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h. Plug left nostril, smell with right nostril sends smell to right
hemisphere left side controls speech but cannot speak that they smell it
i. THEREFORE you are only conscious of things that you can verbally
express
3. Unilateral Neglect : Parietal lobe on both hemispheres
a. Damage right lobe you arent conscious of things that happen to your left
side
b. Ask a woman to draw a flower, but she only draws half aka the right side
of a flower. Demonstrates their unawareness of the left side of things
c. Draw only right side of clock
d. Ask them to describe a familiar location describe everything on the right
side
e. Seeing with both sides but left side is ignored (connected to right lobe)
4. Rubber hand illusion
a. See figure 1.6
b. Parietal lobe
c. Premotor cortex
Chapter 2
1. Construction and physiology of the nervous system
2. Neurons
a. Integrate information
b. Send information to other parts of the nervous system
c. Refamiliarize with parts of neuron
3. Types of synapses
a. presynaptic element and the post synaptic element
b. Synapses can be found on dendrites, on cell body, from one terminal to
another terminal directly
c. Figure 2.27
i. Presynaptic specialization
ii. Postsynaptic specialization
iii. Look up jobs
d. 2.28
i. terminal has a bunch of vesicles which migrate to synapse, fuse,
gap, migrate to neurotransmitters
e. 2.29
i. first evidence that showed that synaptic vesicles come to
presynaptic membrane, fuse, release into snaptic space, and
interact with postsynaptic membrane omega
f. 2.30
i. release of neurotransmitter. Presynaptic membrane becomes larger
and larger because keep adding material to it
g. 2.32
i. recycling of the membrane of synaptic vesicles
ii. fusion where release neurotransmitter, becomes larger, release
h. 2.33
l.
m.
n.
o.
Chapter 3
1) Figure 3.1
a) Naming conventions
b) i.e. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) - visual
c) Median geniculate nucleus (MGN) auditory
2) Table 3.1
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
CHAPTER 4
1) FIGURE 4.4 very important to study
d) Peripheral vision
e) Receptors along margins of retina itself for side vision
2) Rods are ON type bipolar cells (Schiller et. al. study using APB to block ON bipolar
cells
a) Detect spots that get brighter
b) Vision in dim light
3) Cones
a) Fovea pit in the center of the retina
i) High concentration of cones
ii) Acuity how easy we can see something
Figure 6.8
1) Photoreceptors (light affects/rods/cones)
2) Bipolar cell second element, intermediator
a) Two protrusions one dendritic extension, one is an axon with associated
terminals
3) Ganglion cell receives information from photo/bi cell
a) Axons of cell make up optic nerve, second cranial nerve itself
4) Interior of the eye are way too the right
5) If light is absorbed to ganglion cell the light is absorbed and you cant see
6) Therefore its not directly behind structure, somewhat offset
7) Eye can collect a lot more light than we need to see
8) Transduction property of all sensory systems
a) Some sort of receptive elements designed to convert some kind of energy or
movement into an electrical signal that the nervous system can eventually
understand
b) Cant see without transductive elements
i) Flash of light for long time, blind for some time
ii) Exhausted all the material needed for this process
iii) Regenerates quickly, unless you damage the cells by looking at the sun
c) Photoreceptor: look at neurotransmitter it uses
i) Uses glutamate neurotransmitter
(1) Excitatory neurotransmitter normally
(2) But in this case it inhibits the bipolar cell
(a) Glutamate receptors in bipolar cell are inhibitory in nature
ii) In the dark photoreceptors leak out glutamate and therefore are constantly
inhibiting bipolar cells
(1) Called the dark current
(2) Measurable
(3) Communication stops vision
(4) When photon of light comes in however, photoreceptor closes positive ion
channels (sodium ie) and as a result bipolar cell is released from inhibition
(5) Remove suppression by light, remove inhibition by bipolar cell, so that it
can undergo some activity
(a) Can in turn excite ganglion cell in turn exciting central nervous
system
9) Neurons with axons vs. without axons
a) Signal travels along axon itself
b) Long distance neuron communication requires axon
c) If neuron is very close to cells of interest doesnt need axon doesnt need
action potential associated with it
i) Action potential if one photon of light hit photoreceptor it would turn off the
inhibition proportionally. Two photons of light effect x2. Etc
(1) Coding amount of information by amplitude of the signal
(2) Action potentials always the same size
(3) Cells with axons code for magnitude based on action potential
ii) Graded potential
(1) Bipolar cell exposed to light
(2) Depolarizing membrane potential
(3) Intracellular recording
iii) Ganglion exposed to disinhibited bipolar cell
(1) Increased rate of firing
10) In fovea close to 1:1:1 relationship for photoreceptor bipolar ganglion
11) Normally its much higher ratio, i.e. for peripheral vision
Figure 6.9
1) Cortex
2) Lateral geniculate nucleus
a) Part of the thalamus (sensory relay area of brain)
b) In human brain
i) Different layers
ii) Layers 2 +4
iii) Layers 4 + 5?
iv) Layers represent which eyeball info is coming from right or left
v) Ipsilateral = same side as eyeball
vi) Contralateral = opposite side eyeball
vii) Retinotopic map
(1) Topographical map for what we see with the eye
viii) When signal sent from lateral geniculate nucleus to cortex preserve map =
called geniculo striate
(1) First name refers to where it started
(2) Second to where it ends up
c) Striate cortex
i) Cortex has six layers to it
ii) Striate cortex is synonymous with primary visual cortex
iii) Visual in nature extra striate cortex
(1) Refers to secondary and tertiary visual cortical areas
(2) Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
1) Visual Field
2) Eyeball overlap in visual field allows stereopsis detect distances of objects
3) Cells in cortex getting info from both eyes
4) Left and right visual field
5) Right field ends up in left hemisphere and vice versa
6) Combine these two things by corpus collosum
Figure 6.12
1) Central visual area precise, 1:1:1
2) Peripheral visual field gross vision
a) Many receptors vs. just one
b) No way of telling which elements detected the light
c) Only know that somewhere in the visual field you saw something
3) Cones have detailed visions = fine detail detection = acuity
Figure 6.13
1) If light is in center of central peripheral field, ganglion can become active
2) If spot of light is off to the side, inhibit ganglion cell
3) Allow to detect more finely, more acuity
4) Off or on ganglion cell
5) On center off surround
6) Off center on surround
7) Allows for greater detail in peripheral vision
8) Processing is preserved in all levels
Color vision
Figure 6.17
1) Three kinds of color cones in eyes
a) Red
b) Green
c) Blue
d) Individuals born without red photoreceptor
e) Trichromatic color theory
i) Red green blindness
ii) Lacking red
iii) Called protanopia
iv) Deuteranopia (lacking green)
v) Tritanopia (lack of blue receptors - blue/green blindness)
f) Can detect stimuli if you have the photoreceptor
g) Limited to the kinds of sensory receptors
2) Figure 6.18
a) Opponent processing theory
i) Explains why we cannot see certain combinations of color
3) Figure 6.19
a) Theoretical understanding
b) When we see red, red light hits red cone, excites ganglion cell
c) Ganglion cell is either excited by red or inhibited by green
4) Organization of retina fulfill the trichromatic theory (see certain colors), but why we
can only see certain color combinations is due to
Figure 6.24 (not tested)
Dorsal stream
-important for detecting where image happened and is it moving
-identifying basic shape
-low freq.
Ventral stream of the cortex necessary to identify objects
-depends on spaces between lines
-interested in identify that im looking at a person and distinguishing them from someone
else
-high spatial freq.
Figure 6.25
1) Low spatial frequency on the left (fewer sine waves than in high spatial freq.)
a) Magnocellular form
i) Cares about movement vs. precise nature of it
ii) Large axons to them
(1) Send information very quickly in the visual system
(2) Milenated
(3) Its more important to react to begin with in a defensive manner than
recognizing, defense and survival factor
(4) Without necessarily knowing why
(5) Fast, for brightness changes
(6) Form of the object
b) Overall shape and form of object, not specifics or particulars about the object (not
distinguishable faces)
2) High spatial freq.
a) Specifics and distinguishable faces
b) Parvocellular detail (small cell)
i) Smaller axons, not nearly as fast at sending information as you get from
magoncellular
ii) Detailed information
iii) Associated with ventral visual pathway
(1) Includes projections coming from parvocellular system
(a) V1,v2, etc.
(b) Koniocellular refers to cells that exists in between layers, related to
blue visual component
(c) Cones in the eye
Change in illumination is an edge Abe Lincoln pictures
Figure 6.27
1) Spatial filtering
Figure 6.29
2) Small section of primary visual cortex, lots associated with it
a) Modular processing fine detail analysis of information that you see in in
b) Stereopsis visual cortex has cells that detect information from specific objects
Figure 6.31
1) Higher visual processing
2) How we actually make perceptions
3) Perception of an object depends on background
6.34
stereopsis
Hierarchical organization
Color constantly constancy
achromatopsia without color vision TEO
1) Cortical color blindness
TE appreceptive visual agonosia
2) Cant necessarily see things to count them but visual experience is lost
6.32
3) Summary of many visual cortical areas that we have
4) Looking at right hemisphere from a backward idrectiion
5) Calcarine sulous
Table 6.2
Figure 6.36
1) Fusiform face area
a) Temporal lobe fusiform face area becomes active when you see various objects
b) Slightly activated, typical to see areas activated outside of the area
c) These areas are important in detecting categorization of faces
d) Damage to this area called prosopagnosia
i) Lack of being able to tell the difference between faces
ii) Strokes, other injuries
iii) Farmer could no longer recognize cows
e) Born with the ability to distinguish faces
f) General area where learning of facial recognition occurs, throughout lifetime
theres plasticity that allows us to learn how to recognize categories of things
g) Is it specifically there to detect faces? Or is the flexible face area, meaning you
can learn a lot of things from this area
Figure 6.41
1) Activation for child is less than adult for fusiform face area
2) Develop over time
3) Right side more active, hemispherical differences?
Figure 6.42
1) Infants spent more time looking at things that are face like in there correct orientation
2) Evolutionary advantage for kids to recognize faces early on, identify caregivers etc.
a) In young infants, magnocellular is the first to develop in people
3) Some individuals born early with prosopagnosia
a) Can recognize that there is a person/face
b) Magnocellular is developed, less developed is parvocellular
4) Some people born with cataracts, clouded lens
a) Test between 9-21 shows people are able to distinguish people from objects but
not individuals, parvocellular system not as developed
5) People born with only one cataract
a) Left eyeball to right hemisphere, and vice versa when youre younger
b) Cataract in left eyeball
i) People are most impaired with prosopagnosia
c) Cataract in right eyeball
i) Can recognize faces early, can recognize individuals, as adults
ii) Fusiform face area right side is more important than the left side for
detecting individuals in temporal cortex
What is the function of the FFA, born detecting the outline of faces but we have to
develop the recognizable ability to faces themselves
-autistic children arent social and miss social interaction that people give by facial
expression themselves b/c dont look in the eye
Figure 6.35
1) Lateral occipital cortex (LOC)
a) Tools, kinds of tools, animals
b) Letters and numbers is important in the left hemisphere (as are most visual areas)
2) Man could identify man but not the objects or vegetables and flowers and things that
make up the man
a) Damaged LOC
Figure 6.38
1) FFA is activated by faces and implied faces
2) Extrastriate body area (EBA) activated by headless bodies and body parts
a) Specialization of different area for face vs. parts of the body
b) Posterior to FFA
c) Activated by photos, silhouettes, drawings
3)
4)
5)
6)
Chapter 7
Transduction
Figure 7.5
1) Bottom picture
a) Sound comes in through external auditory maileus
b) Humans are very sensitive to sound
c) Little bones in ear help to amplify signal being picked up by ear drum,
mechanical advantage, final bone therefore vibrates even more in amplitude
d) Oval window attached to
e) Wave itself deflects and pushes down on central structure called organ of corti
7.4 organ of corti
1) Oval window on top
2) Round window on bottom
3) Base and roof and transducting elements are in between, where you find the receptors
for hearing
a) Roof
i) Tectum
ii) Receptor elements in between
iii) Basiliar membrane
iv) Roof collapses at preferred frequency for particular sound that runs into
receptor elements for hearing:
(a) Outer hair cells (not receptor elements but effector element efferents)
(b) 3x as many outer hair cells as there are inner hair cells
(c) attached between tectum and basiliar membrane, when they contract
they pull elements together.
(i) Afferent (information coming into a particular location) vs.
efferent (where does this nucleus project to, a motor function,
output for a particular brain region)
(d) Selective hearing
(e) Can contract outer hairs cells along outer membrane, activate inner
hair cells, detect very small sound
(f) Motor in function
(2) Inner hair cells (afferent structures/in terms of hearing, are the transducing
elements themselves; detect sound)
(a) Only attached to basiliar membrane
(b) Sensory in function
v) Nerve 8, primary associated with hearing coming from inner hair cells
4)
5)
6)
7)
Wave passes through structure, depress roof to run into receptor elements
How they react where there is depression results in change of hearing, see figure 7.5
Large frequencies result in depression by oval window
Lower frequencies of sound results in depression towards tail, receptor elements
towards tail end are the ones who react
d) Superior olivary nucleus sends information on the same side to the inferior
colliculus
e) Immediately crosses over but some stays on the same side
f) Its difficult to tell which ear the information came from
g) Diagram only represents what happens with one ear
h) Both ears cross very early
i) Superior olive is getting information from BOTH EARS
i) One side is faster than the other
(1) Object must be to the side
ii) If source of sound is in front, hears at same time
(1) Superior olives recognize same time sound, therefore object in front must
be in front
iii) Mandatory relay, regardless of sides there is a synapse
iv) Lateral fissure on sides in cortex
(1) Temporal gyrus of auditory cortex
7.10
1) Primary auditory cortex to anterior parts of the temporal lobe = ventral stream
2) Other direction = dorsal auditory stream
3) Similar to ventral and dorsal functions to visual system
4) Anterior or ventral hearing system asks, what is it that im hearing
5) Dorsal or posterior system asks where is the sound coming from, how do I respond in
terms of location, and can this help me navigate through environment
a) i.e. blind people hear echos
6) medial geniculate nucleus goes to core (primary auditory cortex, A1) projects to
area immediately surrounding area aka the belt or A2 ventral stream projects to the
frontal cortex as well; premotor cortex; prefrontal cortex (decisions about the nature
of that sound) dorsal stream asks where was it that I heard it; goes to parietal
cortex (understanding location and space); sends projections to anterior regions as
well
7) damage to primary auditory cortex and belt region one thinks they cant hear
anything, but they can actually hear things they just arent sure what or where the
sound came from
a) train animals to do an action with different tones, how sensitive are animals to
detecting similar sounds
b) damage primary and secondary auditory cortex they lose the abilty to discriminate
between sounds and they lose the action that they are expected to have
c) parabelt region below is sensitive to environmental sounds: legit sounds you
would hear in the environment (animals, wind, trees, etc.); growl vs. purr as well
d) reactions to primary auditory cortex for same sounds, both regions become
activated if you play the sound. If you play the sound backwards the primary
auditory cortex still reacts, but the parabelt region no longer reacts has to be
meaningful for the region to react appropriately
e) agnosia (lack of understanding)
f) auditory agnosia would be caused by parabelt region damage (couldnt
recognize sound)
g) associative auditory agnosia associate particular sound with label, thats joe,
whatever
i) something that has been learned to attach label to sound
ii) primarily due to the anterior regions of the temporal cortex, and sometime
frontal cortex damage
h) music
i) in young infants present sounds and record brains 1-3 year olds show altered
brain activity when they hear sounds that dont go together
ii) musicians have well developed system, larger auditory representations and
regions are more active
(1) better you are the more active your regions are
iii) music has pitches, timbres (complex of frequencies occurring at the same
time, various pitches, rhythm, simultaneous notes pleasant/unpleasant, aspect
of intervals, pauses, melodies)
iv) parts of the cortical area
(1) inferior frontal cortex particularly important in recognizing harmonies
(2) auditory frontal cortex drum beat
(3) right cortex- emotional music/character
(4) left cortex rhythm that exists, repeating patterns
(5) structures like cerebellum and basal ganglia important for understanding
motor movements and timing in music
(6) musical training changes the activity of all of these places
(7) Amusia - people born without being able to appreciate music
(a) I.R. patient extensive damage, had normal hearing, could understand
speech, converse, environmental sounds but couldnt sing, think of
music in her hear, but she insisted that she enjoyed listening to music,
particularly because of right hemisphere
(b) Some people born with it = congenital amusia, about 4% of the
population
(c) Genetic basis for loss of function passed on from generation
(d) Close genetic relatives are likely to have similar kinds of problems
v) Figure 7.16
(1) Coincidence detectors that are detecting from phase
(2) Determination of right from left?
vi) Figure 7.15
(1) Low frequencies are easier for ear to detect which side sound came from
(2) Left ears hear out of phase
(3) Right ears hear in phase
(4) Superior olivary nucleus/complex
(5) High frequency sounds can be distinguished by right or left
(a) Tell us things about right and left
(b) And up and down
(6) Ears fixed top part of the ear will result in a lower sound than sound that
hits bottom part of the ear in lower canal itself
(7) Blind people have a harder time distinguishing up from down
8) Figure 7.18
(1) have a hard time localizing where im being touched if same receptor
remains active tested with a two point discrimination: if you can touch
points of the skin and can still recognize that its two points = receptive
field must be very small
(a) i.e. finger tips detailed information
(2) two points, but continue to separate and you still cant recognize that its
two points = large receptive field
iii) borders diffuse/sharp
(1) whether or not there is overlap of receptive fields
(2) diffused borders lots of overlap between them, share some of the same
skin, touch that area both receptors are activated at the same time
(3) sharp able to distinguish
g) see pictures
h) Rullfini corpuscle
i) Static force/stretch
ii) Slow
iii) Large
iv) diffuse
i) Merkels disks
i) Form of objects that youre touching
ii) Smooth or rough
iii) Slowly adapting receptors
iv) Small receptive fields
v) Sharp borders
vi) Finger tips
j) Meissners corpuscle
i) Rapid
ii) Small fields
iii) Sharp borders
iv) Contours of objects
v) Rapidly adapting have to be changes
vi) Important for reading brail
vii) Esp. fingers: edges, contours, brail
k) Pacinian corpuscle
i) Rapidly adapting interested in changes vibrations
ii) Large
iii) Diffused borders
iv) Extension (tools)
v) Know where the hammer will hit the nail, idea of distances, elongated tool
l) Free nerve endings
i) Pain
ii) Temp
iii) Hair movement
iv) Caress/limbic massages, petting an animal
v) Dont have specialized receptor elements
13) Two categories
Figure 7.24
1) Color coated to indicate different smells
2) Colors become segregated in the brain
3) Olfactory bulb
4) Smells originally scattered all over the place but comes together in one location
5) Own place in the brain
6) Segregation very early in representation of smell on cortical surfacing
7) Basic smells
Figure 7.44
1) Fifth lobe
2) Primary olfactory cortex allows smells to combine
3) 10,000 different smells we are capable to detecting
4) Activation of multiple regions at the same time
5) Patterns of activities is very important for all of cortical processing