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area = work in
V
(Graph: Lenoir and Otto engine shown, dashed portion shows Otto expansion)
Other Developments
1870 Petroleum industry
1888 Pneumatic tires
1905 Spark plugs (Champion)
1920 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) takes over steam engine for transportation
- main advantage dont need to carry around water
1920-1960 steady development
1960 Emission standards start
Heagen Smith smog mechanism
1970 Fuel crisis
1980 Global competition
1990 Greenhouse gases
2000 Fuel and CO2
4 stroke engine
intake
compression
(work in)
expansion
(work out)
exhaust
2 Stroke engine
pressurized
intake
scavenging
(intake)
compression
expansion
(exhaust)
Engine Size
-Piston bore ranges from 1 cm to 1m (large diesels)
-heat loss and friction are surface phenomenon bigger engine, less losses
Engine Geometry
Crank radius a
Connecting rod length l
Displacement volume - Vd =
B 2
4
VD + VC
Vc
B 2
4
V
1
= 1 + (CR 1) R + 1 cos ( R 2 sin 2 )0.5
VC
2
Piston velocity
sin 2
s( ) = sin
a
2
2
0.5
2( R sin )
S p = 2 NL
-typical numbers for engines
-L/B (stroke/bore) ~ 1 for passenger cars
-L/B ~0.2 for racing engines
-L/B ~ 2 for large engines
-R = l/a is 3~4 for typical passenger cars
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Lecture 9
SI Engine Combustion
Bore
Stroke
Compression ratio
82.6 mm
114.3 mm
5.8
Operating condition
Speed
Fuel
Intake pressure
Spark timing
1400 rpm
0.9
propane
0.5 bar
MBT
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-14 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
1400 rpm
0.5 bar inlet pressure
Burn duration
Burn duration as CA-deg. : measure of burn progress
in cycle
For modern fast-burn engines under medium speed,
part load condition:
0-10% ~ 15o
0-50% ~ 25o
0-90% ~ 35o
As engine speed increases,
burn duration as CA-deg. :
Increases because there is less time per CA-deg.
Decreases because combustion is faster due to
higher turbulence
Net effect: increases approximately as rpm0.2
Spark discharge
characteristics
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-39 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig.9-39
Schematic of voltage and
current variation with
time for conventional coil
spark-ignition system.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Pischinger, Stefan, and John B.
Heywood. A Study of Flame Development and Engine Performance with Breakdown
Ignition Systems in a Visualization Engine. Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880518.
Energy associated
with Spark Discharge,
Combustion and Heat
Loss
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Pischinger, Stefan, and John B.
Heywood. A Study of Flame Development and Engine Performance with Breakdown
Ignition Systems in a Visualization Engine. Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880518.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-4 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Work
transfer
Fig. 9-4 Schematic of flame propagation in SI engine: unburned gas (U) to left of
flame, burned gas to right. A denotes adiabatic burned-gas core, BL denotes
thermal boundary layer in burned gas.
Flame
b
m
time t
b
m
time t + t
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Tu/Tu,0 = (p/p0)(u-1)/u
Thermodynamic
state of charge
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-5 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-3 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 9-3 (a) Cylinder pressure versus crank angle for overadvanced spark timing
(50o BTDC), MBT timing (30o BTDC), and retarded timing (10o BTDC). (b) Effect
of spark advance on brake torque at constant speed and A/F, at WOT
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 15-3 and 15-17 in Heywood,
John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 15-17
Fig. 15-3
2.
3.
Available methods
a) Empirical methods (e.g. Rassweiler and Withrow SAE
800131)
b) Single-zone heat release or burn-rate model
c) Two-zone (burned/unburned) combustion model
Typical
piezoelectric
pressure
transducer spec.
Image and data table removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see
http://www.intertechnology.com/Kistler/pdfs/Pressure_Model_6125B.pdf
6.2mm
Kistler 6125
-2
-1
0
-5
-10
-15
1
whence Q
pV +
pV + Q
gross =
ht loss
1
1
Mass fraction burned:
Q
gross
xb =
mf LHV
Other effects:
Crevice effect
Blowby
Real gas properties
Non-uniformities (significant difference between burned and
unburned gas)
Unknown residual fraction
Cylinder pressure
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-10 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 9-10 (a) Pressure-volume diagram; (b) log p-log(V/Vmax) plot; 1500 rpm,
MBT timing, IMEP = 5.1 bar, = 0.8, rc = 8.7, propane fuel.
Advantage: simple
Need only p(), p0, pf and n
xb always between 0 and 1
During combustion v = vu + vb
Vb,f = Vb (p / p )1/ n
f
Vu,0
V0
Vb,f
Vf
p1/ n V p01/ n V0
pf1/ n Vf p01/ n V0
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-12 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Pintake
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Lecture 10
SI Combustion (continue)
SI Engine Knock
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 14-2 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 14-12
dme
= u A f SL + u A f uT (1 e t / b )
dt
Laminar diffusion
through flame front
Turbulent entrainment
dmb
me mb
= u A f SL +
;
b
dt
Laminar frontal burning
AT
b =
SL
Cycle-to-cycle variations
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-31 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 9-31
Measured cylinder pressure and calculated gross heat-release rate for ten
cycles in a single-cylinder SI engine operating at 1500 rpm, = 1.0, MAP = 0.7
bar, MBT timing 25oBTC
Cycle distributions
Fig,. 9-36 (b)
Fig,. 9-33 (b)
Charge variations
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-33b and 9-36b in Heywood,
John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Charge and
combustion
phasing
variation
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2. Knock fundamentals
3. Fuel factor
Abnormal Combustion:
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 9-58 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
SI Engine Knock
1.
2.
3.
4.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 6 in "The Internal Combustion: Modeling Considers All Factors."
Lawrence Livermore National Lab, December 1999.
Also see any other photos of knock damage to pistons, such as: http://cameronassociates.org.uk/assets/images/autogen/a_
Piston_Damage.jpg
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 9-59 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Images (12 s
apart) of flame
luminescence
and pressure
trace; RON= 90,
2400 rpm, ign. at
35o BTC; white
circle indicating
first autoignition
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Stiebels, B., et al. "Development of a New Measurement Technique for the
Investigation of End-gas Autoignition and Engine Knock." SAE Transactions 105 (February 1996): 960827.
Knock Fundamentals
Chain Initiation
RH + O R + HO
2
Chain Propagation
, etc.
R + O 2 RO
2
+ RH ROOH + R
RO
2
RCHO + RO
RO
2
Degenerate Branching
+O
H
ROOH RO
O + HO
RCHO + O RC
2
FUEL FACTORS
Types of hydrocarbons
NAPHTHENES
Cyclohexane
Cyclopentane
Butane
AROMATICS
OLEFINS
Benzene
ISOMERS
Cis-2-Butane
Knock tendency of
individual
hydrocarbons
Fig 9-69
Critical compression ratio for
incipient knock at 600 rpm and
450 K coolant temperature for
hydrocarbons
Road ON = (RON+MON) /2
Research ON
Sensitivity
Motor ON
Engine
severity
Less severe test condition scale
Octane requirement
Cars on the road
Engine on test stand
103
Octane Requirement
100
95
90
85
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
Slope ~ 5
92
7
10
Compression Ratio
11
91
90
89
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Compression Ratio
Represents data from at least ten
cars of the same make and model
As above, from at least five cars
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Blackmore, D. R., and Thomas, A. Fuel Economy of the Gasoline
Engine: Fuel, Lubricant, and Other Effects. London, England: Macmillan, 1977.
From Balckmore and Thomas, Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine, Wiley 1977.
Remark: these are old data; modern engine octane requirement relates more to MON
18
No additive (ORI = 15)
10
Deposit controlling additive (ORI = 10)
6
Clean combustion chamber only
2
0
-2
0
100
150
200
Hours of operation
Anti-knock Agents
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanol
TBA (Tertiary Butyl Alcohol)
CH3OH
C2H5OH
(CH3)3COH
Ethers
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Requirements
Fuel metering systems
Fuel transport phenomena
Mixture preparation during engine transients
MIXTURE PREPARATION
Fuel
Metering
Air
Metering
Fuel
Air
Mixing
EGR
Control
EGR
Combustible
Mixture
Engine
MIXTURE PREPARATION
Parameters
Impact
-Fuel Properties
-Air/Fuel Ratio
-Residual Gas
Fraction
- Driveability
- Emissions
- Fuel Economy
Enrichment to
improve idle stability
Enrichment to prevent
knocking at high load
Rich
=1
Lean
NO emission and
EGR
pumping loss
No EGR to
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-57 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
FUEL METERING
Carburetor
A/F not easily controlled
Fuel Injection
Electronically controlled fuel metering
Throttle body injection
Port fuel injection
Direct injection
Injectors
PFI injectors
Single 2-, 4-,, up to 12-holes
Injection pressure 3 to 7 bar
Droplet size:
Normal injectors: 200 to 80 m
Flash Boiling Injectors: down to 20 m
Air-assist injectors: down to 20 m
GDI injectors
Shaped-spray
Injection pressure 50 to 150 bar
Drop size: 15 to 50 m
Geometrical Issues
Fuel Injector
70
7
Intake Valve
40
Engine
management
system
Handbook
Fuel Metering
a = VD N v (N,)
m
2
=P
RTa
Intake
Exhaust
Injection
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
TC
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
180
360
540
720
900
1080
1260
1440
Cyl.#4
Cyl.#3
Cyl.#2
Cyl.#1
Cyl. #1 CA (0
o is BDC compression)
Effect of Injection
Timing on HC
Emissions
Injection
timing refers
to start of
injection
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Nogi, Toshiharu, et al. "Mixture Formation of Fuel Injection
Systems in Gasoline Engines." SAE Transactions 97 (February 1988): 880558.
Forward Flow
Pc = Pi to BC:
Forward flow from intake system to cylinder induced by downward piston
motion
Engine Transients
Throttle Transients
Accelerations and decelerations
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Aquino, C. F. "Transient A/F Control Characteristics of the 5
Liter Central Fuel Injection Engine." SAE Transactions 90 (February 1981): 810494.
The x- Model
dMf
f Mf
= xm
dt
.
mf
Mf/
Mf
mc = (1- x)m f +
.
xmf
Mf
to cylinder
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 7-28 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig 7-28
Uncompensated A/F behavior in throttle transient
Engine start
up behavior
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 1 in Santoso, Halim, and Cheng, Wai K.
"Mixture Preparation and Hydrocarbon Emissions in the First Cycle of SI Engine Cranking."
SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 111 (October 2002): 2002-01-2805.
2.4 L, 4-cylinder
engine
Engine starts
with Cyl#2
piston in mid
stroke of
compression
Firing order
1-3-4-2
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Harada, Jun, et al. "Development of Direct-injection
Gasoline Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 106 (February 1997): 970540.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Anderson, R. W., et al. "Understanding the Thermodynamics of
Direct-injection Spark-ignition (DISI) Combustion Systems: An Analytical and Experimental Investigation." SAE Journal of Engines
105 (October 1996): 962018.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Iwamoto, Y., et al. "Development of
Gasoline Direct Injection Eengine." SAE Journal of Engines 106 (February 1997): 970541.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Kume, T., et al. "Combustion Control Technologies for
Direct Injection SI Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 105 (February 1996): 960600.
DISI Challenges
1.
2.
High cost
With the part-load stratified-charge concept :
3.
4.
5.
Hydrocarbon source
Lubrication problem
Injector deposit
6.
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PROCESS
Liquid fuel injected into compressed charge
Fuel evaporates and mixes with the hot air
Auto-ignition with the rapid burning of the fuelair that is premixed during the ignition delay
period
Premixed burning is fuel rich
Heterogeneous
liquid, vapor and air
spatially non-uniform
turbulent
diffusion flame
(compared to SI engines)
Applications
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-1 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-2 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Table 10-1 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
(bar)
Configurations
( oC)
Max Pressure
Compression
Pressure
Scavenge Air Pressure (gauge)
(kg/kWh)
Rating:
(g/kWh)
(bar)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
13
12
11
10
8
7
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
10
12
BMEP (bar)
8
14
16
1)
2)
3)
4)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-9 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-8 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
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Typical systems:
gasu 2 d
f(D)
Size distribution:
f(D)dD = probability of finding
particle with diameter in
the range of (D, D + dD)
1 = f(D)dD
0
Average diameter
Volume distribution
1 dV
=
V dD
D = f(D) D dD
0
f(D) D3
3
f(D)
D
dD
D 32 =
3
f
(D
)
D
dD
2
f
(D
)
D
dD
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-28 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 10.28 Droplet size distribution measured well downstream; numbers on the curves are
radial distances from jet axis. Nozzle opening pressure at 10 MPa; injection into air at 11 bar.
Evaporation time d2
Evaporation time small once charge is ignited
Shadowgraph image
showing both liquid
and vapor penetration
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-20 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Back-lit image
showing liquidcontaining core
Auto-ignition Process
Drop atomization
Evaporation
Fuel vapor/air mixing
CHEMICAL PROCESSES (Chemical Delay)
Chain initiation
Chain propagation
Branching reactions
CETANE IMPROVERS
Alkyl Nitrates
0.5% by volume increases CN by ~10
Chain Initiation
RH + O R + HO
2
+ RH ROOH + R
RO
2
RCHO + RO
RO
2
Chain Propagation
Degenerate Branching
, etc.
R + O2 RO
2
+O
H
ROOH RO
O + HO
RCHO + O RC
2
Cetane Rating
see10.6.2 of text)
Rating:
Operate CFR engine at 900 rpm with fuel
Injection at 13o BTC
Adjust compression ratio until ignition at TDC
Replace fuel by reference fuel blend and change blend proportion to
get same ignition point
CN = % n-cetane + 0.15 x % HMN
Ignition Delay
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-36 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Ignit
i on delays measured in a
small four-stroke cycle DI
diesel engine with rc=16.5, as a
function of load at 1980 rpm, at
various cetane number
(Fig. 10-36)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-40 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
(T,P) = P-nexp(-EA/ T)
1
dt
t si
(T(t),P(t))
Use empirical correlation of id based on T, P at an appropriate
1 = t si +id
1
1
21.2
0.63
id (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22Sp (m / s))exp E A ( ~
)+(
)
17190)
P(bar)
12.4
R
T(K)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-9 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fast action
high power movements
Expensive system
Injection pressure
NOx emission
Particulate emission
Power density
Noise
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Diesel emissions
Regulatory requirements
Diesel emissions reduction
Diesel exhaust gas after-treatment
systems
Clean diesel fuels
Diesel Emissions
Significant effects:
Odor
Mechanisms:
PM very important
submicron particles health effects
Diesel HC
emission
mechanisms
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-35 and 11-36 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
NOx mechanisms
NO2 + O NO + O2
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-15 and 11-16 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Diesel combustion
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Flynn, Patrick F., et al. "Diesel Combustion: An Integrated View Combining Laser
Diagnostics, Chemical Knetics, and Empirical Validation." SAE Journal of Engines 108 (March 1991): SP-1444.
As exhaust emission:
visible smoke
collector of organic and inorganic materials
from engine
Partially oxidized fuel; e.g. Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Lubrication oil (has Zn, P, Cu etc. in it)
Particulate Matter
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-41 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Surface growth
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Agglomeration
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Adsorption,
condensation
In-cylinder
Nucleation
In atmosphere
Time
PM formation processes
PM(g/bhp-hr)
Euro II (1998)
Euro III(2000)
0.1
1994
1998
2004
Euro IV(2005)
Euro V(2008)
Euro VI (proposed-2013)
0.01
2007
0.1
10
NOx (g/bhp-hr)
Effect of EGR
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Uchida, Noboru, et al. "Combined Effects of EGR and Supercharging on Diesel
Combustion and Emissions." SAE Journal of Engines 102 (March 1993): 930601.
Split Injection
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Nehmer, D. A., and Reitz, R. D. "Measurement of the Effect of Injection
Rate and Split Injections on Diesel Engine Soot and NOx Emissions." SAE Journal of Engines 103 (February 1994): 940668.
PM Control
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Zelenka, P., et al. "Ways Toward the Clean
Heavy-duty Diesel." SAE Journal of Engines 99 (February 1990): 900602.
Please see slide 9 in Johnson, Tim. "Diesel Exhaust Emission Control." Environmental Monitoring, Evaluation, and Protection in
New York: Linking Science and Policy, 2003.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 9 in "Recent Developments in Integrated Exhaust Emission
Control Technologies Including Retrofit of Off-Road Diesel Vehicles." Manufacturers of Emissions Controls Association,
February 3, 2000.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 3 in Nakatani, Koichiro, et al. "Simultaneous PM and NOx
Reduction System for Diesel Engines." SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 111 (March 2002): SP-1674.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Oxygenated fuels
Higher cetane number
Narrower distillation range
Summary
Emission regulations present substantial
challenge to Diesel engine system
Issues are:
performance and sfc penalty
cost
reliability
infra-structure support
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Hottest components
Spark plug > Exhaust valve > Piston crown > Head
Liner is relatively cool because of limited exposure to burned
gas
Source
Hot burned gas
Radiation from particles in diesel engines
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-3 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Table 12-1 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-4 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Information of interest
Heat transfer per unit time (rate)
Heat transfer per cycle (often normalized by fuel heating
value)
Variation with time and location of heat flux (heat transfer
rate per unit area)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-1 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Q = Ah g (T g Twg )
Q = A (Twg Twc )
tw
Turbulent convection: wall to coolant
.
Q = Ah c (Twc T c )
Q = Ah (T g T c )
hc
( alum
~180 W/m-k
cast iron ~ 60 W/m-k
stainless steel ~18 W/m-k)
Nu =
hL
= a (Re) 0 .8
= Gas viscosity
= Gas density
Qrad
Q
rad, max
0.2Qtotal
0.4Q
total,max
(cycle cum)
(peak value)
Order of Magnitude
SI engine peak heat flux ~ 1-3 MW/m2
Diesel engine peak heat flux ~ 10 MW/m2
Unburned Zone
Burned Zone
Heat transfer
=
Burned zone: sum over area wetted Q
b
by burned gas
Unburned zone: sum over area
wetted by unburned gas
h (Tb Tw,i )
ci,b b
= A h (T T )
Q
ci,u u u w,i
u
i
Note: Burned zone heat flux >> unburned zone heat flux
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 14-9 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 14-9 5.7 L displacement, 8 cylinder engine at WOT, 2500 rpm; fuel equivalence
ratio 1.1; GIMEP 918 kPa; specific fuel consumption 24 g/kW-hr.
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Gilaber, P., and P. Pinchon. "Measurements and Multidimensional
Modeling of Gas-wall Heat Transfer in a S.I. Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880516.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-25 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
0.8N0.8
1/N
BMEP-0.2N-0.2
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 12-13 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 12-13 Measured surface heat fluxes at different locations in cylinder head and
liner of naturally aspirated 4-stroke DI diesel engine. Bore=stroke=114mm; 2000
rpm; overall fuel equivalence ratio = 0.45.
Fig. 12-15
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-15 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 12-20 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-24 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 12-24 Heat outflow form various zones of piston as percentage of heat flow in
from combustion chamber. High-speed DI diesel engine, 125 mm bore, 110 mm
stroke, CR=17
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 12-19 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Figure 12-19
Isothermal contours (solid lines) and heat flow paths (dashed lines) determined from measured
temperature distribution in piston of high speed DI diesel engine. Bore 125 mm, stroke 110
Thermal stress
Stress-strain relationship
T1
T2>T1 induces
compression
stress
x=[x-(y+z)]/E + (T2-T1)
Complicated 3D geometry
Solution to heat flow to get temperature distribution
Compatibility condition for each element
Example of Thermal
Stress Analysis:Piston
Design
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Castleman, Jeffrey L. "Power Cylinder Design Variables and Their
Effects on Piston Combustion Bowl Edge Stresses." SAE Journal of Engines 102 (September 1993): 932491.
Thermal-Stress-Only
1.
2.
Magnitude of heat transfer from the burned gas much greater than in
any phase of cycle
Heat transfer is a significant performance loss and affects engine
operation
3.
4.
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Engine friction
terminology
Pumping loss
Rubbing friction loss
Pumping work: Wp
Work per cycle to move the working fluid through the engine
Mechanical efficiency
m = bmep / imep(g)
Friction components
1. Crankshaft friction
2. Reciprocating friction
3. Valve train
4. Auxiliary components
5. Pumping loss
Engine Friction
Fig. 13-1
Comparison of major categories of
friction losess: fmep at different
loads and speeds for 1.6 L fourcylinder overhead-cam automotive
Spark Ignition (SI) and
Compression-Ignition (CI) engines.
Pumping loss
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-15 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-4 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Bearing Lubrication
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-2 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Stribeck Diagram
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-3 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-14 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 13-14
Typical
Rings
4800 r/min
Full Load
Rings
4800 r/min
Full Load
Motoring r/min Motoring r/min
Piston
Rings
Rod
Piston + Rod
Piston + Rod
Crankshaft
18
19
19
2nd engine.
6000
4000
Rings + Piston
Rod
20
2000
4000
Rings + Piston + Rod
2000
0
20
40
Valvetrain
60
80
21
100
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see illustrations of "Valve Timing-gear Designs."
In the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-25 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-17 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Hydrodynamic
lubrication of the
piston ring
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-18 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Force (N)
150
100
50
Power (N-m/s)
0
800
Intake
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
600
400
200
0
TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
TDC
Crank Angle
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Major-Thrust Side
Minor-Thrust Side
Piston slap
15 BTDC
TDC
5 ATDC
Bore distortion
Cylinder Distortion
th
nd
nd
rd
2nd Order
4th Order
Lubricants
Viscosity
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Linna, Jan-Roger, et al. "Contribution of Oil Layer Mechanism to the
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Spark-ignition Engines." SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 106 (October 1997): 972892.
Detailed model
FMEP distribution
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Patton, Kenneth J., et al. "Development and Evaluation of a Friction
Model for Spark-ignition Engines." SAE Journal of Engines 98 (February 1989): 890836.
Distribution of FMEP for a 2.0L I-4 engine; B/S = 1.0, SOHC-rocker arm, flat
follower, 9.0 compression ratio
C = crankshaft and seals
R = reciprocating components
A = Auxiliary components
P = Pumping loss
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Torq =
f m f QHV
2nR
Power = Torq 2N
m f = F V a,0 VD
A
( )
Intercooler
Increase charge density (hence output power) by cooling the
charge
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see illustrations of "Charge-air Pressure Regulation with Wastegate on Exhaust
Gas End", and "Exhaust-gas Turbocharger for Trucks." In the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Compressor efficiency c
W
ideal
c =
W
W
m
actual
T
2
c p T1
Wideal = m
1
T1
T
P2
Ideal
process
2
T2 P2
=
T1 P1
P1
Actual
process
P
1
2
c p T1
W
m
1
actual =
c
P1
W
T2 = T1 + actual
cp
m
Turbine efficiency t
W
t = actual
W
W
3
ideal
T
1 4
W
=
m
c
T
ideal
p 3
T3
m
T
P3
1
P4
T4
=
T3 P3
Ideal
process
P4
4
4
Actual
process
P
c p T3 1 4
Wactual = t m
P3
W
T4 = T3 actual
cp
m
Properties of Turbochargers
BMEP up to 22 bar
Limits:
compressor aerodynamics
cylinder peak pressure
NOx emissions
Compressor/Turbine Characteristics
Delivered pressure P2
,RT ,P ,N,D,, , geometric ratios)
P2 = f(m
1 1
Dimensional analysis:
7 dimensional variables (7-3) = 4 dimensionless parameters
(plus and geometric ratios)
P2
N
m
= f(
,
,Re, , geometric ratios)
RT1 / D P1
P1
RT1D 2
RT1
Velocity
Density
Velocity
P2 N m
= f
,
P1
P1
T1
Compressor Map
3.4
7250
3.2
6960
3.0
72%
70%
2.6
2.0
65%
60%
it
2.4
2.2
6530
74%
Su
rg
el
im
Pressure ratio
2.8
75%
6070
1.8
5550
1.6
4840
1.4
4025 N/ T1
1.2
1.0
2650
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
"Corrected" Flow rate m T1/P1
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
T1= inlet temperature (K); P1= inlet pressure (bar); N = rev. per min.; m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
(From Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering, Ed. by Haddad and Watson)
Stall
Happens when incident flow angle is too large
(large V/Vx)
Stall causes flow blockage
Surge
Flow inertia/resistance, and compression system
internal volume comprise a LRC resonance system
Oscillatory flow behave when flow blockage occurs
because of compressor stall
Turbine Map
2.8
2.6
tTS = .70
2.4
2.0
1.8
.65
Pressure ratio
2.2
1.6
.6
0
4000
3000
2500
.40
1.2
1.0
3500
5
N
T03
1500
500
0.5
1.0
.5
1.4
.50
1.5
2.0
.
Flow rate m T03/P03
2.5
3.0
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
T03=Turbine inlet temperature(K); P03 = Turbine inlet pressure(bar); P4= Turbine outlet
pressure(bar); N = rev. per min.; m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
(From Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering, Ed. by Haddad and
Watson)
4
T
m f
3
Engine
W
E
Q
L
Compressor/
turbine/engine matching
solution
Procedure :
1. Guess c ; can get engine inlet conditions :
1
T1
P2 = c P1
T2 =
1
(c )
c
Compressor
3.4
7250
3.2
6960
3.0
72%
70%
2.6
6530
74%
2.4
it
65%
60%
rg
e
lim
2.2
2.0
75%
Su
Pressure ratio
2.8
6070
1.8
5550
1.6
4840
1.4
4025 N/ T1
1.2
1.0
2650
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
"Corrected" Flow rate m T1/P1
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles
and Performance in Diesel Engineering. Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
2.8
2.6
2.4
tTS = .70
= 1 1
W
t
t
2.0
.65
1.8
4000
.60
1.0
3000
1500
500
0.5
1.0
=W
and N = N
8.Iterate on the values of c and t until W
t
c
t
c
3500
2500
1.2
.5
5
N
T03
.4 0
Pressure ratio
2.2
1.4
Turbine
1.6
engine map :
=m
,A/F)
f LHV f (RPM,W
W
E
E
.50
1.5
2.0
.
Flow rate m T03/P03
2.5
3.0
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
0.65
3.0
0.67
2.5
0.60
0.70
0.55
ns
ad
Co
nst
ant
Co
t lo
tan
sp e
ed
it
el
im
2.0
Su
rg
Pp/P1
0.72
1.5
C
1.0
m T1
p1
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David,
and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
Inter-
Cooler
Wastegate
Engine
Electric assisted
turbo-charging
Concept
turbo-charger
Benefit
InterCooler
engine speed
auxiliary electrical output
at part load
Motor/
Generator
Wastegate
Engine
Battery
Electrical turbo-charger
Battery
Concept
turbine drives generator;
compressor driven by motor
Benefit
decoupling of turbine and
compressor map, hence much more
freedom in performance optimization
Auxiliary power output
do not need wastegate; no turbo-lag
Motor
InterCooler
Engine
Generator
Challenges
Interaction of turbo-charging system with
exhaust treatment and emissions
Especially severe in light-duty diesel market
because of low exhaust temperature
Cost
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Transportation/Mobility
Transportation/mobility is a vital to
modern economy
Transport of People
Transport of goods and produce
People get accustomed to the ability to
travel
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1970
Total
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Transportation
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
Typical US output
Lubricants
0.90%
1.50%
1.90%
2.80%
3.30%
Marketable Coke
5.00%
Still Gas
5.40%
Jet Fuel
12.60%
15.30%
51.40%
25
Electric utilities
Commercial
Residential
20
15
Industrial
10
Transportation
5
0
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
30
NonHighway
Heavy
trucks
25
20
15
Light trucks
10
Passenger cars
5
0
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
2003
Source: US Dept. of Energy, Transportation
Energy Data Book: Edition 26-2007.
Petroleum Industry
Very capital intensive
Exploration and production
Refinery
Distribution system
Utilization of capital
Need for capital expense to depreciate
Technology takes time to develop and
implemented
Example: vehicle powertrain
a. Incremental changes: Design needs to be
completed 3-4 years before production
b. Significant changes: Add 5-10 years of
development time to (a)
c. Drastic changes: Add 15 to 20 years to (a)
d. Radical changes: Add ? years to (a)
Market penetration
Technology
penetration
CUSTOMER NEEDS
VEHICLE
Reasonable Cost
Reliability
Comfort
Performance
Aesthetics - Look and Feel
FUEL
Cost
Availability
Ease of refueling
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Air quality
NOx
CO
Ozone
Particulate matters
Toxics
Noise
Green House Effect (CO2, methane)
Kyoto Agreement (USA): 7% reduction of CO2 from
1990 level
Congestion
FUELS
Reformulated Gasoline
Methanol
Ethanol and other bio-fuels
Hydrogen
Transportation Fuels
Fuels
Density
LHV/mass*
LHV/Vol.**
Gasoline
Diesel
(Kg/m3)
750
810
(MJ/Kg)
44
42
(MJ/m3)
3.3x104
3.4x104
Natural Gas
@1 bar
@100 bar
LNG (180K, 30bar)
0.72
71
270
45
3.2x101(x)
3.2x103
1.22x104
3.25
Methanol
Ethanol
792
785
20
26.9
1.58x104
2.11x104
3.19
3.29
Hydrogen
@1bar
@100 bar
Liquid (20K, 5 bar)
0.082
8.2
71
120
0.984x101(x)
0.984x103
8.52x103
2.86
LHV/Vol. of Stoi.Mixture
@1 atm, 300K***
(MJ/m3)
3.48
3.37
REFORMULATED FUELS
25
Improvement in CO emission (%)
20
15
10
5
1.1
COMPATIBLE WITH
CURRENT ENGINES IN
EXISTING FLEET
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Not good long term prospect; not efficient use of energy source
PROBLEMS
PRODUCTION
Mostly from starch crops (corn, barley, wheat etc.) by fermenting
and distilling
Cellulosic ethanol (from tree, grass, etc.)
ALTERNATIVE FUEL:
$ per gallon
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
2.2
2
1995
2.6
2.4
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
May 08 spot price: $2.50/gal
Retail price: $3.80/gal
50
Jan 08
Jan 07
Jan 06
Jan 05
Jan 04
Jan 03
Jan 02
Jan 01
Jan 00
Jan 99
Jan 98
Jan 97
Jan 95
0
Jan 96
Millions of barrels
Studies
Verdict:
Substantial
environmental
and economic
cost; return not
clear
Other bio-fuels
Pimentel and Patzek also estimated energy
budget for other bio-fuels. Returns:
Ethanol from switchgrass = -50%
Ethanol from wood biomass = -57%
Bio-diesel from soybean = -27%
Bio-diesel from sunflower = -118%
Outlook: NOT CLEAR
New technology needed to change the
picture
ENGINES
Spark Ignition Engines
Good fuel efficiency, reasonable cost
Improving emissions characteristics
Diesel Engines
Better fuel economy
higher cost
NOx / particulate emissions
Electric/ Hybrid/ Plug-in-hybrid Vehicles
Fuel Cell
Hybrid vehicles
Configuration:
IC Engine + Generator + Battery + Electric Motor
Concept
Eliminates external charging
As load leveler
Improved overall efficiency
Regeneration ability
Plug-in hybrids: use external electricity supply
Hybrid Vehicles
Series Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
BATTERY
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Parallel Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
BATTERY
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Note:
No. of EV sold world wide since their introduction 30
years ago is < 30,000 units, and has flattened out
No. of Prius sold in three years(1997-2000)
34,000 units
Toyota Hybrid sale (2004) 130,000 units
(source: Toyota)
Toyota Prius
Honda Insight
66/43 mpg on
Japan/US driving cycle
80/60 mpg on
Japan/US driving cycle
Cost factor
If
$ x mpg
M=
Px
(assume that interest rate is zero)
Cost Factor
Example:
Honda Civic and Civic-Hybrid
Price premium ($, MY08 listed)
mpg (city and highway av.)
hybrid improvement in mpg(%)
= $7155 ($22600-15445)
= 29 mpg (42 for hybrid)
= 45%
$7155 x 29
= 115,000 miles
M=
$4 x 45%
(excluding interest cost)
400
300
200
100
Sales (thousands)
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
2H2
4e-
excess
H2
4H+
4e-
Porous Cathode
Fuel
Electrolyte
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Potentially much
higher efficiency
than IC engines
Porous Anode
Direct conversion
of fuel/oxidant to
electricity
H2 - O2 system
O2
O2
2H2O
H2O +
excess
O2
Indirect conversion
reform hydrocarbon fuels to hydrogen first
0.8
0.6
Efficiency
Note: Efficiency
does not include
power required
to run supporting
system
0.4
Power density
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Current density (A/cm2)
1.2
1.4
Hydrocarbon
Catalyst
Air
Note:
H2
CO
Catalyst
Fuel Cell
H2
CO2
Electricity
N2,CO2
H2O
Practical Problems
Start up/shut down
Load Control
Ambient temperature
Durability
2500
Price of platinum $
2000
1500
1000
500
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
$ / troy ounce
35
Million Barrels/day
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
25 CAF
std
1.0
20
0.6
0.8
0.4
15
50
45
40
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
10
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
0.0
2010
Truck fraction
MPG cars
combined
30 light trucks
90
TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY
" Useful people mile"
Transportation Efficiency =
Fuel energy
=
Personal efficiency
Vehicle utilization
efficiency
Engineering
Options?
Alternative Fuels and Power Plants ?
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Homework Set #1
Due:
2/14/08
The purpose of this set of homework is to give you a feel for the design values of practical engines. Not all the
relevant numbers are given in the problem statement. Make reasonable estimates and engineering judgments of the
unknown parameters.
You have to calculate a lot of numbers. Use Matlab or Spreadsheet to do the calculations.
Problems:
1.2 Draw a free body diagram of the piston. Also calculate the magnitude of the gas loading force and
the side thrust force due to the connecting rod at = 45o for the following:
(a) A SI engine with an 85 mm bore at a cylinder pressure of 20 bar (at = 45o).
(b) A turbo-charged CI engine with a 150 mm bore at a cylinder pressure of 100 bar (at = 45o).
(You may also want to express the results also in lb-force or kg-force to appreciate the magnitude.)
2.5 Note the relative magnitude of the different terms in the road power requirement. Also estimate the
force for accelerating the vehicle from 40 to 60 mph in 5 seconds.
2.8
2.11
2.13 See Figure 1-8 for timing information. (Note that the pressure values in that figure are for part-load
and not for WOT operation. We are, however, only interested in the timing of the various processes;
so the information is still useful.)
Exercise that you do to enrich yourselves but you do not have to hand in anything:
Go to the 2.61 web site and under good_stuff, look at the engine performance specifications spread
sheet. Explore the spread sheet by sorting the data according to years, BMEP, peak power density, etc.
Note some of the outliers, e.g. the Honda Formula One race engine. Get a feel for the peak power density
and the max BMEP of the typical engines. (There are separate sheets for SI and light duty Diesel
engines.)
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Homework Set #2
Due:
2/26/08
Problems:
5.3 Assume that cV=900 J/kg. Also calculate the ratio of the imep of the turbo-charged engine to that of
the naturally aspirated engine. (This is a rather long problem, but straight forward. It is a good
exercise in doing cycle analysis.)
3.1 Also calculate the power output, assume fuel conversion efficiency is 0.3.
3.3 Exercise in exhaust gas analysis.
3.13 This problem gives you some feel for what comes out in the exhaust pipe. T
he reason for doing the
dry versus wet analysis is because water vapor is usually removed from the exhaust gas before
the CO and CO2 measurements (to prevent condensation on the instruments). Use Matlab or a
spread sheet to calculate the numbers.
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Homework Set #3
Due: 3/4/08.
Problems:
1)
The NOX emission from automobiles is a mixture of NO and NO2. At high temperatures, the mixture is
mostly NO, and at low temperatures, mostly NO2. Consider a mixture with elemental composition of 1
mole of nitrogen atom and 2 moles of oxygen atoms at a fixed pressure of 1 atmosphere. Plot the
equilibrium mole fraction of NO as a function of temperature in the 600 to 1000 K range. (The actual
exhaust gas is not in equilibrium; therefore, the equilibrium value of NO is a lower bound.) Note that at
equilibrium above 1000 K, most of the gas is NO.
The equilibrium constants from the JANAF table are:
T(K)
Log10Kp for NO
600
-7.210
700
-6.086
800
-5.243
900
-4.587
1000
-4.062
2)
3)
4)
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Plot the following quantities as a function of the mass burned fraction. Use Eq. 9.36 for the laminar flame
speed calculation. The residual gas mole fraction is 20%. After the plots (by the computer), take a look at
the values to appreciate the magnitude of the various quantities. (Good engineers/scientists should always
know the numbers for the phenomena they are working on.)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
3) Problem 9.4 of text book. The problem illustrates the effects of spark plug location and combustion
chamber shape on burn rate.
_________________________________________________________________
For Problem 2, the columns of data in the file si_sim are:
theta=si_sim(:,1);
p
=si_sim(:,2);
tu
=si_sim(:,3);
tb
=si_sim(:,4);
m_int=si_sim(:,5);
m_exh=si_sim(:,6);
viv =si_sim(:,7);
vexh =si_sim(:,8);
xb
=si_sim(:,9);
x_net=si_sim(:,10);
qdot_h=si_sim(:,11);
w_pist=si_sim(:,12);
%crankangle
%pressure (bar)
%unburned gas temp (k)
%bunred gas temp (k)
%cumulative mass inducted (g)
%cumulative mass exhausted (g)
%velocity at intake valve (m/s)
%velocity at exhaust valve (m/s)
%mass fraction burned
%net ht rel / (LHV*fuelmass)
%heat transfer (J/deg)
%work transfer to piston (Kj)
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3/18/08
Problems
1) Many inventors claim that they have invented a high energy spark plug which would substantially
improve combustion and engine efficiency. Typical commercial spark discharge system puts out ~30 mJ
per pulse; because of heat loss to electrodes, only about 10% of this energy gets delivered to the charge.
(For a stoichiometric mixture, only ~0.2 mJ is needed for ignition.) For a high energy spark plug (300 mJ
per pulse ten times the energy delivered by the commercial system), say 30 mJ is delivered to the
charge. To see whether this has substantial effect on the overall combustion behavior, estimate the size
of the flame such that the heat release from the burned gas is equivalent to 30 mJ. (You may assume a
spherical flame ball and determine its radius. The mixture is stoichiometric with 20% residual)
2) One strategy to prevent the engine from knocking is to enrich the mixture to a fuel equivalence ratio of
=1.2. There are two effects: (a) the lowering of the charge temperature by more fuel being evaporated;
(b) the value of for the unburned mixture decreases with . Compared to the case of =1, estimate the
decrease in compression temperature due to the effects of (a) and (b). You may assume a compression
ratio of 9, and = 1.33 and 1.30 for = 1 and 1.2, and make other reasonable assumptions.
3) The large local pressure and temperature rises due the very fast compression ignition of the end gas
(knocking) could cause severe damage to the combustion chamber. To estimate the magnitude of these
quantities, consider the constant volume combustion of a mass element of stoichiometric gasoline
mixture with 10% residual gas at TDC of a naturally aspirated SI engine operating at WOT. The
effective compression ratio is 9 (the effective compression ratio is due to that IVC is not at BDC).
Assume that the density of the trapped charge is 1 kg/m3at IVC, and that the charge may be considered as
an ideal gas with = 1.33.
(a) What is the pressure rise due to the constant volume combustion of the mixture?
(b) If the pressure before knocking is 20 bar, what is the temperature of this burned gas?
(The actual temperature is lower because of dissociation.)
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Homework Set #6
Due:
4/1/08
Problems:
1) The fuel injector flow rate (mass per unit time) is constant so that the amount of fuel delivered is
controlled by the pulse width. This flow rate is sized by the requirements that at idle, the injector should
meter the fuel accurately (thus the lower the flow rate the better, since the corresponding pulse width will
be longer and the metering error will be less), and at WOT and max engine speed, there is enough fuel
delivered within the time constrain of a cycle.
For a four-cylinder 2L displacement engine, with a max speed of 6500 rpm
(a) Estimate the smallest injector flow rate that will do the job
(b) What is the fuel pulse width at idle? (Idle intake pressure ~0.3 bar.)
2)
Consider the discrete form of the x- model. At cycle i, the following definitions are used:
fi
mass of fuel injected
Mi puddle mass
k
fraction of puddle mass evaporated; can be interpreted as t/ where t is the time per cycle
mi
mass of fuel vapor delivered to cylinder
x
fraction of injected fuel going into puddle
The fuel puddle dynamics may then be described by the finite difference equations
(a) if the fuel injection amount is a constant equal to f0, what are the equilibrium values for the puddle
mass M0 and the fuel delivered to the cylinder m0?
(b) If the fuel injection has a step change from f0 to f1, the fuel delivered will not jump to the new
equilibrium value instantaneously. Simulate on the computer the time history of mi and Mi . The
numerical values for a typical 2L, 4-cylinder engine are f0=10 mg, f1=35 mg, k=.05, x=0.7. (You can
also work out the problem analytically.)
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Homework Set #7
Due:
4/8/08
Problems:
1)
Problem 11.3 of text book. Interpret the HC measurement as hydrocarbon with H/C ratio of 1.85.
2)
Problem 11.9 of text book, but change the dimensions such that the top land height is 6 mm instead of
9.52 mm, and the piston/bore clearance is 0.1 mm instead of 0.3 mm. (The values given in the problem
are for much older cars.)
3) Problem 11.10 of text book. This problem gives you an idea of the time scale for NO formation under
engine combustion condition. For the last part of the problem, see Eq. 4-32 and Fig. 4-17 for gas
properties.
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5/6/08
Problems:
1)
The following exercise is for you to get a feel for the magnitude of things for a modern turbo-charged
truck diesel engine. The Hino K13C 4-stroke turbo-charged diesel engine has the following specifications:
No. of cylinders
Total displacement
Bore x Stroke
Compression ratio
Rated power
bsfc @ rated power
Injection: common rail; max pressure
Nozzles
Compressor pressure ratio at rated power
Intercooler outlet temperature at rated power
6
12882 cc
135 mm x 150 mm
16.5
294 KW @2000 rpm
200 g/KW-hr
1400 bar
8 per injector @ 200 m diameter each
2.5
120o C
At rated power, the volumetric efficiency is approximately 0.8. The fuel pulse width is 40o crank angle.
Well assume that the injection rate is constant (at the average value) for the following analysis. (The
actual needle lift profile has a triangular shape.)
Compute the following quantities at rated power: (You may assume that the cylinder condition at the time
of injection to be 50 bar and 800K.) Diesel fuel at 120o C (the fuel operating temperature) has s.g. = 0.78
and viscosity = 5x10-4 N-s/m2.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
2)
(a)
(b)
What are the air mass flow rate and the average fuel flow rate for the engine? What is the A/F?
On a per cylinder, per cycle basis, what are the air mass, the fuel mass and fuel volume injected per cycle?
(You should get a mental picture of these quantities.)
What is the average flow velocity through each nozzle hole?
If the nozzle hole has a length to diameter ratio of 10, what is the pressure drop? Is this drop significant?
What is the average discharge coefficient for each nozzle?
If the critical Webber number is 30, what is the average droplet diameter of the diesel spray? (The surface
tension of the diesel fuel at the injection condition is 0.025 N/m.)
If all the drops are of the same size as calculated in (f), how many drops are there? If these drops are to be
distributed uniformly in the cylinder at TDC, what is the average distance between the drops? What is the
implication of these facts on the air/fuel mixing process? (Neither assumption is a good one, but the
estimates give a picture of the difficulty of air utilization.)
The compression ratio of a diesel engine must be high enough for fast auto-ignition. An acceptable
ignition delay is 20o crank angle. Well use the ignition delay equations Eq. (10-37, 38 and 39) to study
this. (Note that there is a typo in Eq. 10-37; see errata sheet on the web.) The inlet pressure and
temperatures are 1 bar and 20oC (253K). The cranking speed is 200 rpm. The fuel has a cetane number
of 45.
For a truck engine with a 135 mm stroke, the polytropic exponent (n) for compression is 1.2. Plot the
ignition delay as a function of compression ratio (CR) in the range of 12 to 25. Determine the minimum
CR required.
For a small passenger car diesel engine with a stroke of 80 mm, because of the higher heat loss, n = 1.12.
Plot the ignition delay on the same graph as in (a) and determine the minimum CR required.
3)
The soot burn-up rate may be obtained by the Nagle and Strickland-Constable formula which is given by
Eq. (11.41),(11-42) and Table 11.10 of the text. The value w in the formula is the surface oxidation rate in
g/cm2-s. Since the data for the correlation were obtained from graphite oxidation experiments, the rate is
the value for carbon. Well assume that the oxidation of soot particle is at the same rate as that of carbon.
Also the density of the soot is assumed to be 2 g/cc.
Do the calculations for the following conditions:
(a) p=100 bar and T = 2500 K
(b) p=70 bar and T = 2000 K
(c) p=30 bar and T = 1400 K
The three conditions represent roughly at the peak pressure point, at the end of combustion, and late in the
expansion process.
(i)
To show that mass transport is not the limiting process for oxidation of small particles, calculate the
transport time ( = d2/D) for particle diameter d of 10, 100 and 1000 nm. The mass diffusivity D is:
p
T
D(m 2 / s) = 1.8x10 5 ( 0 )( )1.81 where p 0 = 1bar and T0 = 300K
p T0
(ii)
Calculate the time to oxidize particle of diameter 100 nm for oxygen mole fractions of 0.1%, 1% and 10%.
Note that to have fast oxidation, sufficient oxygen has to be available at high temperatures.
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The purpose of this problem is to let you have a feel for the magnitudes of the heat load under typical engine
condition. Use the spark ignition engine data from HW4 (on the web) for your calculation; assume that the
volumetric efficiency based on intake condition is 0.7. The overall heat transfer correlation is given by
= hA(T T )
Q
g
w
where A is the surface area (estimated by assuming a flat piston and a flat head), and h is calculated from the
Nusselt correlation
Nu = 0.35Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
The Reynolds number is based on the mean piston speed and bore diameter. The Prandtl number is 0.8. Note
that the heat transfer correlation used in the problem is based on the average gas temperature, which can be
estimated from the burned and unburned gas temperatures. To simplify the problem, you may use constant
values for the gas properties:
Specific heats cp,unburned =1.2 kJ/kg; cp,burned = 1.5 kJ/kg.
function of crank angle from when the intake valve closes to when the exhaust valve opens. (In the data file,
TDC compression is 360o; IVC at 234o; EVO at 483o.)
Note that the Q you calculated is the overall heat transfer based on the average gas temperature. There is a Q
listed in the data file; that value is based on the heat transfer from the burned gas through the wetted area
the burned gas covers. You should compare the two values. You should also note that the Q values you
calculated are based on time and those listed in the file are crank angle based so that conversion is needed
before you can compare them.
2. The lubrication film under the top piston ring will break though somewhere near the end strokes where the the
piston velocity is low. The resulting boundary lubrication manifests as liner wear, of which the wear pattern can
be seen when the engine is disassembled. The wear near TDC is more severe than that near BDC because the ring
pressure is higher. This phenomenon could be interpreted by the Stribeck diagram (see Fig. 13-3). For the piston
ring, the non-dimensional Sommerfeld number S (which is graphed as the x-axis of the Stribeck diagram):
S=
U()
aP()
where is the lubricant viscosity, a is the piston ring thickness, and U() and P() are the instantaneous piston
speed and cylinder pressure at crank angle . Film break through occurs when S is less than a critical value Scritical.
For the pressure data of HW4, plot S as a function of for a = 1 mm; = 0.01 Kg/m-s. If Scritical = 1, where are
the transition points (in terms of CA) near TDC in the compression and expansion strokes under the following
conditions
(a)
(b)
(c)
In these calculation, the shape of P() may be considered the same; thus for part (c), the pressure curve will be
scaled by a factor of 2.
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(i)
At engine operating temperature, automotive lubricants comprise long chain hydrocarbon molecules
which are normally tangled up, but align themselves at high shear rates. Thus the viscosity
decreases as the shear rate increases (shear- thinning). Explain why would this property help or hurt
engine lubrication. (2 points)
(ii) Experimentally, the frictional mean effective pressure (fmep) needed to overcome the valve train
friction decreases with engine speed; e.g., see Fig. 13-24 of text. Explain this trend. (2 points)
(iii) Synthetic diesel fuel (e.g. made by the Fischer Tropsch process which was invented in war time
Germany to derive liquid fuel from coal and wood) has a very high cetane number (CN~80
compared to the normal diesel fuel with CN in the high 40s). Give two comments on the impact of
this high CN value on diesel engine design and operation. (2 points)
(iv) An inventor proposed that a turbo-compound diesel engine be which uses an additional power
turbine to extract mechanical energy out of the exhaust gas to the drive shaft. The novelty of the
proposal was that much of the shaft power was to be derived from the power turbine instead of the
engine. Give two comments on whether the concept is good or bad (each comment could either be
positive or negative respectively). (2 points)
(v) Give two reasons why retarding the spark timing at constant idle speed at cold start would make the
catalyst to light-off faster. (2 points)
(vi) Give two consequences from operating a SI engine on Miller cycle (i.e. with a configuration such
that the compression ratio is less than the expansion ratio. (2 points)
(vii) Give two reasons why for a given maximum power output of a SI engine, turbo-charging would lead
to better fuel economy. (2 points)
(viii) The US Army is interested in developing a diesel engine that does not use liquid coolant. T
he
primary reason for such an engine is the elimination of the radiator which is vulnerable at combat.
Give two detrimental effects to the engine operation if such a configuration is used. (2 points)
(ix) Why would one pursue a cylinder-deactivation strategy, i.e. deactivate some of the cylinders in
certain part of the engine map? (1 point). Do you want to keep the valves open or closed for the
deactivated cylinders and why (1 point).
(x) One way to lower NOx emissions in diesel engines is to add water to the fuel. Since water is not
mixable with diesel fuel, it has to been emulsified by a surfactant. Explain how it works and why
this arrangement is more effective than injecting water in the intake manifold (2 points).
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Akre, Brian S. "Chrysler Developing Electric Car Using Gasoline to Power Fuel Cell."
Los Angeles Daily News, January 7, 1997.
The method is to partially oxidize the fuel to CO and H2 first. Then the CO is reacted with the H2O (which is one
of the end products in the exhaust) by the Water-Gas shift reaction to form H2 and CO2. The H2 is used in the fuel
cell.
You are to analyze the energetics of the process (i.e., energy balance analysis only; ignoring all the irreversibility
losses). You may represent the gasoline as iso-octane and assume ideal reactions, i.e. the partial oxidation only
forms CO and H2., and that all CO is converted to CO2 and H2 in the Water-Gas shift reaction.
(a) On the basis of the energetics of the reactions, what is the maximum energy conversion efficiency of such a
system?
(b) How would your answer change if the fuel is not iso-octane but ethanol? (What is the major difference?)
compressor pressure ratio c. Does this point match up to the point plotted in part (d)?
cc
3.4
7250
6960
3.0
72%
2.8
70%
2.6
2.0
75%
1.6
Ignore 6070
c contours.
Assume
5550 c = 0.65
everywhere
4840
1.4
1.2
1.0
65%
60%
it
2.2
1.8
Simple turbo-charged
diesel engine
6530
74%
2.4
Su
rg
el
im
Pressure ratio
Pressure ratio c
3.2
2650
Compressor
orpressor
ssor
Compressor
4025 N/ssor
T1Map
Map
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
"Corrected" Flow rate m T1/P1
corrected
m
Corrected
mass
flowrate
, kg/s
Correctedc
mass
flowrate
m
, kg/s
corrected
orrected
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson,
.
..
N. Principles
and Performance
in Diesel
Engineering
N. Principles
and Performance
in Diesel
Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
-1 -1
((
=P3/P4
=P3/P4
t) t)=P3/P4
ref
Pref=1Pbar
T
ref
re
Tref = 300K
Turbine
Tu
rbineMap
Map
Turbine
N/(T3/Tref)
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What is the heating value per unit mass of the stoichiometric iso-octane/ air mixture?
(iii) What is the heating value per unit mass of the stoichiometric iso-octane/ air/ N2O mixture?
(iv) What is the ratio of the power output of this engine operating by using these two different oxidizers?
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B1/2
g1
g2
g3
h1
d1
h2
d2
h3
d3
Bs/2
hs
w1
B2/2
B3/2
w2
t1 Top ring
t2 Second ring
top
land
Measurements
(units required)
Comments
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Spring, 2008
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the laboratory is to provide the students with some familiarity to how does a real engine
behave, to operate the engine and the exhaust gas emissions measurement system, and to acquire and explain the
engine data.
ORGANIZATION
The class will be divided into a Tuesday (4/15/08) group and a Thursday (4/17/08) group. Each group will
work on the engine for one afternoon from 1 to 2:30 pm. The data gathering is a team effort, with the raw data to be
shared by all members of the group. Each student, however, has to write a lab report individually based on
independent analysis of the raw data.
The report title will be "The Load/ Speed Dependence of SI Engine Emission Behaviors". The data
presented in the report should have been reduced to meaningful results. It is important that the results be explained
according to your understanding of the physical phenomena involved.
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
The engine is a 4-cylinder, 4-valve per cylinder production spark ignition engine. (The engine is the
DaimlerChrysler (DCX) 2.4L engine, which powers the Minivan. The specifications are:
Bore
Stroke
Compression Ratio
Connecting Rod Length
Rated Power:
Peak Torque
Firing Order
87.5 mm
101.0 mm
9.4
136.5 mm
117 KW @ 5000 rpm
227 n-m @4000 rpm
1-3-4-2
IVO
IVC
EVO
EVC
1o BTC
51o ABC
52o BBC
8o ATC
The fuel used is Certification gasoline HF437; the fuel properties can be found on the course web site. The
fuel is injected in the intake port. The equivalence ratio is changed by varying the injection duration which is
controlled by the DaimlerChrysler ECU using the information from the Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) sensor at the
exhaust. Note that this sensor gives only an on-off type of signal; therefore, an additional Universal Exhaust Gas
Oxygen (UEGO) sensor is used to read the air fuel ratio. Also note that the ECU modulates the equivalence ratio at 2
Hz, in the range of = 0.975 to 1.025; the UEGO displays the averaged value.
(a) At 1600 rpm, 46 N-m brake torque operation, check that the emission measurements are consistent by
determining the equivalence ratio from a carbon balance and compare that with the UEGO sensor output. (Note
that this is the standard light load condition employed by DaimlerChrysler to check out all their engines.)
(b) Produce the Engine-Out emission maps for the engine for the following and explain the observed trends. (You
should use brake- specific values which are the values normalized by the energy output of the engine.)
Brake- specific CO emission
Brake- specific HC emissions
Brake- specific NO emission
Brake- specific fuel consumption (based on carbon balance)
Note: the map is a contour plot of the specific quantities as a function of the engine brake torque and rpm. It should
include points on the WOT line and have data points reasonably spaced. Roughly a 4x4 data matrix will suffice.
You could plot the contours by hand, using interpolation. It is not necessary to use a computer program to plot these
contours. Point out the features on these plots and explain why the engine exhibits such behaviors.
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Table 3.2. The enthalpies of formation for C8H18 are for n-octane. For isooctane they are 224.1
and 259.3 MJ/kmol for gas and liquid C8H18 , respectively.
p. 89: Middle of page: xCO 2 , xCO and x 02 should be xCO 2 , xCO , and x O2 .
p. 122: Figure 4-10 is a repeat of Fig. 4-3 due to an editing error, though Fig. 4-10 is correctly labeled
burned mixture properties. A correct Fig. 4-10 is attached. It is only slightly different: e.g., at
1000 K the burned mixture us for = 1.2 is 4% lower than the unburned mixture value, and hs is
1% lower than the unburned mixture value. These differences scale, approximately, with .
p. 151 Underneath Eq (4.65) insert:
K is given by Eq. (4.63)
p. 152: Line 5. C mH nOr should be C nHm Or .
p.188 In Eq. (5.66c), m is omitted. It should read:
T
T
S3b S2 = mcv ln 3 a + mc p ln 3b
= mcv ln + mc p ln
T2
T3a
p. 306: Equation (7.18): The sign at the beginning of the second line of the equation (a minus sign) should
be a plus sign.
p. 388: Equation (9.27). The sign in front of the third term in the square bracket should be , not + :
T
T
1 1
ln
i.e., +
Tw Tw ( 1) bTw 1
p. 553: Equation (10.37). There should be a + sign between the two round brackets within the square
bracket., i.e.,
0.63
1
1 21.2
id (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22Sp )expE A
+
RT 17,190 p 12.4
p. 620: The reference for Fig. 11-33 should be Yu, R.C., Wong, V.W., and Shahed, S.M., Sources of
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Direct Injection Diesel Engines, SAE paper 800048, SAE Trans.,
vol. 89, 1980. (This is a new reference; make it reference 87 and add it to p. 667.)
p. 679: In the inserted graph in Figure 12-5, the scale for thermal conductivity k g is not correct. The values
should be multiplied by 5 x 105: e.g., the peak value of 10 x 10-8 = 10-7 W/m.K should be 10-7 x (5
x 105) = 5 x 10-2 W/m.K.
p. 880 In Fig. 15-45, the units for pressure (middle left) should be kPa and not MPa.
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F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution, Intext Educational Publishers, 1973
edition.
(A good basic text on engines from the 1950s with modest updating in 1968; much excellent
descriptive material.)
2.
C. Fayette Taylor and Edward S. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine, International Textbook
Company, 1961.
(A basic text now out of print and somewhat dated.)
3.
C.F. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice. Volumes I and II, M.I.T.
Press, 1966 and 1968. Reissued in paperback in 1977, and in 1985 as Second Edition with minor
modifications.
(A much expanded version of reference 2; an advanced text with extensive material on engine
design practice of the 1950s and 60s).
4.
5.
L.C. Lichty, Combustion Engine Processes, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 6th edition, 1967.
(A good basic text on all types of combustion engines, now somewhat dated.)
6.
M. Khovakh (general editor) Motor Vehicle Engines. English translation form Russian. MIR
Publishers, Moscow, 1976.
(A Russian text with an excellent ordering of subject material.)
7.
D.J. Patterson and N.A. Henein, Emission from Combustion Engines and their Control, Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., 1972.
(A comprehensive text on engine emissions; now somewhat dated.)
8.
Robert U. Ayres and Richard P. McKenna, Alternatives to the Internal Combustion Engines, Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1972.
(A fundamental text on the alternative engines to the internal combustion engine.)
9.
10.
11.
R.F. Ansdale, The Wankel RC Engine: Design and Performance, Iliffe Books, Ltd., London, 1968.
(Contains much technical and historical information on the Wankel engine.)
12.
2
13. G. Sitkei, Heat Transfer and Thermal Loading in Internal Combustion Engines, Akademiai
Kaido:Budapest, 1974.
(A monograph on heat transfer in spark-ignition and diesel engines and temperature distributions in
engine components.)
14. W.J. Annand and G.E. Roe, Gas Flow in the Internal Combustion Engine, Haessner Publishing, Inc.,
1974.
(A review of selected topics related to gas flow in IC engine intake and exhaust systems.)
15. Should We Have a New Engine? An Automobile Power Systems Evaluation, Volume I. Summary,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JPL SP 43-17, Augusdt 1975.
(Popular summary of study which evaluates the internal combustion engine and its alternatives.)
Should We Have a New Engine? An Automobile Power Systems Evaluation, Volume II, Technical
Reports, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JPL SP 43-17, August 1975.
(Extensive study of design and operating characteristics of internal combustion engines and
alternative engines for automobile use.)
16. E.M. Goodger, Hydrocarbon Fuels; Production, Properties and Performance of Liquids and Gases,
Macmillan, London, 1975.
(Useful review of fuels, automotive and non-automotive.)
17. Lyle Cummins, Internal Fire: The Internal Combustion Engine 1673 - 1900 Revised Edition, 2nd
Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1976.
(Excellent and readable history of the internal combustion engine by the son of the founder of the
Cummins Engine Company.)
18. A History of the Automotive Internal Combustion Engine, Society of Automotive Engineers special
publication, SP-409, 1976.
(A set of four SAE papers reviewing the history of IC engine developments.)
19. D.R. Blackmore and A. Thomas, Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine, John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
(A useful introduction to how fuel properties affect spark-ignition engine operation.)
20. W. Thomson, Fundamentals of Automotive Engine Balance, Mechanical Engineering Publications,
Ltd., London, 1978.
(A short straightforward monograph on the balancing of various arrangement reciprocating
engines.)
21. R.S. Benson and N.D. Whitehouse, Internal Combustion Engines, Volumes 1 and 2, Pergamon
Press, Inc. 1979.
(A modern text, limited in scope, with special emphasis on computer simulations of engine flow and
combustion processes.)
22. N. Watson and M.S. Janota, Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1982.
(An extensive and excellent professional reference text on turbochargers, and turbocharged engine
performance.)
23. R.S. Benson, The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines, Volume I,
edited by J.H. Horlock and D.E. Winterbone, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982.
(Extensive and detailed monograph on unsteady engine intake and exhaust flow processes.)
3
24. J.H. Horlock and D.E. Winterbone, editors, The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal
Combustion Engines, Volume II, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986.
(Extensive and detailed monograph on in-cylinder engine processes and methods of analysis.)
25. J.C. Hilliard and G.S. Springer, editors, Fuel Economy in Road Vehicles Powered by Spark Ignition
Engines. Plenum Press, New York, London, 1984.
(A set of contributed chapters on engine and vehicle factors which affect fuel economy; some are
excellent.)
26. R. Stone, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, MacMillian Publishers, Ltd., 1985. Second
edition, 1992.
(An introductory text appropriate to a survey undergraduate course on engines.)
27. C.R. Ferguson, Internal Combustion Engines--Applied Thermosciences, John Wiley & Sons, 1986.
(A new text focusing primarily on Thermal/Fluids Science aspects of engine operation.)
28. Bosch Automotive Handbook, 5th edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed by
SAE, 2000.
(A concise and useful summary of technical data on engine and vehicle components and systems.)
29. J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, 1988.
(An extensive text and professional reference on the fundamentals behind engine operation and
design.)
30. Bosch Automotive Electric/Electronic Systems, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1988.
(A practical guide to and description of automotive electrical systems.)
31. C. Arcoumanis, editor, Internal Combustion Engines, Academic Press, 1988.
(A collection of contributed chapters on gasoline and diesel engines, turbocharged engines and
automotive fuels; some are good.)
32. G. Blair, The Basic Design of Two-Stroke Engines, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1990.
(A monograph with simple programs focused on two-stroke gasoline engine design issues and their
underlying principles.)
33. K. Owen and T. Coley, Automotive Fuels Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1990.
(An extensive compilation of information on gasolines and diesel fuels and their effects on engine
operation.)
34. K. Newton, W. Steeds and T.K. Garrett, The Motor Vehicle, Butterworth, Eleventh edition, 1989.
(A useful source of practical information on engines, transmissions and vehicles.)
35. H.P. Lenz, Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines, Springer-Verlag, 1990.
(A resource for detailed information on gasolines, carburetors, fuel injection systems, and the
mixture formation process.)
36. J.I. Ramos, Internal Combustion Engine Modeling, Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1989.
(A review and useful introduction to the various models now available for engine processes.)
37. R.M. Heck and R.J. Farranto, Catalytic Air Pollution Control, Van Nostrand, Reinhold, 1995.
38. G.P. Blair, Design and Simulation of Two-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1996.
(An update and extension of Blairs earlier book; extensive information on small high-performance
two-stroke spark-ignition engines.)
39. E. Sher (editor), Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines: Pollutant
Formation and Control, Academic Press, 1998.
(An extensive set of chapters, by different authors, on four-stroke and two-stroke cycle sparkignition and diesel engine operation and emissions, and fuel effects.)
40. W.W. Pulkrabek, Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1997.
(An introductory text on IC engine fundamentals.)
41. G.L. Borman and K.W. Ragland, Combustion Engineering, WCB McGraw-Hill, 1998.
(A valuable reference volume on combustion processes in different practical systems, including IC
engines, with extensive information on fuels.)
42. J.B. Heywood and E. Sher, The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine: Its Development, Operation and Design,
SAE, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
(A comprehensive summary of the technical literature on two-stroke cycle engine processes which
govern its operation and its design.)
43. R.C. Flagan and John H. Seinfeld, Fundamentals of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1988.
(A review of air pollutant formation processes and sources, and control approaches.)
44. H.P. Lenz and C. Cozzarini, Emissions and Air Quality, SAE, 1999.
(A concise handbook with data on transportation emissions, their impact, and ways to control their
magnitude.)
45. B. Challen and R. Baranescu, Editors, Diesel Engine Reference Book, Second Edition, published by
SAE, 1999.
(An extensive handbook on the theory, design, and applications of diesel engines.)
46. Bosch Gasoline-Engine Management, 1st Edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1999.
(A handbook with extensive practical details on gasoline spark-ignition engines and their
management and control.)
47. Bosch Diesel-Engine Management, 2nd Edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1999.
(A handbook witih extensive practical details on diesel engines, their emissions, and their
management and control.)
48. C. Stan, Editor, Direct Injection Systems for Spark-Ignition and Compression-Ignition Engines,
published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, distributed by SAE, 1999.
(Multi-author volume on direct injection gasoline and diesel engines, focusing on the different
practical approaches to direct injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder.)
5
49. D.E. Winterbone and R.J. Pearson, Theory of Engine Manifold Design, SAE, 2000.
(A text on the theory and methodology for analyzing unsteady gas flows in engine manifolds.)
50. D.E. Winterbone and R.J. Pearson, Design Techniques for Engine Manifolds, SAE, 1999.
(A comparison text to #49, focusing on application of unsteady gas flow analysis tools to engine
manifold design.)
51. G.P. Blair, Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1999.
(A description of engine simulations, largely developed in the authors laboratory, and their
application to four-stroke engine performance prediction and design.)
52. C.R. Ferguson and A.T. Kirkpatrick, Internal Combustion Engines Applied Thermosciences, Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
(A new edition of #27: An introductory text focusing on the thermal science processes important to
internal combustion engine operations.)
53. M. Nuti, Emissions from Two-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1998.
(A monograph on two-stroke cycle gasoline engines, the origins of their emissions and methods of
control.)
54. P. Eastwood, Critical Topics in Exhaust Gas Aftertreatment, Research Studies Press Ltd., 2000.
(A detailed monograph on engine exhaust gas treatmentcatalysts, particulate filtersas well as
exhaust treatment system issues.)
55. A. Makartchouk, Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design, and Control,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, Basel, 2002.
(Analysis based text, focused primarily on engine dynamics, structural design, and automated diesel
engine control.)
56. F. Zhao, D.L. Harrington, and M-C. Lai, Automotive Gasoline Direct-Injection Engine, SAE, 2002.
(An extensive review of the literature on GDI engine performance, combustion, efficiency, and
emissions, and the state of GDI engine development.)
MIT OpenCourseWare
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The backdrop
Transportation/mobility is a vital to
modern economy
Transport of People
Transport of goods and produce
People get accustomed to the ability to
travel
3
Typical US output
Lubricants
0.90%
1.50%
1.90%
2.80%
3.30%
Marketable Coke
5.00%
Still Gas
5.40%
Jet Fuel
12.60%
15.30%
51.40%
Millions of Barrels/day
25
Electric utilities
Commercial
Residential
20
15
Industrial
10
Transportation
5
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Source: US Dept. of Energy
6
Million Barrels/day
90
80
70
60
Others
50
40
30
20
OPEC
10
US
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Hubbert peak
Source: EIA
2003
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9 in Zittel, Werner, and Jrg Schindler.
"Future World Oil Supply." Salzburg, Germany: International Summer School on the Politics and Economics of
Renewable Energy, July 2002.
Source: http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev1.pdf
Petroleum price
Decrease in demand, increase in
non-OPEC supply
120.00
100.00
Saudi increase
production
Constant 2004$
$/Barrel
$ of the day
80.00
6/6/08
@$118/Barrel
Iran/Iraq War
Iranian Revolution
Yom Kippur War
Arab Oil Embargo
60.00
40.00
Gulf
War
20.00
Iraq war
Demand of
emerging
market;
limited
refinery
capacity
0.00
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
9/11
Oil from North Sea, Alaska
Sources:
Data from EIA; event labels from WTRG Economics
8000
7000
103
6000
Total
5000
Total
4000
3000
102
Liquid fuel
2000
Liquid fuel
10
1000
0
1750
1800
1850
1900
Year
1950
2000
1
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
Year
Source: EIA
10
11
What is bio-fuel?
12
Dominant biofuels
Sugar based
(corn, sugarcane, )
Cellulosic based
(switchgrass, wood, )
Crop based
(rapeseed, soybean, )
Wasted oil/ animal fat
Usage
Ethanol
Bio-diesel
B10, B20, .
Algae
Ethanol fuel
Resources:
Energy
Materials
Ethanol + CO2
Labor
Sugar
Purification
(removal of water, )
Fermentation
Starch
Corn
By-products
14
Purification
(removal of glycerol,
alkaline, fatty acid, )
Esters and glycerol
Tri-glyceride
Alkaline
Catalyst
(KOH)
Esters
Glycerol
CH2-OOC-R1
R-OOC-R1
|
CH-OOC-R2 +3ROH R-OOC-R2 +(CH2OH)2-CHOH
|
CH2-OOC-R3
R-OOC-R3
(typically 8-22 C to 2 O)
15
Diesel
Soybean oil methylester
Rapeseed oil methylester
Sunflower oil methylester
Frying oil ethylester
Cetane
number
s.g.
LHV
(MJ/kg)
LHV
(MJ/L)
B10 LHV
(MJ/L)
45-55
50.9
52.9
49
61
0.820
0.885
0.882
0.880
0.872
43.22
37.01
37.30
38.53
37.19
35.44
32.76
32.90
33.91
32.41
35.17
35.19
35.29
35.14
s.g.
LHV
(MJ/kg)
LHV
(MJ/L)
E10 LHV
(MJ/L)
34.32
21.12
33.00
Octane
number
Gasoline
Ethanol
95
107
0.780
0.785
44.00
26.90
34.91
34.93
35.14
34.84
0.992
0.993
0.996
0.991
0.985
0.986
0.991
0.983
23.10
0.962
0.673
Bio-ester data from Graboski and McCormick, Prog. Energy Comb. Sc., Vol. 24, 1998
16
(A/F)
stoiciometric
16
Gasoline
and diesel
14
B100
12
10
Ethanol
E85
O/C = 0.5
8
O/C = 1
Methanol
4
2
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Fuel H to C ratio
3.5
4
17
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Amann, Charles A. The Passenger Car and The Greenhouse Effect.
SAE Journal of Passenger Cars 99 (October 1990): 902099.
100% Methanol
80
60
40
Soot reduction - %
100
20
30
40
50
20
21
RENEWABLES
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 2 in Budny, Daniel. "The Global Dynamics of Biofuels."
Brazil Institute Special Report. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, April 2007.
22
100
80
60
40
20
Source: ExxonMobil JSAE meeting, Kyoto, July 23-26, 2007
0
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
23
US bio-fuel capacity
US biofuels
US harvested crop land (US agriculture census 2002), hectare 1.23E+08
US all distillate use (diesel+jet+power gen etc.) EIA2007; L/yr 3.34E+11
US gasoline use, EIA 2007; L/yr
5.40E+11
Limit of
Limit of Energy
production production ratio of
(gal)
(L)
limit to
gal/acre L/hectare
demand
bio-diesel
palm oil
coconut
rapeseed
soy
peanut
sunflower
jatropia (SE Asia)
algae (?)
5.08E+02 4,756
2.30E+02 2,153
1.02E+02
955
6.00E+01
562
9.00E+01
843
8.20E+01
768
2.00E+02 1,872
1.80E+03 16,850
1.54E+11
6.99E+10
3.10E+10
1.82E+10
2.73E+10
2.49E+10
6.08E+10
5.47E+11
5.85E+11
2.65E+11
1.17E+11
6.91E+10
1.04E+11
9.44E+10
2.30E+11
2.07E+12
1.63
0.74
0.33
0.19
0.29
0.27
0.64
5.78
ethanol
corn
sugar cane (Brazil)
3.44E+02
8.00E+02
1.04E+11 3.96E+11
2.43E+11 9.21E+11
0.71
1.71
3,217
7,489
24
Algae: micro-seaweeds
Issues
Production
Need high lipid
content
species
Need fast
growth species
Growth in
dense
environment
Harvest techniques
Oil extraction
Hawaii
Courtesy of Robert Dibble. Used with permission.
26
Sustainability
27
Energy balance
Example: Corn ethanol in US
Studies
Verdict:
Substantial
environmental
and economic
cost; return not
clear
28
Other bio-fuels
Pimentel and Patzek also estimated energy budget for other biofuels. Returns:
Ethanol from switchgrass = -50%
Ethanol from wood biomass = -57%
Bio-diesel from soybean = -27%
Bio-diesel from sunflower = -118%
Other more positive estimates:
Bio-diesel from rapeseed = +32% (EU)
Bio-diesel production = +324% (US National Bio-diesel Board)
Outlook: NOT CLEAR
New technology needed to change the picture
29
-67.8 KJ
-117.3 KJ
- 393.5 KJ
Glucose
Source: Wikipedia
Cellulose
30
31
$ per gallon
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
2.2
2
1995
2.6
2.4
400
350
300
Cents per gal
250
200
150
100
May 08 spot price: $2.50/gal
Retail price: $3.80/gal
50
Jan 08
Jan 07
Jan 06
Jan 05
Jan 04
Jan 03
Jan 02
Jan 01
Jan 00
Jan 99
Jan 98
Jan 97
Jan 96
0
Jan 95
Millions of barrels
32
Carbon intensity
(net mass of CO2 produced per unit fuel energy)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
33
Carbon intensity
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
34
Water resources
Fertilizer
Soil
Bio-diversity
Plant waste treatment
35
Closure
Bio-diesel and alcohols are excellent fuels for
transportation use
Good combustion characteristics
Compatible with current engine technology
Sustainability
Bio-fuels from crops are not likely to make any
significant impact on the global liquid fuel supply
picture
Land capacity
Effect on food price
Closure (continue)
Sustainability issues
Energy budget
Water use
CO2 intensity especially with land use
replacement
Bio-diversity
Other issues
Bio-fuel plant waste treatment
Resources requirement
37
Hybrid vehicles
Configuration:
IC Engine + Generator + Battery + Electric Motor
Concept
Eliminates external charging
As load leveler
Improved overall efficiency
Regeneration ability
Plug-in hybrids: use external electricity supply
38
Hybrid Vehicles
External charging for plug-ins
Regeneration
Battery/ ultracapacitor
Parallel Hybrid
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
ENGINE
Series Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
Battery/ ultracapacitor
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Power split
Hybrid
ENGINE
Regeneration
GENERATOR
Regeneration
Battery/ ultracapacitor
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 5 and 7 in Tate, E. D., Michael O. Harpster, and Peter J. Savagian.
"The Electrification of the Automobile: From Conventional Hybrid, to Plug-In Hybrids, to Extended-Range Electric Vehicles."
SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars - Electronic and Electrical Systems 1 (April 2008): 2008-01-0458.
40
41
The reduced load/ speed dynamic range required from the engine offers
design opportunities
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 3 in Aoki, Kaoru, et al.
"Development of an Integrated Motor Assist Hybrid System: Development of the 'Insight', a Personal Hybrid Coupe."
SAE Journal of Engines 109 (June 2000): 2000-01-2216.
42
HEV TECHNOLOGY
Toyota Prius
Engine: 1.5 L, Variable Valve Timing, Atkinson/Miller
Cycle (13.5 expansion ratio), Continuously Variable
Transmission
57 KW at 5000 rpm
Motor - 50 KW
Max system output 82 KW
Battery - Nickel-Metal Hydride, 288V; 21 KW
Fuel efficiency:
66 mpg (Japanese cycle)
43 mpg (EPA city driving cycle)
41 mpg (EPA highway driving cycle)
Cost: ~$20K
43
Efficiency improvement:
Toyota Hybrid System (THS)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 2 in Inoue, Toshio, et al.
"Improvement of a Highly Efficient Hybrid Vehicle and Integrating Super Low Emissions."
SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 109 (October 2000): 2000-01-2930.
44
BMEP (bar)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Speed (rpm)
0
500
45
Cost factor
If
$ x mpg
M=
Px
(assume that interest rate is zero)
46
Cost Factor
Example:
Honda Civic and Civic-Hybrid
Price premium ($, MY08 listed)
mpg (city and highway av.)
hybrid improvement in mpg(%)
= $7155 ($22600-15445)
= 29 mpg (42 for hybrid)
= 45%
$7155 x 29
= 115,000 miles
M=
$4 x 45%
(excluding interest cost)
47
48
400
300
200
100
Sales (thousands)
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
50
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Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see any illustration of an engine control system,
such as that in the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Intake
Exhaust
Injection
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
TC
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
180
360
540
720
900
1080
1260
1440
Cyl.#4
Cyl.#3
Cyl.#2
Cyl.#1
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Brake-Fuel-Conv.-Eff.
0.6
Sulzer
RTA58
0.5
Audi
HSDI
RTA84
RTA38
P11C, K13C
Hino
Isuzu 6HE1
0.4
Volvo TD70
DI engines
IDI Engines
SI Engine
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
100
1000
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Emission requirements
(Gasoline engines)
1975
1977
1975
1977
1981
1994 US
Euro 3
1994 TLEV
0.1
Euro 4
Euro 5
1997 TLEV
NOx(g/mile)
NMOG (g/mile)
1
1
1981
1994 TLEV
Euro 3
Euro 4
1997-2003 ULEV
0.1
Euro 5
1997-2003 ULEV
0.01
2004 SULEV2
2004 SULEV2
0.01
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
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91%
9%
HC Mechanisms
Deposits
(1%)
Oil Layers
(1%)
4.6%
Crankcase (0.7%)
- Recycled -
2.5%
Crevices
(5.2%)
5.1%
Exh. Valve
Leakage (0.1%)
Blow-by (0.6%)
- Recycled -
In-Cylinder Oxidation
1/3 Oxidized
2/3 Oxidized
1.7%
1.7%
3.4%
1/3
2.3%
1/3
Unburned HC in Residual
(1.3%) - Recycled -
1.5%
Engine- out HC (1.6%)
Catalyst
Source
Crevices
% Fuel Escaping
Normal Combustion
5.2
Fraction Emitted
as EOHC
0.15*
% Fuel as HC
Emissions
0.682*
% of Total EOHC
Emissions
42.6
Quench
0.5
0.15
0.074
4.6
Oil Layers
1.0
0.09**
0.090**
5.6
Deposits
1.0
0.30
0.300
18.7
Liquid Fuel
1.2
0.30
0.356
22.2
Valve Leakage
0.1
1.00
0.100
6.3
Total
9.0
1.60
100
*
**
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0.20
Mole fraction
0.15
CO
CO2
0.10
H2
0.05
0.00
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Combustion efficiency
or relative energy released
1.0
0.8
Relative energy
released
0.6
Combustion
efficiency
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
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18
(A/F)stoiciometric
16
Gasoline
O/C = 0
14
12
10
O/C = 0.5
8
O/C = 1
Methanol
4
2
1
1.5
2.5
Fuel H to C ratio
3.5
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FTP 23 cycles Each cycle consists of idle, accel., cruise, and decel. Three test phases:
Transient phase (0-505s); stabilized phase (505 to 1376s); warm start (repeat of first 505 s test after 10 min. shut down)
miles/hr
Stabilized Phase
50
80
40
60
30
40
20
10
20
250
500
time (sec)
750
1000
1250
km/hr
Transient Phase
60
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VVT technology
Cam switching
Honda VTEC
Jacobs VVT
Lotus/Eaton
Electromagnetic valve
FEV EMV, Visteon EVA
VVT technology
VVT technology
BMW Valvetronic
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see patents related to the Jacobs variable valve actuator
and lost motion system, such as: 7484483, 7059282, 7152576.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see slide 8 in Milovanovic, Nebosja, and Jamie Turner. "Requirements for the Valve
Train and Technologies for Enabling HCCI Over the Entire Operating Range." Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, 2005. (PDF)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see slide 6 in Milovanovic, Nebosja, and Jamie Turner. "Requirements for the Valve
Train and Technologies for Enabling HCCI Over the Entire Operating Range." Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, 2005. (PDF)
Electromagnetic Valves
Advantage
flexibility
Challenges
Significant force required
F (RPM)2
Seating velocity
Noise
Packaging
Cost
US Patent 6,681,731 B2