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TUTORIAL REVIEW
www.rsc.org/csr
Introduction
Ever since the birth of Green Chemistry, solvents have occupied
a central place in the eort to make chemical processes greener.
This is because solvents often contribute a disproportionately
large amount to the waste generated in a given process,
particularly if that process involves many purication steps.
Solvents are not normally incorporated into nal products and,
although recycle is possible, the solvents are eventually lost to
the environment or require disposal as waste. Furthermore,
since most of the solvents in current use are derived directly or
indirectly from petroleum, there are signicant drivers to nd
replacements which have a greener life cycle and reduced
environmental impact.14
Xue Han
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Martyn Poliako
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The basics
Before going into the detailed examples of continuous ow
reactions in scCO2, we rst describe a general setup for such
processes, Fig. 1.
CO2 is delivered from cylinder usually by a chilled pump
because CO2 is too compressible at room temperature to be
pumped easily. The substrate stream contains pure starting
materials, mixed with a catalyst and co-solvent as necessary.
Gaseous reactants, such as hydrogen and oxygen, are introduced into the system separately via a dosing unit or mass-ow
controller (not illustrated). Static mixers are often included to
ensure complete mixing before the reactants pass into the
reactor. The size and shape of the reactor is varied to suit
the particular reaction, but tubular reactors are commonly
used because of their ease of construction. Nevertheless, there
are many examples of custom designed reactors for specic
experiments. For heterogeneous catalysis, the catalyst can be
packed to form a xed bed, and usually a heating block is
attached to the catalyst bed to control the reaction temperature.
After the mixture has passed through the reactor, the product
stream can be collected by releasing the system pressure, usually
via a back pressure regulator. A number of on-line analytical
techniques have also been developed, including on-line gas
chromatography,33 see below. Finally, it is worth noticing that
the pressure in this system is controlled by the back pressure
regulator. Therefore reactions can, if necessary, be run under
pressure without CO2 merely by switching o the CO2 pump.
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Although it is an appealing idea to run two reactions sequentially to achieve higher energy eciency of scCO2 processes,
sequential reactions always require careful planning of the
experiments to match the rates of the production. Probably
this is why only a few examples of sequential reactions have
been reported. Another more general solution for tackling the
energy costs of scCO2 processes is to use lower pressures of
CO2 merely to expand liquid reactants or solvents, to form
so-called gas-expanded-liquids (GXLs). This method not
only reduces the energy requirement but also greatly enhances
solubility of polar reactants and catalysts compared to pure
scCO2. Furthermore, expansion by CO2 renders gaseous
reactants, such as H2 and O2, more soluble than in neat organic
solvents.46 An extensive review of GXLs has been published by
Jessop and Subramaniam47 and more recently Akien and
Poliako gave a critical look at the reactions in CO2 expanded
liquids.48 Because of the many advantages of using CO2 for the
reactions involving H2, a large number of the published papers
involve hydrogenation reactions in GXLs, and there is an
extensive review of this area by Seki et al.49
Although batch and semi-batch reactors are more often
used for reactions in GXLs, several examples of continuous
ow reactions using xed bed reactors have also been
reported.5052 The higher solvent power of GXLs compared
to scCO2 oers an opportunity for reactions with higher
molecular complexity. This aspect of GXLs has been exploited
to dissolve homogeneous catalysts or substrates which have
only poor solubility in pure CO2. For example, Clark et al.
carried out the hydrogenation with H2 of the complex
pharmaceutical intermediate sertraline, using a Pd/CaCO3
catalyst in THF/CO2, Scheme 5.53 The reaction showed superior
selectivity towards the cis products compared to the published
Scheme 5 Diastereoselective hydrogenation of sertraline imine53 in gas expanded THF, the rst example of a pharmaceutical intermediate being
hydrogenated in CO2.
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Scheme 6
Debenzylation of 1,4-debenzyloxybenzene.55
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Scheme 11 The selective acidcatalysed diastereoselective oxidation66 of methionine derivatives observed only at 180 bar pressure in scCO2.
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Oxidation
Apart from reaction selectivity, a strong dependence of reaction rate on pressure has also been found in some cases where
CO2 has been used as solvent. For example Caravati et al.,
reported68 that in the catalytic oxidation of benzyl alcohol to
benzaldehyde in CO2 (0.8% toluene), the conversion rose from
25% to 75% when the pressure was increased from 140 to 150
bar, Fig. 7.
This increase in conversion was again closely linked to the
phase behaviour of the reaction mixture; the authors believed
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statistically useful amounts of data to be obtained whilst decreasing the amount of manual control and monitoring required during
an experiment. Furthermore, the on-line sampling system
permitted quantication of all products, including those volatile
compounds, such as dimethyl ether (bp: 24.8 1C), that would
evaporate during the expansion stage of a non-automated reactor.
This technique has then been applied to a range of dierent
reactions, such as hydrogenation,42 aldol condensation,41 and
methylation.65
However, this automated reactor varies only a single parameter
at a time during an experiment and, because it does not account for
interactions between parameters, a large amount of unnecessary
data must be collected for every possible parameter combination to
cover all the potential reaction environments. Recently, Parrott
et al. developed a reactor capable of self-optimisation;78 it combines
the use of an automated reactor with feedback generated by an
evolutionary search algorithm, Fig. 9. All the data of reaction
parameters such as pressure, temperature, the ow rates of CO2
and organic substrates are used as inputs for the control algorithm,
which is based on the super modied simplex (SMSIM)
algorithm.79 This algorithm then outputs control signals to change
the temperature, pressure, and the ow rates of the pumps to new
values calculated to improve the yield of desired product. Two
reactions, the dehydration of ethanol and the carboxymethylation
reaction of dimethylcarbonate, Scheme 13, were chosen to validate
this self-optimising reactor. Three parameters of the reactions
(pressure, temperature and CO2 ow rate) were varied at the same
time. This greatly improved the eciency of the optimisation;
maximising the yield of 2b or 2c. Each optimisation took
ca. 35 h to complete, far less than the time required to cover the
Conclusions
This review has considered some of the problems associated with
continuous reactions in scCO2. By far the most serious problem is
the energy cost associated with compressing CO2. In the long
term, it may well be possible to oset this energy burden by
exploiting CO2, already compressed in Carbon Capture and
Storage. However, large scale implementation of CCS is still
some years o. Therefore in the short term, the most promising
strategy will be to deploy CO2 in applications where there is a
genuine chemical advantage to be gained by its use. The most
obvious area is oxidation where the chemical inertness of CO2
cannot be matched by other common solvents apart from water.
The use of singlet oxygen in scCO2 is particularly promising
because 1O2 has a very short lifetime in water. In addition, there
are now sucient examples to suggest that scCO2 can give
unusual or improved selectivity in a range of reactions compared
to more conventional solvents. Overall, the current surge in
interest among organic chemists in ow chemistry makes it likely
that continuous reactions in scCO2 will nd an increasing number
of applications in the coming years.
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Acknowledgements
We thank Professor M. W. George, Dr R. A. Bourne and all
our colleagues and collaborators whose work is included in
this review, as well as our technical sta for their invaluable
support. We also thank those organisations that have funded
our research including EPSRC, Thomas Swan & Co Ltd.,
AstraZeneca, Johnson Matthey, Shasun, the EU SYNFLOW
project and the University of Nottingham.
Chem. Soc. Rev., 2012, 41, 14281436
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