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CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Electronic and Charge-Transfer Processes
in Photocatalysis
3. Preparation of Nanostructured Materials
and Thin Films
4. Structural Properties of Nanocrystalline
TiO2 Films
5. Electrical Properties of Nanocrystalline
TiO2 Films
6. Photocatalytic Properties
of Nanocrystalline TiO2
7. Photocatalytic Applications
of Nanocrystalline TiO2
Glossary
References
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of novel materials and the assessment of
their potential application constitutes a major fraction of
todays scientic reasearch efforts. In fact, there exist various major governmental research and development programs related to nanostructured materials. Furthermore, it
is estimated that nanotechnology has grown into a multibillion dollar industry and may become the most dominant single technology of the twenty-rst century. To allow
for this fact, this encyclopedia [1] encompasses a series
of contributions devoted to a very prominent eld of current materials research activities, namely, nanoscience and
nanotechnology. The importance of these developments is
reected also in a number of recent books and articles
reviewing this rapidly evolving eld [210].
This article focuses on a specic class of such novel
nano-scaled materials, nanocrystalline TiO2 , and its photocatalytic properties. The title of this article encompasses
three main terms ((photo)catalysis, nanocrystalline, and
TiO2 ) which, individually, stand for very important areas
of scientic research and of, perhaps even more important,
technological applications. Their synergistic combination, as
ISBN: 1-58883-062-4/$35.00
Copyright 2004 by American Scientic Publishers
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
506
one part in one billion (109 and, hence, its correct usage
would require it being connected to some kind of unit (e.g.,
of length, time, energy, mass, etc.). In the present context
(and in that of nanotechnology), nano most often relates
to the dimension, that is, the size of an object. Therefore,
nanocrystalline in the ensuing discussions will designate particles (of crystalline structure and, primarily, with the chemical composition of titanium dioxide) whose typical sizes are
in the range of a few to several nanometers (nm), that is, of
the order of the one billionth part of one meter. Obviously,
these are extremely tiny objects and can be seen and studied only with the help of sophisticated analytical instruments
like an electron microscope.
At rst glance, it may appear that such tiny particles are
a rather modern contrivance, but this is probably a premature conclusion. In fact, it is quite rmly established that
nm-sized particles (mostly very refractory ones like corundum, diamond, or silicon carbide) are ubiquitous in the universe [14] and that they were already present at the time
and the location of the formation of the solar system. This
stardust originated from stellar outows and supernova
ejecta, which may have occurred eons before the gas and
dust condensed into what is now the sun, the earth, and the
planets. In fact, this dust has intrigued astronomers since
the days of William Herschel who noted, in the 1780s, the
existence of small regions in the sky where there appeared
to be a complete absence of stars [15]. These regions are
most easily seen against the rich star-elds of the Milky Way.
Evidence of the presolar origin of these nanocrystalline particles comes primarily from their isotopic abundance pattern [16], which deviates typically to such an extent from
any other known matter that a terrestrial or solar origin
is virtually impossible. (Most of these particles that have
been investigated were extracted from primitive meteorites
in which they were incorporated during the formation stage
of the solar system; these did not experience any later modication and, hence, preserved the presolar dust particles
unaltered [17].)
Only now, some billions of years later, mankind has initiated the manufacture and application of such nanocrystalline materials. Nanostructured materials with crystal sizes
in the range of 550 nm of a variety of materials, including metals and ceramics, have been articially synthesized by
many different techniques in the past couple of years [2, 3,
57]. Such new ultrane-grained materials have properties
that are often signicantly different and greatly enhanced
as compared to coarser-grained or bulk substances. These
favorable changes in properties result generally from their
small grain sizes, the large percentage of atoms in grain
boundaries and at surfaces, the large surface-to-bulk ratio,
and the interaction between individual crystallites. Since
these features can be tailored to a considerable extent, during synthesis and processing, such nanophase materials are
thought to have great technological potential even beyond
their current applications.
Let us nally turn to a brief discussion of the third term,
TiO2 ( i.e., titanium dioxide). TiO2 has three different crystal structures [18]: rutile, anatase, and brookite; only the former two of them are commonly used in photocatalysis. Like
for many other metal oxides (also for titanium oxide) have
the respective structural, optical, and electronic properties
507
occur; molecular oxygen is often assumed to serve as the oxidizing agent. Such semiconductor-mediated redox reactions
are commonly grouped under the rubric of heterogeneous
photocatalysis [21].
In a heterogeneous photocatalytic system, photo-induced
molecular reactions take place at the surface of the catalyst. Depending on where the initial excitation occurs,
photocatalysis can be generally divided into two classes of
processes [22]: In the case that the initial photoexcitation
occurs in the adsorbate molecule, which then interacts with
the ground state catalyst substrate, the process is referred
to as a catalyzed photoreaction. On the other hand, when
the initial excitation takes place in the catalyst substrate and
the excited catalyst transfers an electron or energy into a
ground state molecule, this process is referred to as a sensitized photoreaction [22]. Apparently, a considerable degree
of synergism may be crucial when, for example, a transition
metal oxide photocatalysts is combined with supramolecular
spectral sensitizing ligand complexes used to harvest light
and vectorially transfer photo-generated electrons and holes
along selected energetic pathways.
In 1972, Fujishima and Honda reported [23] the photocatalytic splitting (i.e., the simultaneous oxidizing and reducing)
of water upon illumination of a TiO2 single-crystal electrode;
in analogy to natural photosynthesis, they demonstrated the
photoelectrolysis of water making use of a photoexcited
semiconductor in what was essentially a photochemical battery. In that system, an n-type TiO2 semiconductor electrode, which was connected through an electrical load to a
platinum counter electrode, was exposed to near-UV light
(cf. Fig. 1). When the surface of the TiO2 electrode was
illuminated with light of wavelength shorter than 415 nm,
photocurrent was observed to ow [23, 24]. Furthermore,
oxygen evolution (i.e., an oxidation reaction) on the TiO2
and hydrogen evolution (a reduction) on the Pt electrode
was observed. The photoexcitation of TiO2 injects electrons
from its valence band into its conduction band; the electrons
ow through the external circuit to the Pt cathode where
water molecules are reduced to hydrogen gas and the holes
remain in the TiO2 anode where water molecules are oxidized to oxygen. These observations indicate that water can
be decomposed by means of UV-VIS light according to the
e-
load
e-
e-
H2O
eCB
VB
H2O
e- Pt
TiO2
H2
O2
following scheme
electron-hole pair
formation in TiO2
2H+ + 2e H2
reaction at the
Pt electrode
H2 O + 2h 1/2O2 + H2
overall reaction
508
electron-hole
pair formation
e + Mn+ Mn1+
reduction reaction
h + H2 Oads OH + H
OH + Rads Rads + H2 O
oxidation of
adsorbed water
oxidation of
organic species
509
2. ELECTRONIC
AND CHARGE-TRANSFER
PROCESSES IN PHOTOCATALYSIS
A-
CB
VB
D+
A
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of the photoexcitation in a semiconductor particle followed by deexcitation events. CB and VB designate
the conduction and valence band, respectively. For further details see
text.
510
semiconductor
E [eV]
vacuum
0.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
-4.0
SiC
(n,p)
GaAsP GaP
(n,p) (n,p)
GaAs
(n,p)
CdSe
(n)
CdS
(n)
WO3 SnO2
(n) (n)
TiO2
(n)
-5.0
-6.0
-6.5
-7.0
-7.5
-8.0
-1.5
-1.0
ZnO
(n)
-4.5
-5.5
-2.0
-0.5
Eu2+/3+
0.0
H2/H+
0.5
[Fe(CN)6]3-/4Fe2+/Fe3+
1.0
E=
1.4 2.25 2.25
eV
eV eV 1.7
eV
1.5
3.0
eV
2.5
eV
Ru(bipy)2+/3+
2.0
3.0
3.2
eV
3.2
eV
-8.5
- + - +
- + +
- +
+ + -
E
CB
CB
Ec
EF
Ec
EF
Eref
EV
Eref
EV
VB
VB
(a)
(b)
- +
+ -
+ + -
+
+
+
+
+ + -
E
E
CB
Eref
CB
Eref
Ec
EF
Ec
EF
EV
EV
VB
VB
(c)
(d)
kT
2e
w
LD
2
(1)
Ce4+/3+
2.5
3.2
eV
electrolyte
+ - + + +
- + - +
3.5
4.0
3.8
eV
kT
6e
R
LD
2
(2)
511
CB
CB
D*
VB
VB
D+
AVB
(a)
CB
h
VB
CB
e-
CB
A-
D+
VB
VB
(b)
Figure 5. Sensitized photoreaction with (a) an initial excitation of the
adsorbate, or (b) an initial excitation of the solid.
(3)
ER = Eg +
2R2 me
mh
R
512
cluster
LUMO
CB
Eg
shallow
trap
deep trap
deep trap
surface
state
VB
HOMO
Figure 6. Schematic correlation diagram relating bulk-semiconductor
electronic states to quantum crystalline states. Adapted from [110],
M. G. Bawendi et al., Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 41, 477 (1990). 1990,
Annual Reviews.
Here Eg is the bandgap of the bulk semiconductor, the second term is the quantum energy of localization, increasing
as R2 for both electron and hole, and the third term is the
Coulomb attraction [99]; whereas the Coulomb term shifts
ER to smaller energy as R, the quantum connement
contribution increases ER as R2 . As a result, the apparent bandgap will always increase for small enough R. But
while the shift can be appreciable (1 eV) for small band
gap materials like InSb, it might be considerably smaller
(0.2 eV) for semiconductors with a large bandgap like
TiO2 or ZnO [99]. Apart from a large effect on the optical properties (e.g., a change in color of the material due
to the blue shift of the absorption), size quantization may
also lead to major changes in the photocatalytic properties.
While these effects have been studied in great detail for several compound semiconductor materials like CdS, ZnO, or
PbS, related data for TiO2 appear to be still rather limited.
(5)
(6)
h = Ch Eg n
(7)
s3/2 2
c 1 + 2s 2 + 22
(8)
= n. It follows that the imaginary part
of the dielectric constant is a direct measure of the light
absorption by the particles; it increases steeply near the
absorption edge, that is, for close to the threshold frequency. As noted in [69], Mies theory has been widely
employed to interpret the extinction spectra of colloidal systems [118]. For example, the brilliant ruby or yellow colors
caused, respectively, by colloidal gold or silver particles are
distinctly explained by this theory.
3. PREPARATION OF
NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS
AND THIN FILMS
Several distinct techniques have been utilized in recent years
to synthesize nanocrystalline TiO2 thin lms by chemical,
electrochemical, and organized assembly methods [69, 119
121]. A simple approach involves casting of the thin lm
directly from colloidal suspensions [122]. This method of
preparation is relatively simple and inexpensive compared
with other existing methods such as chemical vapor deposition or molecular beam epitaxy. Preparation of nanoclusters
in polymer lms and LangmuirBlodgett lms has also been
considered. The solgel technique has been found to be useful in developing nanostructured semiconductor membranes
with either a two-dimensional or three-dimensional conguration. Organic-template-mediated synthesis has been
employed to develop nanoporous materials. The nanostructured materials are highly porous and can easily be surface
modied with sensitizers, redox couples, and/or other nanostructured lms.
Typically, these thin TiO2 lms exhibit interesting photochromic, electrochromic, photocatalytic, and photoelectrochemical properties that are inherited from the native
colloids. The synthetic procedure involves the preparation
of ultrasmall particles (diameter 210 nm) in aqueous or
ethanolic solutions by controlled hydrolysis. The colloidal
suspension is coated onto a conducting glass plate (an optically transparent electrode (OTE)) and dried; nally, the
lm is annealed at 200400 C in air for some 12 h.
The conducting surface facilitates direct electrical contact of
the nanostructured thin lm. This simple approach of coating preformed colloids onto a surface and annealing generally produces an oxide lm, which is robust and exhibits an
excellent stability in both acidic and alkaline media, a feature very important in several potential applications. Generally, some optimization is required for thicker lms and for
higher colloidal concentrations in order to avoid cracking
of the lms upon drying. Further details of the methodology of preparation can be found in [134136]. Transmission electron micrographs of nanostructured lms prepared
from colloidal suspensions show a three-dimensional network of oxide nanocrystals of particle diameter as small
as a few nanometers. No signicant aggregation or sintering effects are observed during the annealing process. X-ray
diffraction analysis also conrms the crystallinity of these
nanostructured lms. Composite lms, which in some cases
may exhibit improved properties as compared to singlecomponent lms, can be manufactured by mixing two or
more components prior to casting of the lm.
Titania sol and gel prepared through the hydrolysis of
tetrabutyl titanate in acid water solution are sensitive to
ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and turn into blue color [137].
Electron spin-resonance measurement showed that the photochromism was ascribed to the presence of titanium (III)
ions in the Ti-O-Ti network. The titanium (III) ions could
be oxidized by the oxygen in the atmosphere, and then the
sol and gel faded slowly. The absorption peaks in the optical
absorption spectra of the titania gel were attributed to the
transition of 3-dimensional electrons of a trivalent titanium
in certain environments.
The morphology of TiO2 particles affects their catalytic
activity and electrical properties. In recent years, many
methods for preparing TiO2 nanoparticles and thin lms
have been studied [138]. TiO2 nanocrystals prepared by the
solgel method often have fully hydroxylated surfaces and
these hydroxyl groups have a strong inuence on the catalytic and photocatalytic properties such as electron-transfer
rates and reducing properties [139]. In order to develop
photocatalysts with high activities, it is very important to
prepare porous anatase nanoparticles with a high specic
surface area. Furthermore, the preparation method should
be simple and should be a low temperature process. Mixtures of rutile and anatase precipitates could be obtained
by the hydrothermal treatment of an alcohol solution of Ti
alkoxide at 573 K [140], while anatase nanoparticles were
prepared by heat treatment of a H2 OEtOH solution of
TiOSO4 at 373 K [141]. Thus, the anatase and rutile particles
were usually formed in a solution by conventional soft chemical synthesis methods. The preparation of monodispersed
oxide particles by the solgel method enables the manufacture of oxide particles through a gel state with a regulated
513
particle growth rate [142144]. In a recent study [145],
anatase nanoparticles were prepared in a Ti-peroxy gel without the collapse of the gel during the particle formation
process. The gel was made from titanium tetraisopropoxide
(Ti(O iPr)4 and H2 O2 .
The crystallization rate of titania gels was found to be
much higher in water than in methanol or n-hexane [146];
also, the crystallite size of anatase prepared in water was
larger than those in organic solvents. Processing parameters
very often control the crystallite size and phase. Nonagglomerated, ultrane anatase particles have been generated by hydrothermally treating solgel-derived hydrous
oxides [147]. The degree of crystallinity and purity of the
synthesized materials may affect their structural evolution
during any heat treatment.
TiO2 thin lms with different surface structures were prepared from alkoxide solutions containing polyethylene glycol
(PEG) via the solgel method [148]. The larger the amount
of PEG added to the precursor solution, the larger the size
and number of pores produced in the resultant lms. When
PEG was added to the gel, the lms decomposed completely
during heat treatment. The adsorbed hydroxyl content of
such porous thin lms is found to increase with increasing
amount of PEG. However, the transmittance of the lms
decreases due to the scattering of light by pores of larger
size and a higher number in the lms. Photocatalytic degradation experiments show that methyl orange is efciently
decolorized in the presence of the TiO2 thin lms by exposing its aqueous solution to ultraviolet light. However, in lms
deposited on soda-lime glass [149], diffusion of sodium and
calcium ions from the glass into the nascent TiO2 lms was
found to be detrimental to the photocatalytic activity of the
resulting lms. Sodium and calcium diffusion into nascent
TiO2 lms was effectively retarded by a 03 m SiO2 interfacial layer formed on the soda-lime glass [149, 150].
TiO2 thin lm photocatalysts coated onto glass plates were
prepared [151] by thermal decomposition of tetraisopropyl
orthotitanate with a dip-coating process using alphaterpineol as a highly viscous solvent. Two types of ligands
polyethylene glycol 600 and (ethoxyethoxy)ethanolwere
added to the dip-coating solution as the stabilizer of titanium alkoxide and thin lms were obtained after calcination
at 450 C for 1 h. The lm thickness obtained with a single
dipping was proportional to the viscosity of the dip-coating
solutions. The thin lms obtained were transparent with a
thickness of 1 m. The crystal form of the lms was anatase
alone. The thin lms were formed with aggregated nanosized TiO2 single crystals (715 nm), and the size of the TiO2
crystals became smaller for the polymer-added systems.
Transparent anatase TiO2 -based multilayered photocatalytic lms synthesized via a solgel process on porous
alumina and glass substrates showed a sponge-like microstructure and a mean crystallite dimension of ca. 8 nm [152].
Doping such lms with iron(III) impeded the photocatalytic
activity.
The effects of calcination on the microstructures of nanosized titanium dioxide powders prepared by vapor hydrolysis was investigated in detail [153155]: Among the factors
examined [153], large surface area and good dispersion
of the powders in the reaction mixture are favorable to
photoactivity. Conversely, prolonged calcination at high
514
temperatures is detrimental to photoactivity. Powders produced at higher temperatures are predominantly anatase
and are generally more photoactive.
The formation, structure, and photophysical properties
of functional mixed lms of 5,10,15,20-tetra-4-(2-decanoic
acid)phenyl porphyrin (TDPP) with TiO2 nanoparticles
formed from the two-dimensional solgel process of tetrabutoxyltitanium (TBT) at the air/water interface was reported
[156]. The composite multilayer lms were assembled by
transferring the mixed monolayer onto quartz plates. The
sensitization of TDPP upon TiO2 nanoparticles was conrmed by the spectral changes of UV-visible absorption and
uorescence of TDPP in the composite lms. Furthermore
the photosensitization greatly affected the photocatalytic
activity of TiO2 particles with respect to the degradation of
methylene blue.
Crystalline titania thin lms were obtained [157] on glass
and various kinds of organic substrates at 4070 C by deposition from aqueous solutions of titanium tetrauoride. Transparent lms consisting of small anatase particles (20 nm)
exhibited excellent adhesion to relatively hydrophilic surfaces. Uniform coatings were successfully prepared on substrates with complex shapes such as cotton and felt ber.
Growth rate and particle size were controlled by both the
deposition conditions and the addition of an organic surfactant. Organic dyes were incorporated into the anatase lms
using organic-dye dissolving solutions and a surfactant.
nucleated must be removed from the region of high supersaturation. Since the aggregates are already entrained in the
condensing gas, this is readily accomplished by setting up
conditions for moving this gas.
Typically, there are three fundamental rates that essentially control the formation of the clusters in the gascondensation process [160]. These are
(i) the rate of supply of atoms to the region of supersaturation where condensation occurs,
(ii) the rate of energy removal from the hot atoms via
the condensing medium, the gas,
(iii) the rate of removal of the cluster upon nucleation
from the supersaturated region.
The clusters that are collected via thermophoresis on the
surface of a cold nger usually form very open, fractal structures. The clusters are held on the collector surface rather
weakly, via Van-der-Waals forces, and are easily removed by
means of a scraper. The material removed is consolidated
in a compaction unit at typical pressures of 12 GPa; the
scraping and consolidation are carried out under ultra-highvacuum conditions in-situ after the removal of the gas from
the chamber, in order to maximize the cleanliness of the
particle surfaces and the interfaces that are formed.
515
the lms experienced a rising phase, followed by a dramatic
drop with an increasing number of Au particles. Ultrane
Pt particles [191] were embedded into rutile TiO2 particles
by decomposing a colloidal organic-Pt complex, resulting in
very narrow size distribution with a mean diameter of 3 nm.
These nm-sized Pt particles were found to grow epitaxially
on the TiO2 crystallites with a well-dened crystallographic
relationship.
Doping a nano-structured TiO2 electrode sensitized with
tetrasulfonated gallium phthalocyanine with tetrasulfonated
zinc porphyrin (ZnTsPP) greatly enhances the photoelectric conversion at long wavelengths, with 20- and 60fold improvement of the quantum efciency at 680 and
700 nm [195].
Semiconductor/metal composite nanoparticles have been
synthesized [196] by chemically reducing HAuCl4 on the surface of preformed TiO2 nanoparticles. These gold-capped
TiO2 particles (diameter 1040 nm) were stable in acidic
(pH 24) aqueous solutions. The role of the gold layer
in promoting the photocatalytic charge transfer has been
probed using thiocyanate oxidation at the semiconductor
interface. More than 40% enhancement in the oxidation efciency was found with TiO2 /Au nanoparticles capped with
low concentration of the noble metal.
Magnetic photocatalysts were synthesized by coating titanium dioxide particles onto colloidal magnetite and nanomagnetite particles [197]. The photoactivity of the prepared
coated particles was lower than that of single-phase TiO2
and was found to decrease with an increase in the heat
treatment. These observations were explained in terms of
an unfavorable heterojunction between the titanium dioxide
and the iron oxide core, leading to an increase in electronhole recombination.
TiO2 -based powders, doped with a small amount of
SiO2 , were prepared by a solgel method and were subsequently heated to precipitate ne anatase crystals [198].
The obtained powders have large specic surface areas
(200 m2 /g) and upon treating them chemically with aqueous NaOH, the photocatalytic property of the powders was
extremely improved and the powders showed higher activity
than the undoped TiO2 powders.
In composite TiO2 -SiO2 thin lms prepared by a solgel
process, the refractive index and the photocatalytic activity
decrease with increasing SiO2 content in these lms [199].
Alkoxide solgel processing has been investigated for the
synthesis of stable SiO2 -TiO2 high-permeability catalytic
membranes to be used in alkene isomerization [200].
Nanocrystalline TiO2 was prepared on mesoporous silica both by solgel processes [201] and by an impregnation method with titanium complexes featuring different
ligands [202].
Binary mixed oxide of Fe/Ti (1:1 composition) with homogeneous distribution of iron into the TiO2 has been prepared
by solgel impregnation using metal alkoxide precursors and
ring at different temperatures (500, 700, and 900 C) [203].
The mixed oxide exhibits excellent absorption in the visible
spectral region (570600 nm). The photocatalytic activity of
the Fe/Ti oxide reduces to a large extent at a high sintering
temperature of the sample due to the presence of a increasing amount of the inactive (Fe2 /TiO5 pseudobrookite phase.
Nanostructured TiO2 /SnO2 binary oxides were prepared by
516
combustion of stearic acid precursors [204], with metal precursors being dispersed in the stearic acid at the molecular
level. It was found that preparative methods affected the
crystalline structure of the powders and the anatase phase
of TiO2 was stabilized by the addition of SnO2 .
Spray painted (spray deposited) titanium dioxide
coatings were sensitized [205] with chemically deposited
cadmium selenide thin lms; the structural, optical, and photoelectrochemical characterization of these composite lms
indicate the importance of thermal treatments in improving
the photocurrent quantum yields. Up to 400 C, the effect
of air annealing is to shift the onset of absorption to longer
wavelengths and improve the photocurrent substantially.
Organic compounds may play a crucial role in chemical
processes for ceramic coatings [206]. Organic compounds
remained in a xed position in the coating, which was prepared from the chemically modied titanium tetraisopropoxide solution and heated at temperatures as high as 673 K. It
was not until the organic compounds decomposed to carbon
dioxide and the gas phase was left from the coating that the
nanostructure, consisting of nano-sized pores and anatase
crystallites with preferred orientation, developed at 723 K.
Cobalt(II) 4,4 ,4 ,4 -tetrasulfophthalocyanine, covalently
linked to the surface of titanium dioxide particles, TiO2 CoTSP, was shown [207] to be an effective photocatalyst for
the oxidation of sulfur (IV) to sulfur (VI) in aqueous suspensions. Upon bandgap illumination of the semiconductor,
conduction-band electrons and valence-band holes are separated; the electrons are channeled to the bound CoTSP
complex resulting in the reduction of dioxygen, while the
holes react with adsorbed S(IV) to produce S(VI) in the
form of sulfate.
The photoactivity of the Pt/TiO2 system in the visible
region was improved [208] by the addition of the sensitizer
([Ru(dcbpy)2 (dpq)]2+ [where dcbpy = 4,4 -dicarboxy 2,2 bipyridine and dpq = 2,3-bis-(2 -pyridyl)-quinoxaline] leading to an efcient water reduction.
Photocatalytic properties for hydrogen production were
investigated [209] on layered titanium compounds intercalating CdS in the interlayer, which were prepared by direct
cation exchange reactions and sulfurization processes. The
photocatalytic activity of the compounds intercalating CdS
was superior to those of simple CdS and the physical mixture of CdS and metal oxides. The improvement might be
attributed to the formation of microheterojunctions between
the CdS nanoparticles and the layers of oxides.
517
4. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
OF NANOCRYSTALLINE TiO2 FILMS
4.1. The Lattice Structure of Rutile
and Anatase
Three different crystal structures of TiO2 exist [18]: rutile,
anatase, and brookite; only the former two of them are commonly used in photocatalysis, with anatase typically exhibiting the higher photocatalytic activity [232]. The structure
of rutile and anatase can be described in terms of chains
of TiO6 octahedra. The two structures differ by the distortion of each octahedron and the actual pattern of the
chains. Figure 7 depicts the unit cell structures of rutile and
anatase crystals [233235]. Each Ti4+ ion is surrounded by an
octahedron of six O2 ions. The octahedron in rutile shows
a slightly orthorhombic distortion, whereas the respective
octahedra in anatase are signicantly distorted, resulting
in a symmetry that is lower than orthorhombic. The Ti-Ti
distances in anatase are greater (0.379 and 0.304 nm as compared to 0.357 and 0.296 nm in rutile) while the Ti-O distances are shorter than in rutile (0.1934 and 0.1980 nm in
anatase versus 0.1949 and 0.1980 nm in rutile). In the rutile
structure, each octahedron is in contact with 10 neighboring
ones (two sharing edge oxygen pairs and eight sharing corner oxygen atoms), whereas in the anatase crystal each octahedron is in contact with eight neighbors (four sharing an
edge and four sharing a corner). These differences in lattice
structure result in different mass densities ( = 4250 g/cm3
for rutile and = 3894 g/cm3 for anatase) and electronic
band structures for the two forms of TiO2 .
Synthetic titanium oxide crystallizes in two polymorphs:
anatase and rutile. Anatase is metastable and transforms
exothermally and irreversibly to rutile. Some properties of
TiO2 may strongly depend on its polymorphic phase. The
anatase-rutile transformation is strongly inuenced by the
synthesis method, atmosphere, grain growth, and impurities. Some additives, such as ZrO2 and Al2 O3 , retard the
anatase-rutile transformation, whereas others, such as CoO
and ZnO, accelerate such a process [236]. The anatase-torutile phase transformation of doped nanostructured titania
was studied [237] using differential thermal analysis (DTA)
and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The presence of Cu and Ni
was found to enhance transformation as well as sintering.
Titanium
90
81.21
Oxygen
78.12
92.43
518
the dissociation of water [252, 253]. The number of studies on the structural properties of anatase single crystals
is considerably smaller, which appears to be largely due to
the difculties encountered in preparing such surfaces in a
defect-free state. Nevertheless, a rather distinct picture of
the anatase TiO2 surface structure [254257] and its properties in terms of adsorption/desorption reactivity [258260]
has been achieved.
The structure and composition of a nanocrystalline surface may have a particular importance in terms of chemical and physical properties because of their small size. For
instance, nanocrystal growth and manipulation relies heavily on surface chemistry [261]. The thermodynamic phase
diagrams of nanocrystals are strongly modied from those
of the bulk materials by the surface energies [262]. Moreover, the electronic structure of semiconductor nanocrystals
is inuenced by the surface states that lie within the bandgap
but are thought to be affected by the surface reconstruction process [263]. Thus, a picture of the physical properties
of nanocrystals is complete only when the structure of the
surface is determined.
To understand and improve the applications of titaniumoxide nanoparticles, it is extremely important to perform a
detailed investigation of the surface and the interior structural properties of nanocrystalline materials, such as rutile
and anatase with diameter of a few nanometers. Detailed
experiments using X-ray absorption near-edge structure
spectroscopy (XANES) demonstrated [264] that the presence of both defects and surface states strongly inuence
the X-ray absorption spectra, even though the rst nearestneighbor geometrical arrangement around the central Ti
atom in both rutile and anatase is quite similar: the differences in the XANES spectra arise from the outer-lying
atomic shells, indicating that medium to long-range
effects play an important role to the near-edge features.
In another study of this kind [265], a shorter Ti-O distance for surface TiO2 , resulting from Ti-OH bonding was
observed together with a minor disorder of the lattice
in smaller nanoparticles. Nevertheless, the Ti sites largely
remain octrahedral even in particles with diameters of 3 nm.
Because the interfacial electron/hole transfer occurs via surface Ti or O atoms, the observed structural changes around
the surface Ti atoms in small TiO2 particles could be responsible [265] for the unique photocatalytic properties.
A qualitative analysis of opaque nanostructured glasssupported TiO2 lms was carried out [266] using scanning
force microscopy (SFM), and surface parameters such as
average grain diameter, roughness exponent, and fractal
dimension [267] were determined. The TiO2 surfaces exhibit
distinct roughness due to the large aggregates formed by the
interconnected TiO2 particles. Fractal dimension was found
to range between 2.10 and 2.45, depending on the scanned
range and the preparation method. The surface morphology of nanocrystalline materials prepared by compacting
nanometer-sized clusters was investigated by SFM [268];
these materials had a grain size of 515 nm and contained
about 1019 interfaces per cubic centimeter. Upon heat treatment, grains were found to fuse together forming bamboolike structures and then lined up as tubular structures.
The inuence of the iron concentration in mixedoxide (TiO2 and Fe2 O3 thin lms prepared by reactive
5. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
OF NANOCRYSTALLINE TiO2 FILMS
Most studies into the carrier transport in nanocrystalline
TiO2 were carried out with the lms in contact with electrolytes, mostly due to their use in highly efcient electrochemical solar cells, often called Grtzel cells [38, 71]. In
this application, the pore surface is covered with an ultrathin
organic dye layer and contacted with an electrolytic solution
that penetrates the pore structure. The experimental work
indicates [271274] that in this conguration the electrolyte
screens any electric eld within the porous structure and
establishes diffusion conditions for the carrier propagation.
On the other hand, investigations in which the nanopores
are in contact with an insulating medium (a gas or vacuum)
may allow one to obtain quantitative insight into the electronic properties of the material and the basic feature of carrier transport. In a series of measurements [275277] on the
electron transport in nanoporous TiO2 lms with gas-lled,
insulating pores employing Pt/TiO2 , Schottky barrier structures indicate a barrier height of 1.7 eV, compatible with an
electron afnity of 3.9 eV for the TiO2 lms. Below 300 K,
tunneling transport through the barrier occurs, resulting in
barrier lowering effects. Carrier drift mobilities, recombination lifetimes, and their dependence on injection level
in TiO2 are reported. It is found that the mobility-lifetime
product is independent of injection level, while drift mobility
and recombination lifetime change strongly with injection.
A trap-lling model appears as the most plausible model
compatible with the experimental ndings [277]. Comparison with recent experiments on nanoporous lms in contact
with electrolytes indicate that the transport and recombination mechanism is qualitatively similar for the two cases.
519
Such a power dependence of on the oxygen partial pressure was noted also in recent work [297] investigating electrical and defect thermodynamic properties of nanocrystalline
titanium oxide. At high O2 pressures, p(O2 > 1 mbar,
the conductivity is constant, whereas at values p(O2 <
1014 mbar a steep increase of with decreasing pressure
was found, following a power dependence p(O2 n with
n = 1/2 [297]. The plateau of conductivity at high oxygen pressures can be interpreted as being a domain of ionic
conductivity, an unexpected behavior for titanium dioxide.
In a coarse-grained material, dominant hole conductivity is
observed in this partial pressure range. This difference may
be due to the high density of grain boundaries in nanocrystalline ceramics, which can be preferred paths for diffusion at reduced temperatures. Furthermore, an increase in
ionic conductivity is also expected due to enhanced defect
formation in the space charge regions adjacent to grain
boundaries [298]. At low oxygen partial pressure, nanocrystalline TiO2 exhibits enhanced electronic conductivity as
compared to coarse-grained TiO2 . The power exponent n =
1/2 can be explained under the assumption that doubly
charged titanium interstitials are formed. The intrinsic disorder of titanium dioxide is reputedly of the cationic Frenkeltype [299302], although alternative defect models based
on Schottky disorder are also described in the literature
[303, 304]. In the domain of ionic conductivity, the activation energy of conduction is 10 01 eV [297], a value
typical of migration enthalpies for ionic defects. By contrast,
the activation energy in the reduction-controlled regime was
found to be 39 02 eV.
In titanium oxide thin lms prepared by a d.c. sputtering technique onto glass substrates with average grain sizes
of 100200 nm, the surface structure and phase morphology
of the lms was found [305] to depend on the deposition
conditions. The current-voltage characteristics of these lms
are ohmic for values of applied voltage lower than 0.5 V.
For higher values, the mechanism of electrical conduction
is determined by space-charge-limited currents [306]; then,
a power-law dependence was observed with n 2.32.9. In
much thicker Ti oxide lms (1.98 m) deposited by sputtering [307], both the surface roughness and the internal
surface area increased with lm thickness; this resulted in an
enhancement of the incident photon-to-current efciency.
Electrical and optical spectroscopic studies of TiO2
anatase thin lms deposited by sputtering showed [308, 309]
that the metastable phase anatase differs in electronic properties from the well-known, stable phase rutile. (From the
broadening of the X-ray diffraction peaks, the average grain
size of the lms is estimated to be in the range of 3040 nm
[308].) Resistivity and Hall-effect measurements revealed an
insulator-metal transition in a donor band in anatase thin
lms with high donor concentrations. Such a transition is
not observed in rutile thin lms with similar donor concentrations. This indicates a larger effective Bohr radius
of donor electrons in anatase than in rutile, which in turn
suggests a smaller electron effective mass in anatase. The
smaller effective mass in anatase is consistent with the
high-mobility, bandlike conduction observed in anatase crystals. It is also responsible for the very shallow donor energies in anatase. Luminescence of self-trapped excitons was
520
observed in anatase thin lms, which implies a strong lattice relaxation and a small exciton bandwidth in anatase.
Optical absorption and photoconductivity spectra show that
anatase thin lms have a wider optical absorption gap than
rutile thin lms. The extrapolated optical absorption gaps of
anatase and rutile lms were found to be 3.2 and 3.0 eV,
respectively, at room temperature.
The observation of space charge limited currents (SCLC)
in nanoscaled pure and chromium-doped titania was
reported [310] and both the free-charge carrier density and
the trapped-charge carrier density were given.
Photoconductivity was also studied in compound systems;
for example, in a TiO2 -C60 bilayer system the conductivity
increases signicantly in the fullerene upon irradiation at
wavelengths <300 nm [311].
Although being an efcient photocatalyst for the detoxication of organically charged waste water, titanium dioxide suffers from the drawback of poor absorption properties
because of a bandgap of 3.2 eV. Thus, wavelengths shorter
than 400 nm are needed for light-induced generation of
electron-hole pairs. That is the reason why doping with transition metal ions is interesting for inducing a reduction of the
bandgap. However, this doping changes other physical properties such as lifetime of electron-hole pairs and adsorption
characteristics [312].
6. PHOTOCATALYTIC PROPERTIES
OF NANOCRYSTALLINE TiO2
Most experimental investigations reported a higher photocatalytic efciency in the anatase TiO2 phase; as a possible reason it was suggested that the recombination of the
electron-hole pairs produced by UV irradiation occurs more
rapidly on the surface of the rutile phase, and the amount of
reactants and hydroxides attached to this surface is smaller
than on the surface of the anatase phase.
The study of the photocatalytic activity of nanocrystalline
TiO2 materials is a longstanding research effort [313315];
in most lab-scale experiments it was evaluated by means
of the degradation observed for typical substances (e.g.,
aqueous methyl orange, methylene blue, etc.) upon exposure of the specimen to UV irradiation. In such a way,
the possible inuence of light intensity, structural properties, surface morphology, phase and chemical composition,
resulting from various deposition or preparation methods,
could conveniently be explored [316320]. Furthermore,
any correlation with the optical or electrical properties of
the nanocrystalline lms could thereby be investigated. In
addition, alternative approaches have come under scrutiny.
A new simple method for characterizing photocatalytic
activity by measuring photo-generated transient charge separation at the surface of semiconductor photocatalysts was
proposed [321]. In this technique, the charge separation generated by a pulse dye laser is obtained as a function of the
incident laser energy; thereby, the photocatalytic activity and
the type of surface reaction (reduction or oxidation) in titanium dioxide lms were rapidly determined. In the following
sections some examples of such studies will be given.
521
polycrystalline anatase titanium dioxide [336]. Self-cleaning
and antifogging effects of TiO2 lms prepared by magnetron
sputtering were investigated [161, 163] in terms of the photocatalytic behavior by measuring the decomposition of methylene blue and the reduction of the contact angle between
water and TiO2 under ultraviolet irradiation. The phase conversion from the rutile to the anatase TiO2 lm leads to an
enhancement of the activity; the anatase lms with the best
photocatalytic behavior are prepared at higher total pressures (>1.50 Pa) and characterized by a high decomposition
efciency, a contact angle about 10 after irradiation, and a
good stability in darkness.
Titanium dioxide thin lms prepared with various surface morphologies by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition were found to exhibit reversible wettability control by
light irradiation [337]. These TiO2 surfaces became highly
hydrophilic by UV irradiation, and returned to the initial
relatively hydrophobic state by visible-light (VIS) irradiation. The hydrophobic-hydrophilic conversion induced by
UV light was ascribed to the increase in dissociated water
adsorption on the lm surface. By contrast, the conversion from hydrophilic to hydrophobic by VIS irradiation was
caused by the elimination of water adsorbed on the surface due to the heat generated. Changes of the water contact angle between hydrophilic states and hydrophobic ones
strongly depended on the roughness of the lm surface.
The self-cleaning property of thin transparent TiO2 coatings on glass under solar UV light was studied [338] for two
compounds: palmitic (hexadecanoic) acid and uoranthene,
which are both present in the atmospheric solid particles.
The removal rates of layers of these compounds sprayed on
the self-cleaning glass were found to be sufcient for the
expected application. The identied intermediates (about
40 for each compound) show the gradual splitting of the
palmitic acid chain and the oxidative openings of the aromatic rings of uoranthene. In the case of palmitic acid,
the products give some indications about the photocatalytic
mechanism. About 20% of the organic carbon contained in
the initial compounds was transformed into volatile carbonyl
products.
An extreme photo-induced hydrophilicity was achieved
[339, 340] when TiO2 lms were covered by SiO2 overlayers (with 1020 nm in thickness). These multilayer lms
exhibited much more extreme hydrophilicity than a TiO2
lm without overlayer. The surface analyses revealed that
the enhanced photo-induced hydrophilic surface of the multilayer lms exhibited an improved photocatalytic activity
towards decomposition of organic substances on their surfaces. An extreme light-induced superhydrophilicity was also
reported [341] for mesoporous TiO2 thin lms (crystallite
size 15 nm, surface area 50 m2 /g, pore size 3.6 nm).
For such lms, the water contact angle was found to be
reduced essentially to zero upon UV-irradation for a duration of about 60 min. In addition, the photocatalytic activity
of those lms could be enhanced by treating the substrate
surfaces with an H2 SO4 solution [342].
In order to investigate the cathodic photoprotection of
the steel from corrosion, stainless steel was coated with
TiO2 thin lms, applied by a spray pyrolysis [343]. It
was concluded that these coatings exhibit both a cathodic
522
h
CB
VB
Schottky
Barrier
metal
semiconductor
1.0
without Pt
0.5 wt% Pt
1 wt% Pt
0.8
TOC/TOC0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
20
40
60
80
100
120
523
the following systems: Au-modied TiO2 [352, 353], silvermodied titanium particles [354], transition-metal doped
TiO2 photocatalysts [355357], or rare-earth-doped TiO2
nanoparticles [358].
It should be noted in this context that various analytical
techniques like transmission electron microscopy or scanning force microscopy are often very useful in determining
the size of the particles and their distribution in the bulk
and at the surface of these nanocrystalline materials.
CB SnO2
VB
h'
VB +
A
A+
(a)
TiO2
CdS
h
CB -
B
-
CdS CB
S*
B-
CB
h
S
h'
VB +
VB
A+
CB
S+
CB
A
VB
S+
AVB
VB
(b)
Figure 11. Photo-induced charge separation in composite semiconductor particles: (a) capped and (b) coupled semiconductor nanocrystallites. Photo-generated charge carriers move in opposite directions.
Figure 12. Sequence of excitation and charge-transfer steps using a dyemolecule sensitizer. In the rst step, the sensitizer (S) is excited by an
incident photon of energy h and an electron is transferred into the
conduction band of the semiconductor particle; the electron then can
be transferred to reduce an organic acceptor molecule (A) adsorbed on
the surface.
524
dye
e-
S+/ S*
4
e-
S+/ S
e-
I- / I3-
5
e-
load
e-
7. PHOTOCATALYTIC APPLICATIONS
OF NANOCRYSTALLINE TiO2
While many examples of the photocatalytic activity of
nanocrystalline TiO2 have been presented already in the
foregoing sections, the following discussions will focus on
novel and important (and sometimes large-scale) applications. A very prominent area appears to be environmental
catalysis [31, 32, 45] which, in recent years, has expanded
considerably beyond the traditional elds like NOx removal
from stationary and mobile sources, or the conversion of
volatile organic compounds (VOC). According to [381],
these potential new areas include:
(i) catalytic technologies for liquid or solid waste
reduction or purication;
(ii) use of catalysts in energy-efcient catalytic technologies and processes;
(iii) reduction of the environmental impact in the use or
disposal of catalysts;
(iv) new ecocompatible renery, chemical or nonchemical catalytic processes;
(v) catalysis for greenhouse gas control;
(vi) use of catalysts for user-friendly technologies and
reduction of indoor pollution;
(vii) catalytic processes for sustainable chemistry;
(viii) reduction of the environmental impact of transport.
Hence, (photo)catalysis in environmental applications can
be instrumental in promoting the quality of life and environment, in promoting a more efcient use of resources, and in
promoting sustainable processes and products.
Because of the tremendous importance of those environmentally related areas, the use of nanocrystalline TiO2 for
such photocatalytic applications is illustrated in this section
by means of selected examples. Before doing so, it is stressed
that there exists at least one other rather important issue
in this context. In fact, hydrogen production from aqueous
solutions using semiconductor particles such as, CdS, TiO2 ,
WO3 as photocatalysts is envisaged to become a potential
525
composed of a IO
3 /I shuttle redox mediator and two different TiO2 photocatalysts, Pt-loaded TiO2 -anatase for H2
evolution and TiO2 -rutile for O2 evolution. Simultaneous
gas evolution of H2 (180 mol/h) and O2 (90 mol/h) was
observed from a basic (pH = 11) NaI aqueous suspension
of two different TiO2 photocatalysts under UV irradiation
( > 300 nm, 400 W high-pressure Hg lamp). An extensive review [383] assesses photocatalytic efciencies with reference to hydrogen production by means of light energy
in the presence and absence of loaded metals, electrondonors/acceptors, and hole scavengers.
whereas it inhibited that of acetone. As for the effect of photon ux, it was found that photocatalytic degradation occurs
in two regimes with respect to photon ux: for illumination levels distinctly blow 10002000 W/cm2 , the photocatalytic degradation rate increased linearly with photon ux,
whereas for power densities above that value, the rate was
found to scale with the square root of the ux. Figure 14
shows some of those data [388], depicting in panel (a), the
degradation of methanol as a function of UV illumination
time for ve different initial concentrations. (Using TiO2
anatase nanocrystallites with 7 nm diameter in a solution,
in this work photocatalytic TiO2 lms were deposited onto
glass substrates by dip-coating.) The reaction kinetics were
found to follow the L-H model, in which the reaction rate r
varies proportionally with the surface coverage according
to
kKc
1 + Kc
(9)
20
(a)
methanol
15
10
5
0
10
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
(b)
0.0
10
15
20
25
526
concentration (mol/l)
CR
OG
MR
60
40
20
50
100
150
200
[427] under TiO2 photocatalytic and photosensitized conditions in aqueous buffering solutions. The size and strength of
intramolecular conjugation determines apparently the lightfastness of the dyes; the more powerful OH radicals in TiO2
photocatalytic process are highly reactive towards the azo
dyes.
527
the photocatalytic degradation of industrial residual waters,
the use of peroxydisulfate (S2 O2
8 ) as an additional oxidant
(electron scavenger) was observed to have an outstanding
effect, producing an important increase in the degradation
rate [437]. The impact of pH and the presence of inorganic
ions and organic acids commonly found in natural waters on
rates of TiO2 photocatalyzed trinitrotoluene (TNT) transformation and mineralization was examined [438]. Raising
the pH slightly increased the rate of TNT transformation,
primarily as a result of an increased rate of TNT photolysis, but signicantly reduced rates of mineralization due to
increased electrostatic repulsion between the catalyst surface
and anionic TNT intermediates. The presence of inorganic
anions did not substantially hinder TNT transformation at
alkaline pH, but mineralization rates were diminished when
the anion either adsorbed strongly to the photocatalyst or
was an effective hydroxyl radical scavenger.
Immobilized TiO2 photocatalysts were used to sterilize
and reclaim the wastewater of bean sprout cultivation from
a continuous hydrocirculation system [439]. The photocatalysts effectively killed bacteria and degraded organic pollutants in the wastewater. Stimulation of bean sprout growth
and suppression of decaying pathogens were also induced by
the TiO2 photocatalytic activity.
Photocatalytic decomposition of seawater-soluble crude
oil fractions using high surface area colloid nanoparticles
of TiO2 under UV irradiation was explored [440]; although
no mineralization occurred due to photolysis, important
chemical changes were observed in the presence of TiO2 ,
with the degradation reaching 90% (measured as dissolved
organic carbon, (DOC)) in waters containing 945 mg C/l of
seawater-soluble crude oil compounds after 7 days of articial light exposure. During light exposure, transient intermediates that showed higher toxicity than the initial compounds
were observed, but were subsequently destroyed. Heterogeneous photocatalysis using TiO2 was considered to be a
promising process to minimize the impact of crude oil compounds on contaminated waters.
TiO2 -photocatalytic degradation of a cellulose efuent
was evaluated [441] using multivariate experimental design.
The efuent was characterized by general parameters such
as adsorbable organic halogens (AOX), TOC, COD, color,
total phenols, acute toxicity, and by the analysis of chlorinated low molecular weight compounds using GC/MS. The
optimal concentration of TiO2 was found to be around 1 g/l.
After 30 min of reaction more than 60% of the toxicity was
removed and after 420 min of reaction, none of the initial
chlorinated low molecular weight compounds were detected,
suggesting an extensive mineralization.
Photocatalysts, based on titanium dioxide, were used for
the purication of contaminated soil polluted by oil [442].
Commercially produced slurry of titanium dioxide was modied with barium, potassium, and calcium. The experiments
were performed under natural conditions in summer months
(July and August) applying direct solar-light irradiation. The
most active photocatalyst for soil purication was titanium
dioxide modied with calcium.
Two different photocatalysts, namely, Hombikat UV100
(Sachtleben Chemie) and P25 (Degussa) have been used in
batch experiments [443] to compare their ability to degrade
the toxic components of a biologically pretreated landll
528
1000
100
800
80
600
60
400
40
200
20
20
40
60
529
GLOSSARY
Charge transfer The transfer of a charge carrier (electron or
hole) from an excited semiconductor to an adsorbed species on
its surface. This transfer may initiate a reaction (oxidation or
reduction) in the adsorbed molecule.
Dye-sensitized semiconductor Adsorbing a suitable dye on
the surface of a wide band gap semiconductor (like TiO2 ) can
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