CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS

Verb is a part of the sentence which makes a group of words a

complete piece of communication.
The forms of the verb which have the capacity of expressing idea are
called finite verbal forms.
Verbal forms which do not help to express an idea are called non-finite
forms (e.g. to eat, sleeping, made)
The properties of the verb are: numbers, persons, voices, moods,
tenses, aspects.

Voices
Active and passive
The active voice form of a verb in which the subject denotes the doer
of the action (e.g. The postman delivers the mail twice a day.)
The passive voice form of a verb in which the subject denotes a

person or a thing that suffers the action expressed by its verb (e.g. The
mail is delivered twice a day.)

Moods
Indicative something as a fact (e.g. The sun rises every morning)

Subjunctive something not as a reality. Or a fact, but only as a desire,

plan, thought. It expresses a condition or suppositions (e.g. I wish I
were there.)
Imperative commands, requests, wishes (e.g. Go home)

Tenses
Tense form of the verb used to denote time, continuance and
completeness of an action.
Formation by adding suffixes (e)s, -(e)d or by the aid of auxiliary
verbs

Aspects

 Aspect development of an action

Indefinite aspect (static or perfective aspect) denotes that the action is
regarded as complete, absolute and permanent, taken as a fact (e.g.
The sun rises in the east)
Continuous aspect (progressive, durative, dynamic, imperfective)
denotes that the action is regarded as incomplete, relative and
transitory, being in progress (e.g. The sun is rising in the east.)

Non-finite verbal forms

Sometimes called verb-nouns and verb-adjectives
Infinitive, gerund, participles

Division of verbs
Regular and irregular; transitive and intransitive; auxiliary; defective;
impersonal
Regular verbs one stem and three forms made by adding suffixes
(e)s, -e(d) and ing to the stem (e.g. To ask, he asks, she asked, they
were asked, she is asking)
Irregular verbs have one stem and add two suffixes (e)s and ing to
form two forms while the third form Simple Past and Past Participle is
made:
a) By a vowel change (find, found, found)
b) By two vowel changes (sing, sang, sung)
c) By using the stem (put, put, put)

Defective verbs
Irregular verbs which have only one of the above mentioned four forms
while a new separate form (which serves as Simple Past) is formed by a
vowel change. These verbs are sometimes called defective verbs.
Can-could, may-might, shall-should, will-would
Their verbal system is not complete (neither infinitive, nor participles)

Auxiliary verbs
Help to form tenses of another verb.
Shall and will auxiliary verbs for future tenses
Should and would auxiliary verbs for present and past conditional
Other auxiliary verbs (to have, to be, to do) have a complete verbal
system with some irregularities (3rd person singular is, does, has)

Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs used only in the third person singular with it as the
subject
It rains it is raining

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning. The object
may be a noun, a pronoun or a clause (e.g. I see the tracks in the snow.
The tracks are seen in the snow.)
If the action passes back to the doer the transitive verb is called a
reflexive verb. The object is a reflexive pronoun. (e.g. They painted
themselves blue.)
Intransitive verb denotes a state or an action without reference to an
object (e.g. I am sitting; He is sleeping; She dreams.)

MODAL VERBS

A modal verb is a type of an auxiliary verb that expresses possibility,

necessity and obligation.
The modal verbs (or modal auxiliary verbs) are will, would, shall,
should, can, could, may, might, must, need, ought to and dare.

Ability

Can,
-

could and be able to talking about ability

I can stand on one leg.
She could play violin quite well.
She is able to understand everything you say in English.

Possibility

Can, could, may, might

- It could be expensive to keep a cat.

May and might often have a similar meaning when we talk about
possibility. May is preferred in academic or formal language to talk
about the characteristics or behavior of something.
- The seeds from the plant may grow up to 20 centimeters in
length.
- I might paint the kitchen purple.

Necessity

must, have to, need

We use must and must not in formal rules and regulations and in
warnings.
- Bookings must be made at least seven days before departure.
- The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.)
In spoken English we often use must and mustnt to propose a future
arrangement such as a meeting or social event, without making
detailed plans.
- We must get together more often.
- We mustnt leave it so long next time.
For something happening at or around the time of speaking we use
must be + -ing
- I cant hear anyone moving around upstairs. You must be
imagining things.
For something that is likely to happen in the future we use must be
going to or must be + -ing.
- I was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening
next Friday.
For a present situation we use must be or have (got) to be in informal
speech.
- Their goal keeper has got to be at least two meters tall.
In questions that hope for or expect a negative answer we prefer have
(got) to although in formal contexts must is sometimes used.
- Do we have to answer all the questions?

We use have to with frequency adverbs such as always, never,

normally, rarely, sometimes.
- I often have to work at the weekend to get everything done.
Need is most commonly used in negative sentences often with verbs
like bother, concern, fear, panic, worry.
- Ive already cleaned the car so you neednt bother to do it.

Obligation and advice

Should, ought feeling of obligation is not as strong as when you use

must.

Talking about what is a good thing to do.

- We should send her a postcard.

- We ought to come more often.
Trying to advise someone about what to do.

- You ought to get a new TV.

Giving or asking for an opinion about a situation.

- I think that we should be paid more.

Obligation in the past: should have/ought have + past participle
-

You should have given him the money yesterday.

Permission

Can-could: whether someone has permission to do something or not.

- Students can register for all classes beginning next week.
Be allowed to: talking about permission but not in the sense that you
are asking for it or granting it.
- I was allowed backstage after my third attempt.
May and might are used for formal asking of permission.
- May I use your restroom, please?
- Might I ask what your name is?

Habits

We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually
do, or did in the past.
- When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant.
- John will always be late!
- I used to work very hard for some of my exams.

Dare

As a modal verb dare has two forms: dare for the present and dared for
the past. It is used mostly in interrogative and negative sentences.
'Dare' means 'to have the courage to do something'. In negative
sentences it denotes lack of courage to do something.
- She dare not open her mouth. (She hasnt got the courage.)
- Dare he tell them what he knows? (Is he brave enough to tell
them?)

INFINITIVES

One of the non-finite verbal forms

- to write, to stand
Infinitives do not usually show actual times of actions or events.

Usage:

After the verb to do or a modal auxiliary verb as a part of a verb phrase

-

Do you think she is ready?

We must get some more light bulbs.

It can be used alone or with other words:

a) As the subject complement of a clause
- To watch him eating really gets on my nerves.
- The main thing is to relax.
b) As the object or complement of a verb, adjective or noun.
- I dont want to talk.
- You have the right to remain silent.
c) To express a persons purpose
- He came to London to look for work.
The Infinitive is usually used with the preposition to which can
sometimes be omitted.
a) With auxiliary, defective verbs: can-could, may-might, must, shallshould, will-would (when used as an auxiliary) and usually but not
always with dare and need (in negative and interrogative sentences)
- He dare not open the door.

- He need not come.

b) With the following verbs: see, watch, mark, perceive, hear, know,
feel, bid, let, make
- I see him enter the room.
- I will make her go there.
But after the Passive Voice of the above mentioned verbs the Infinitive is
used with the preposition to.

- He was seen to walk around.

- He was heard to enter the room.
c) With the following phrases: had better, had best, had rather, had
sooner, rather than, sooner than, better than, cannot but, nothing
but, need only, need hardly, need scarcely, etc.
- You had better go now.
- They are determined to die rather than surrender.
- I had sooner stay where I am.
The Infinitive is used with the preposition to:
a) With the verbs: to be, to have, ought, used and sometimes dare and
need.
- We are to meet him tomorrow morning.
- I shall have to go now.
- He used to go home on foot.
b) With to begin, to come, to continue, to forget, to decide, to like, to
choose, to remember, to want, etc.
- When we wanted to go for a walk it began to rain and we decided
to stay at home.
The Infinitive often replaces a clause.

We learn foreign languages to use them (instead of: that we may

use them.)
After many non-auxiliary verbs, we can use the infinitives of other
verbs:
- Its beginning to rain.
- I dont want to see you again.
Infinitives are often used after adjectives describing relations and
feelings.
- I am pleased to see you.
- John was surprised to get Anns letter.
Not all adjectives of this kind are followed by infinitives. Some are
followed by preposition + -ing form or by that- clause.

Besides adjectives referring to reactions and feelings many other

adjectives can be followed by infinitives: right, wrong, stupid, certain,
welcome, careful, due, fit, able, likely, lucky. E.g.
- We were right to start early.
- I was stupid to believe him.
Superlatives can be followed by an infinitive structure. The meaning is
similar to an identifying relative clause.
- He is the oldest athlete ever to win an Olympic gold medal (=
who has ever won )
This structure is also common with first, second, third, etc. Next, last
and only.
- The next to arrive was Mrs. Smith.
- He was the first person to climb the Mount Everest.
Some adjectives can be used with infinitives in a special structure in
which the subject of the clause is really the object of the infinitive.
Examples are: easy, hard, difficult, impossible, good, ready and
adjectives after enough and too.
- He is easy to please.
- His theory is impossible to understand.
Infinitives can be used after some nouns which are related to verbs that
can be followed by infinitives (e.g. wish, decide, need)
- I have no wish to change.
- I told her about my decision to leave.
Infinitives can also be used after some nouns which are related to
adjectives or which have an adjectival sense.
- You were a fool to agree.
- It is a pleasure to see you again.
An infinitive can be used after a noun or an indefinite pronoun like
something to explain the purpose of a particular thing: what it does or
what somebody does with it. The noun or pronoun can be subject of the
infinitive.
- Have you got a key to open this door?
- Id like something to stop my headache.
The noun or pronoun can also be the object of the infinitive.
- I need some more books to read.
- Did you tell her which bus to take?
- Is there anything to drink?
Besides the ordinary infinitive (e.g. to go, to ask, to work), there are
also progressive, perfect and passive forms. Like other progressive
forms, progressive infinitives suggest that actions and events
are/were/will be continuing around the time that we are talking about.
- It is nice to be sitting here with you.
- I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.

Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect tenses
or past tenses.
- Its nice to have finished work (= Its nice that I have finished)
- Im sorry not to have come on Thursday (=that I didnt come).
We often use perfect infinitives to talk about unreal past events;
things that did not happen or that may not have happened.
- I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot.
- You should have told me you were coming.
Passive infinitives have the same kind of meaning as other passive
forms.
- Theres a lot of work to be done.
- That window must be repaired before tonight.
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can have similar meanings,
especially after a noun or verb to be.
- Theres a lot of work to be done/to do.
Perfect progressive and perfect passive infinitives are common.
- Id like to have been sitting there when she walked in.
- They were lucky they could have been killed.
Progressive passive infinitives are possible but unusual.
- What would you like to be doing right now?
- Id like to be being massaged.
Progressive perfect passive infinitives are very unusual.
- It must have been being built at the time.

GERUND

The Gerund is the ing form used as a noun with a verbal meaning. It
has some substantial functions:

a) It can be used as the subject of a sentence

-

Hunting is good exercise.

Writing is easy.

b) It can be used with the article and the possessive adjectives.

This was necessary in the preparing of dinner.

Nobody objects to my leaving.

The Gerund has also some verbal functions:

a) It has distinctions of tense and voice.

b) It may have an object

- He is fond of driving the car.

c) It may be qualified by an adverb.
- He educated himself by reading widely.
The Gerund (a noun with a verbal meaning) should be strictly
distinguished from nouns in -ing whose character is purely nominal.
Pure nouns:
-

Men, women and children are human beings.

There is a big building at the corner.

Gerunds:

He is fond of being a hero.

The building of the new channel will take 10 years.

The Gerund is used:

a) With prepositions.
- What prevented you from doing it?
b) With the following verbs: to attempt, to avoid, to begin, to burst out,
cannot help, cannot forbear, to continue, to decline, to delay, to deny,
to detest, to have done, to enjoy, to finish, to go on, to forget, to hate,
to intend, to keep, to leave off, to like, to love, to neglect, to omit, to
postpone, to prefer, to prevent, to propose, to recollect, to regret, to
remember, to risk, to stop.
- Did you begin learning the second foreign language?
- They have just finished decorating the room.
c) With there is, there was, that is, much, little.
- There was not much talking about our trip.
d) With busy, like, near, worth, art worth while.
- They were busy getting ready for the party.
- This book is well worth reading.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle is an ing form used as a verbal adjective. It can

be used:
a) Attributively (e.g. a burning candle)
b) Predicatively (e.g. The candle is burning.)

The Present Participle (a verbal adjective) should be strictly

distinguished from a pure adjective in ing (e.g. an amusing story, a
charming woman)
The Present Participle is used:
a) To form the continuous tenses
- He was reading the newspaper.
b) With the accusative instead of the Infinitive
- I saw him walking (=I saw him walk.)
c) Instead of the clauses of time, reason, etc.
-

Arriving home late in the evening, he found nobody in the

house/When he arrived
- Not knowing where to find his parents, he went to his uncle/As he
did not know
d) As the absolute participle
- Weather permitting, we shall watch the boat race.
e) In set phrases:
1. Generally speaking
2. Strictly speaking
3. Properly speaking
4. Judging from the appearance
5. Calculating roughly

PAST PARTICIPLE

The Past Participle is identical in form with the Simple Past Tense of all
regular and some irregular verbs. It is formed:
a) By adding suffix e(d) (e.g. asked)
b) By a vowel change (e.g. sung)
The Past Participle is used:
a) To form the compound tenses
-

I have asked.

- I should have done.

b) To form the Passive
- The book was sent to you yesterday
c) In the accusative with the Past Participle construction
- I heard his name called.
d) It is often used with the causative auxiliary to have.
- We had our instruments repaired.
- I had my hair cut.
e) As an absolute participle
-

This done, he jumped into the car and drove away.

PERFECT PARTICIPE

The Perfect Participle is a compound verb consisting of the auxiliary

verb to have in the ing form and Past Participle of the verb required.
- Having studied for the exam, Mike went to play football.
Using the Perfect Participle emphasizes that the first action was
completed before the second action started.
The Perfect Participle is necessary when there is an interval of time
between the two actions
- Having failed twice, he didnt want to try again.
It is also used when the first action covered a period of time
-

Having been his own boss for such a long time, he found it hard
to accept orders from another.

PRESENT TENSES
Simple Present Tense

Uses the verbs base form (work), or for third-person singular the base
form plus s ending
For negative and interrogative form we use DO or DOES (for third
person)
Verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into i and add -es
pronounced [z]


Use:

- try tries
If y is preceded by a vowel, there is no change, we only add s
- play- plays
habitual actions every day, from time to time, repeatedly
- I go to school every day.
general statements
- He speaks English very well.
to denote an action occurring at the moment of speaking or writing it
is used only of those verbs which cant form continuous form: to feel, to
see
- I see no mistake.
to denote a general truth
- The Sun rises in the east.
used instead of Past Simple to make a description of past event more
real Historic or Dramatic Present
- He jumps into the car, takes the box and flings in out.
to denote fixed future actions
- The ship sails tonight.
in clauses beginning with if, as soon as, until, after, before, when
- I shall do it as soon as I get home.

Present Continuous Tense

It is formed by using Present Tense of the auxiliary verb TO BE and the

Present Participle of the main verb
Negative form is formed by adding not on the auxiliary verb,
interrogative form is formed by inversion of subject and auxiliary verb

Use:

for actions which are happening in the moment of speaking now,

at this moment
- She is coming now.
it denotes durative action, an action going on, a process
- She is growing older.
a future action which has already been settled and has become a
part of someones present program
- We are going to the cinema tonight.

Present Perfect Tense

 It is formed by using the Present Tense of the auxiliary verb TO HAVE

Use:

and the Past Participle of the main verb

Negative form is formed by adding not on auxiliary verb and
interrogative by inversion of the subject and auxiliary verb
Time isnt fixed, not important
Now, today, this week/year, ever, never

to denote an action which started in the past and continuing up to the

moment of speaking
- I have lived in Zagreb for ten years.
to express completed action, the consequence or results of which are
still felt
- You have made two mistakes.
for recently completed actions
- I have seen that movie three times this week.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

It is formed by using the Perfect Tense of the verb TO BE and the

Present Participle of the main verb
Negative form is formed by adding not after the auxiliary verb to have,
and interrogative by inversion of the subject and auxiliary verb

Use:

for actions which began some time before the present moment and will
probably continue for some time after
- We have been waiting here for twenty minutes.

PAST TENSES
Simple Past Tense

It is formed by adding -(e)d for regular verbs; we learn irregular verbs

by heart (second column)
Negative form is formed by using the Past Simple of the auxiliary verb
to do (DID) and not and the infinitive

Interrogative form is formed by using did and the infinitive

Use:

to denote an action which happened in the past and has no connection

with the present
- Peter broke the window yesterday.
in Indirect Speech introduced by past tense as a substitute for the
Present Tense in Direct Speech
- He said that a man ran down the street.
in subordinate clauses to express something imagined or supposed
- I wish I had such a friend.

Past Continuous Tense

It is formed by using the Simple Past Tense of the auxiliary verb to be

(WAS, WERE) and the Present Participle of the main verb
Negative form is formed by adding not on the auxiliary verb, and
interrogative form is formed by inversion of the subject and the
auxiliary verb

Use:

for an action which started in the past, lasted for a certain time and
wasnt ended when another past action happened
- They were watching TV, when the bell rang.
when two actions were going on in the same time
- I was watching TV, while mom was cooking dinner.

Past Perfect Tense

It is formed by using the Past Simple of the auxiliary verb to have (HAD)
and the Past Participle of the main verb
Negative form is formed by adding not on the auxiliary verb, and
interrogative is formed by inversion of a subject and the auxiliary verb

Use:

denotes a past action finished before another past action began or was
finished
- He had lost his watch before we came home.
in Indirect Speech as a substitute for the Perfect Tense and the Past
Tense in Direct Speech
- He said that he had lost his way in the woods.
in Conditional Clauses to express something supposed, imagined

If he had been educated, he would have helped you much more.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

It is formed by using the Past Perfect Tense of the auxiliary verb to be

(HAD BEEN) and the Present Participle of the main verb
Negative form is formed by adding not on the auxiliary verb and
interrogative form is formed by inversion of the subject and the
auxiliary verb

Use:

to express an action which is continued

- They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
in Indirect Speech as a substitute for the Perfect Continuous and Past
Continuous in Direct Speech
- The journalist reported that the crowd had been shouting very
much.

FUTURE TENSES

English doesnt have future tenses in a way that it has present or past
tenses
it uses different forms to express future
the choice of the future form depends on the speakers view of the
situation, not on the time the action takes place
the important thing is whether the action is planned or not, what we
base our predictions on

The Simple Present used for the future

This tense can be used with a time expression for a definite future
arrangement:
-

The boys start school on Monday.

The Present Continuous used for the Future

express a definite arrangement in the near future

I'm taking an exam in October.

we dont use it for the future events that we cannot arrange

- The sun is shining tomorrow.
This method of expressing the future cannot be used with verbs which
are not normally used in the continuous tenses.
These verbs should be put into the future simple

The be going to form

the present continuous tense of the verb to go + the full infinitive

- I'm going to buy a bicycle.

this form is used for intention and prediction
can be used for the near future with a time expression as an alternative
to the present continuous
- Im going to meet Tom at the station at six.
can be used with time clauses when we wish to emphasize the
subject's intention
- He is going to be a dentist when he grows up.
can be used without a time expression and it refers to the immediate or
near future
- He is going to lend me his bicycle.
can express the speaker's feeling of certainty
we use going to for actions that we decided to do before we speak

The Future Simple

will/shall + bare infinitive

negative form is formed by adding not on auxiliary verb and
interrogative form is formed by inversion of the subject and auxiliary
verb
In the first person we can use either will or shall in statements about
the future. The meaning is the same.
- I will be/shall be at home tomorrow.
Shall is less usual in the USA
Shall not has a short form shan't
We do not normally use shall with other subjects.
will + infinitive is used to express a decision made at the moment of
speaking
- The phone is ringing. ~ I'll answer it.
To express the speaker's opinions, assumptions, speculations about the
future. These may be introduced by verbs such as assume, be afraid,
be/feel sure, believe, daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know, suppose,

think, wonder or accompanied by adverbs such as perhaps, possibly,

probably, surely, but can be used without them
The future simple is used similarly for future habitual actions which we
assume will take place
- Spring will come again. Birds will build nests.
Conditional sentences
- If I drop this glass it will break.
Verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses, e.g. auxiliary verbs,
verbs of the senses, of emotion, thinking, possessing etc. usually
express the future by the future simple
- He'll be here at six.
It is used in newspapers and news broadcasts
we use will for actions that we decide to do now, at the moment of
speaking

The Future Continuous Tense

the future simple of to be + the present participle

- I/we will/shall be working
- he/she/it/you/they will be working
It can be used as an ordinary continuous tense
It can express a future without intention
we use future continuous to talk about an action over a period of time it means that in some time in the future we will be in the middle of an
action
- Ben cant go to the party, he will be looking after the kids
tomorrow night.
- Dont call at 2. Ill be having lunch out of the office at that time.
we also use future continuous for an action which will happen in the
course of events because it is a part of a plan or of a schedule of future
events
- The dinner will be served at 9,00 and the party will be starting at
11,00.
- Dont stay in the town for too long because the ship will be
sailing soon.

The Future Perfect Tense

will/shall + perfect infinitive for first persons
used with a time expression beginning with by: by then, by that time,
etc.
-

By the end of next month he will have been here for ten years.

 It is used for an action which at a given future time will be in the past,
or will just have finished

The Future Perfect Continuous Tense

will/shall have been + present participle for the first persons
Like the future perfect, it is normally used with a time expression beginning
with by

By the end of this year he'll have been acting for thirty years.

The future perfect continuous can be used instead of the future perfect:
When the action is continuous:
- By the end of the month he will have been
living/working/studying here for ten years.
When the action is expressed as a continuous action:

By the end of the month he will have been training

horses/climbing mountains for twenty years.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

It is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as the active
verb and adding the past participle of the active verb.

The subject of the active verb becomes the 'agent' of the passive verb.

The agent is very often not mentioned.

When it is mentioned it is preceded by by and placed at the end of

the clause.

A sentence which has a direct and an indirect object has two forms
-

They gave Eve an apple.

Eve was given an apple.
An apple was given to Eve.

Preposition is always after a verb in passive voice

- We must write to him.
- He must be written to.
Let is used without to

They let us go.

We were let to go.

Use:

When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it:
- The house next door has been bought (by a Mr Jones).
When it is not necessary to mention the doer of the action as it is
obvious who he is/was/will be:
- The streets are swept every day.
When we don't know, or don't know exactly, or have forgotten who did
the action:
- The minister was murdered.
When the subject of the active verb would be 'people:
- He is suspected of receiving stolen goods. (People suspect him of
receiving stolen goods)
The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical
sentence. This is usually done by avoiding a change of subject:
- When he arrived home he was arrested (by a detective).

Causative get/have

have/get + object + past participle

can be used to express sentences of the type 'I employed someone to
do something for me.
Get can be used in the same way as have above but is more colloquial
Get is also used when we mention the person who performs the action
The mechanic changed the oil in my car.
- I had the oil in my car changed.
A decorator has repainted our house.
- We have had our house repainted.

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A sentence can contain a main clause and one or more subordinate

clauses

When the reporting verb (the verb in the main clause) is in Present or
Future tenses, the tense of the verb in Indirect Speech remains
unchanged.
- He says: I work very hard. He says that he works very hard.
When the reporting verb is in Past Simple Tense, the tense of the verb
in Indirect Speech is changed
- He said: I speak English. He said that he spoke English.
The interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form
The question mark (?) is therefore omitted in indirect questions
If the introductory verb is say, it must be changed to a verb of
inquiry, e.g. ask, inquire, wonder, want to know
- He said, 'Where is the station?' = He asked where the station
was.
If there is no question word, if or whether must be used:
- 'Is anyone there?' he asked = He asked if/whether anyone was
there.
We use whether in conditional clauses otherwise there would be two
ifs:
- 'If you get the job will you move to York?' Bill asked. = Bill asked
whether, if I got the job, I'd move to York.
Indirect commands, requests, advice are usually expressed by a verb of
command/request/advice + object + infinitive (= the object + infinitive
construction)
- Direct command: He said, 'Lie down, Tom.'
- Indirect command: He told Tom to lie down.
Suggestion:
- He said, 'Let's leave the case at the station'
- He suggested leaving the case at the station or He suggested
that they/we should leave the case at the station.
As a call to action is usually reported by urge/advise + object +
infinitive
- The strike leader said, 'Let's show the bosses that we are united'
- The strike leader urged the workers to show the bosses that they
were united
today that day; yesterday the day before; the day before
yesterday two days before; tomorrow the next/following day; the
day after tomorrow in two days time; next week/year the
following week/year; last week/year the previous week/year; here
there; now then; this that

PRESENT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE

Im a teacher. He said he was a teacher.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS
Im having lunch with my parents. He said he was having lunch with his
parents.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Ive been to France three times. He said he had been to France three
times.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Ive been working very hard. He said he had been working very hard.
PAST SIMPLE PAST PERFECT
I bought a new car. He said he had bought a new car.
PAST CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
It was raining earlier. He said it had been raining earlier.
WILL WOULD
Ill come and see you soon. He said he would come and see me soon.
CAN COULD
I can swim under water for two minutes. He said he could swim under
water for two minutes
MUST HAD TO
All tickets must be bought in advance. He said all tickets had to be bought
in advance.
SHALL SHOULD
What shall we do about it? He asked what we should do about it.
MAY MIGHT
May I smoke? He asked if he might smoke.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

complex clauses: main clause + subordinate clause

main clause: can stand on its own

subordinate clause: starts with the conjunction; depends on the main

clause and cannot stand on its own

Zero conditional

used to express general truths and facts (often things based on

scientific fact)
present simple + present simple
- If you heat water, it boils.

First conditional

expresses future possibility something that might happen

present simple + future simple
- If we hurry, we will catch bus.
some other verb forms are also possible: present continuous and
present perfect can come in the if clause
- If I click everywhere, it will start working again.
except future possibility, first conditionals can also express offers,
suggestions, warnings and threats
- If you need a ticket, I can get you one.

Second conditional

expresses an imaginary or unreal situation in present

past simple + present conditional (would + infinitive)
- If I had enough money, I would buy this book. (but I dont have
enough money, so I wont buy it)
past continuous can come in the if clause
- If Rachel was playing her stereo, it wouldnt be so quiet here. (but
she isnt playing, so it is quiet)

in the if clause we often use were instead of was especially with If I

were you... phrase

Third conditional

used for talking about unreal situations in the past

past perfect + past conditional (would + have + past participle)
- If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.
Possible variations of the basic form could or might may be used
instead of would

SUBJUNCTIVE

the mood which represents something not as an actual reality, but only
as a desire, plan, hope, possibility
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest + that
the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital
+ that
- It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the
weekend.

The present subjunctive

has exactly the same form as the infinitive;

the present subjunctive of to be is be for all persons

-

Long live the king.

I request that Jill pick up the ball.
I insist that he be here.

The present subjunctive is used in certain exclamations to express a

wish or hope:
- God bless America! Heaven forbid!
It is sometimes used in poetry, either to express a wish or in clauses of
condition:

- If this be error, and upon me proved(if this is error)

Certain verbs are followed by should + infinitive constructions. When
the infinitive is be, the should is sometimes omitted:
- He suggested that a petition (should) be drawn up.

The past subjunctive

has exactly the same form as the simple past

In expressions of doubt or unreality were is more usual than was:
- He behaves as though he were the owner.
Past subjunctives are often known as 'unreal pasts'
The past subjunctive can be used after as if/as though to indicate
unreality or improbability or doubt in the present.
- He talks/talked as though he knew where she was.
After as if/as though we use a past perfect when referring to a real or
imaginary action in the past
- He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself. (But
he hasn't or probably hasn't or we don't know whether he has or
not.)

Wish/if only

Wish/if only + past simple - to express a desire for something to be

different in the present
- I wish I had more free time.
Wish/if only + past perfect - to express regret about the past, a wish
that something had happened
- I wish you had told me before I booked the tickets.