies, in countries prone to
drought, crop failure, and uncertain food supply.
Projects which have one or more aspects of disaster mitigation as their principa
l
objective should normally be designed byor at least be developed in
consultation withUNDRO.
Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas
Projects whose activities are located in known hazardous areas must be
appraised from a disaster risk perspective, regardless of their sector or
institutional framework. This is the same approach used to review projects from
an environmental perspective, or from a women-in-development perspective.
This applies to the reviews conducted at both field and headquarters levels.
While it may be easy to see the necessity for incorporating risk reduction in a
project involving the construction of infrastructure, it also applies to institu
tionbuilding projects. For example, health personnel should be trained in how to dea
l
with the aftermath of a disaster, and school teachers should be involved in
organizing their communities response to warnings.
Appraisals must consider whether the project and its outputs might be adversely
particular hazard impacts on the various elements at risk and on the society as
a
whole?
# What measures have been taken, or are planned, to reduce the risks? How effect
ive
are they? Have additional specific measures been identified as feasible options?
# Why have they not been adopted or implemented yet?
Institutional arrangements for disaster management
# What arrangements exist at national level? Is there an entity in the national
government with specific responsibility for all phases of disaster management? I
s it
adequately staffed, trained, and funded? Is it properly placed within the govern
ment
structure?
# Are there specific entities at the regional, subregional, and community levels
specifically responsible for disaster management? Are they adequately staffed,
trained, and funded?
Warning and other preparedness measures
# Are mechanisms in place that can issue warnings of disaster threats to populat
ions at
risk? Are warnings given with sufficient lead time? Do they make clear the risks
involved and the action to take?
# Are there established arrangements at local and national levels? Are all conce
rned
aware of their responsibilities, the procedures to follow, and arrangements for
coordination? Are these plans widely understood and regularly tested?
# Are there adequate communications systems including back-up systems, for use i
n
disaster response?
Human resources for disaster management
# Is there a training programme for disaster managers?
# Is there public information and education programme?
Disaster risk reduction
planning checklist for
UNDP country
programme purposes
From Appendix 2A,
UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual
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Disasters and Development (DAD) Project Review Form
(DRAFT FOR EXPERIMENTAL USE)
*
Form completed as an attachment to:
Prodoc / Annual Review / Evaluation / Other
Project no. and title
Proposed UNDP budget Expected duration
Geographical location
Disaster history (summary) of the location/area: [Type; frequency (everymonths/ye
ars or
unpredictable); effects; last occurred]:
The underlying and direct causes of the vulnerability of the society to the know
n hazards:
Effects which hazards could have on project structures and activities: how these
1/ A/46/568.
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A/46/L.55
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1. Adopts the text contained it the annex to the present resolution for
the strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of
the United Nations system;
2. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General Assembly at
its forty-seventh session on the implementation of the present resolution.
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ANNEX
I. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
1. Humanitarian assistance is of cardinal importance for the victims of
natural disasters and other emergencies.
2. Humanitarian assistance must be provided in accordance with the
principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality.
3. The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of States must
be fully respected in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. In
this context, humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of
the affected country and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the
affected country.
4. Each State has the responsibility first and foremost to take care of the
victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its
territory. Hence, the affected State has the primary role in the initiation,
organization, coordination, and implementation of humanitarian assistance
within its territory.
5. The magnitude and duration of many emergencies may be beyond the response
capacity of many affected countries. International cooperation to address
emergency situations and to strengthen the response capacity of affected
countries is thus of great importance. Such cooperation should be provided in
accordance with international law and national laws. Intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations working impartially and with strictly
humanitarian motives should continue to make a significant contribution in
supplementing national efforts.
6. States whose populations are in need of humanitarian assistance are
called upon to facilitate the work of these opganizations in implementing
humanitarian assistance, in particular the supply of food, medicines, shelter
and health care, for which access to victims is essential.
7. States in proximity to emergencies are urged to participate closely with
the affected countries in international efforts, with a view to facilitating,
to the extent possible, the transit of humanitarian assistance.
8. Special attention should be given to disaster prevention and preparedness
by the Governments concerned, as well as by the international community.
9. There is a clear relationship between emergency, rehabilitation and
development. In order to ensure a smooth transition from relief to
rehabilitation and development, emergency assistance should be provided in
ways that will be supportive of recovery and long-term development. Thus,
emergency measures should be seen as a step towards long-term development.
/...
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10. Economic growth and sustainable development are essential for prevention
of and preparedness against natural disasters and other emergencies. Many
emergencies reflect the underlying crisis in development facing developing
countries. Humanitarian assistance should therefore be accompanied by a
renewal of commitment to economic growth and sustainable development of
developing countries. In this context, adequate resources must be made
available ot address their development problems.
11. Contributions for humanitarian assistance should be provided in a way
which is not to the detriment of resources made available for international
cooperation for development.
12. The United Nations has a central and unique role to play in providing
leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to
support the affected countries. The United Nations should ensure the prompt
and smooth delivery of relief assistance in full respect of the
above-mentioned principles, bearing in mind also relevant General Assembly
resolutions, including resolutions 2816 (XXVI) and 45/100. The United Nations
system needs to be adapted and strengthened to meet present and future
challenges in an effective and coherent manner. It should be provided with
resources commensurate with future requirements. The inadequacy of such
resources has been one of the major constraints in the effective response of
the United Nations to emergencies.
II. PREVENTION
13. The international community should adequately assist developing countries
in strengthening their capacity in disaster prevention and mitigation, both at
the national and regional levels, for example, in establishing and enhancing
integrated programmes in this regard.
14. In order to reduce the impact of disasters there should be increased
awareness of the need for establishing disaster mitigation strategies,
particularly in disaster-prone countries. There should be greater exchange
and dissemination of existing and new technical information related to the
assessment, prediction and mitigation of disasters. As called for in the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, efforts should be
intensified to develop measures for prevention and mitigation of natural
disasters and similar emergencies through programmes of technical assistance
and modalities for favourable access to, and transfer of, relevant technology.
15. The disaster management training programme recently initiated by the
Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator and the United
Nations Development Programme should be strengthened and broadened.
16. Organizations of the United Nations system involved in the funding and
the provision of assistance relevant to the prevention of emergencies should
be provided with sufficient and readily available resources.
/...
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17. The international community is urged to provide the necessary support and
resources to programmes and activities undertaken to further the goals and
27. The United Nations should, building upon the existing capacities of
relevant organizations, establish a central register of all specialized
personnel and teams of technical specialists, as well as relief supplies,
equipment and services available within the United Nations system and from
Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, that can
be called upon at short notice by the United Nations.
28. The United Nations should continue to make appropriate arrangements with
interested Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations to enable it to have more expeditious access, when necessary, to
their emergency relief capacities, including food reserves, emergency
stockpiles and personnel, as well as logistic support. In the context of the
annual report to the General Assembly mentioned in paragraph 35 (i) below,
the Secretary-General is requested to report on progress in this regard.
29. Special emergency rules and procedures should be developed by the United
Nations to enable all organizations to disburse quickly emergency funds, and
to procure emergency supplies and equipment, as well as to recruit emergency
staff.
30. Disaster-prone countries should develop special emergency procedures to
expedite the rapid procurement and deployment of equipment and relief
supplies.
/...
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V. CONSOLIDATED APPEALS
31. For emergencies requiring a coordinated response, the Secretary-General
should ensure that an initial consolidated appeal covering all concerned
organizations of the system, prepared in consultation with the affected State,
is issued within the shortest possible time and in any event not longer than
one week. In the case of prolonged emergencies, this initial appeal should be
updated and elaborated within four weeks, as more information becomes
available.
32. Potential donors should adopt necessary measures to increase and expedite
their contributions, including setting aside, on a stand-by basis, financial
and other resources that can be disbursed quickly to the United Nations system
in response to the consolidated appeals of the Secretary-General.
VI. COORDINATION, COOPERATION AND LEADERSHIP
(a) Leadership of the Secretary-General
33. The leadership role of the Secretary-General is critical and must be
strenthened to ensure better preparation for, as well as rapid and coherent
response to, natural disasters and other emergencies. This should be achieved
through coordinated support for prevention and preparedness measures and the
optimal utilization of, inter alia, an inter-agency standing committee,
consolidated appeals, a central emergency revolving fund and a register of
stand-by capacities.
34. To this end, and on the understanding that the requisite resources
envisaged in paragraph 24 above would be provided, a high-level official,
emergency relief coordinator, would be designated by the
Secretary-General to work closely with and with direct access to him, in
cooperation with the relevant organizations and entities of the system
dealing with humanitarian assistance and in full respect of their
mandates, without prejudice to any decisions to be taken by the General
Assembly on the overall restructuring of the Secretariat of the United Nations.
This high-level official should combine the functions at present carried out in
the
coordination of United Nations response by representatives of the