Chapter 9

Relativity
v1

m1
F 21

F 12

m2

v2

F I G U R E 9.1Two particles interact

with each other. According
to Newton’s third law, we must have
: :
F 12 F 21.
 S S′
v
y y′
P (event)

vt x′
x

O x O′ x′

F I G U R E 9.2
An event occurs at a point
P. The event is seen by two observers O
and O in inertial frames S and S , where
S moves with a velocity :v relative to S.
 M1

Ether wind
Arm 1
v

M0 Arm 2
M2

Telescope

Figure 9.3
In the Michelson interferometer, the
ether theory claims that the time of
travel for a light beam traveling from
the beam splitter to mirror M1 and
back will be different from that for a
light beam traveling from the beam
splitter to mirror M2 and back. The
interferometer is sufficiently sensitive
to detect this time difference.
 v v

O' O'
A' B' A' B'

A O B A O B

(a) (b)

F I G U R E 9.4 (a) Two lightning bolts strike the ends of a moving boxcar. (b) The events appear to be simultaneous to the
observer at O, who is standing on the ground midway between A and B. The events do not appear to be simultaneous to the
observer O riding on the boxcar, who claims that the front of the car is struck before the rear. Note that the leftward-
traveling light signal from B has already passed observer O , but the rightward-traveling light signal from A has not yet
reached O .
 v v
Mirror
y′ y′

O′ O′ O′ O′
c ∆t
2
O d
x′ x′

v∆t
v∆t 2
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.5
A mirror is fixed to a moving vehicle, and two observers measure the time interval between two events: the leaving of a light pulse
from a flashlight and the arrival of the reflected light pulse back at the flashlight. (a) Observer O , riding on the vehicle, sees the
light pulse travel a total distance of 2d and measures a time interval between the events of tp . (b) Observer O is standing on the
Earth and sees the mirror and O move to the right with speed v. Observer O measures the distance that the light pulse travels to
be greater than 2d and measures a time interval between the events of t. (c) The right triangle for calculating the relationship
between t and tp .
 Muon is created
≈ 6.6 × 102 m

Muon decays

(a)

Muon is created

≈ 4.8 × 103 m

Muon decays
(b)

F I G U R E 9.6 (a) Without relativistic

considerations, muons created in the
atmosphere and traveling downward
with a speed of 0.99c would travel only
about 6.6 102 m before decaying
with an average lifetime of 2.2 s.
Therefore, very few muons would
reach the surface of the Earth. (b)
With relativistic considerations, the
muon’s lifetime is dilated according to
an observer on Earth. As a result,
according to this observer, the muon
can travel about 4.8 103 m before
decaying, which results in many of
them arriving at the surface.
 Speedo Goslo Speedo Goslo
(a) (b)

F I G U R E 9.7(a) As Speedo leaves his twin brother, Goslo, on the Earth, both are the same age. (b) When Speedo returns
from his journey to Planet X, he is younger than Goslo.
y′

Lp

O′ x′
(a)
y
L
v

O x
(b)

Figure 9.8

(a) According to an observer in a

frame attached to the meter stick
(that is, both the stick and the
frame have the same velocity), the
stick is measured to have its proper
length Lp. (b) According to an
observer in a frame in which the
meter stick has a velocity : v
relative to the frame, the stick is
measured to be shorter than the
proper length Lp by a factor
(1 v 2/c 2)1/2.
 y y
v

Lp L
(a) (b)

F I G U R E 9.9 (Example 9.3) (a) When the spacecraft

is at rest, its shape is measured as shown. (b) The
spacecraft is measured to have this shape when it
moves to the right with a speed v. Note that only its x
dimension is contracted in this case.
 S S′
y y′ v
P (event) Q (event)

vt x′ ∆x ′
x ∆x

O x O′ x′
F I G U R E 9.10 Events occur at
points P and Q and are observed by
an observer at rest in the S frame and
another in the S frame, which is
moving to the right with a speed v.
 y y′
S (attached S ′ (attached to A)
to the Earth) 0.750c –0.850c

A B

O x O′ x′
F I G U R E 9.11 (Example 9.4) Two spacecraft A and B move in
opposite directions.
 Police officer at
rest in S
0.75c

0.90c

F I G U R E 9.12 (Example
9.5) David moves to the east
z David with a speed 0.75c relative to
y the police officer, and Emily
x travels south at a speed 0.90c
Emily relative to the officer.
 Relativistic
K/mc 2
case

2.0 Nonrelativistic
case
1.5

1.0

0.5

u
0.5c 1.0c 1.5c 2.0c
F I G U R E 9.13 A graph comparing relativistic and
nonrelativistic kinetic energy of a particle. The
energies are plotted as a function of speed u. In the
relativistic case, u is always less than c.
 vel = 0 ael = + g ˆj ael = + g ˆj vel = 0
ael = 0 ael = 0

g = – g ˆj g = – g ˆj

(a) (b) (c) (d)

F I G U R E 9.14 (a) The observer is at rest in an elevator in a uniform gravitational field g

:
g ĵ , directed downward. The
observer drops his briefcase, which moves downward with acceleration g. (b) The observer is in a region where gravity is
negligible, but the elevator moves upward with an acceleration : a el g ĵ . The observer releases his briefcase, which moves
downward (according to the observer) with acceleration g relative to the floor of the elevator. According to Einstein, the
frames of reference in parts (a) and (b) are equivalent in every way. No local experiment can distinguish any difference
between the two frames. (c) In the accelerating frame, a ray of light would appear to bend downward due to the acceleration.
(d) If parts (a) and (b) are truly equivalent, as Einstein proposed, part (c) suggests that a ray of light would bend downward
in a gravitational field.
 Apparent
F I G U R E 9.15Deflection of starlight direction to star
passing near the Sun. Because of this Deflected path of light
effect, the Sun or other remote from star 1.75"
objects can act as a gravitational lens. Light from star
In his general theory of relativity, Sun (actual direction)
Einstein calculated that starlight just Earth
grazing the Sun’s surface should be
deflected by an angle of 1.75 seconds
of arc.
(a) (b)

Figure Q9.16
2.00 m

30.0°

Direction of motion

Figure P9.17
S S′
v = 0.800c

u = 0.900c

x x′

Figure P9.20
 (Courtesy of Garmin Ltd.)

Figure P9.45 This Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver

incorporates relativistically corrected time calculations in its
analysis of signals it receives from orbiting satellites, allowing the
unit to determine its position on the Earth’s surface to within a
few meters. If these corrections were not made, the location error
would be about 1 km.