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1) What is evolution?
- change species undergo over time.
2) Who were the people that influenced Darwin and Wallaces theory of evolution? What did
they contribute?
Aristotle: fixed species that were part of a great chain of being . scalae naturale
- hierarchy of organisms
Buffon, Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin: the concept of species' ability to change
Hutton, Lyell: gradual geographic change and uniformitarianism (processes today are
the same as the processes in the past)
Linnaeus: taxonomic classification and hierarchy
Cuvier: well studies fossils and extinct species
Humboldt, Hooker: biogeography and distribution of species
Malthus: economic perspective: population pressure and depletion of resources occur
before reproduction stops.
Fitzroy: captain of the HMS Beagle?
3) What is the theory behind natural selection?
- Natural selection is the mechanism of evolution
- 3 conditions
- variation: individuals in a population have different traits/phenotype.
- inheritance: offspring inherit a mixture of traits from both parents.
- competition: more offspring are produced than can survive, so offspring with traits better
matched to the environment will survive and reproduce more effectively than others
With these 3 conditions, a population will accumulate the traits that enable more successful
competition.
4) What arguments did Darwin use for evolution through natural selection?
Artificial selection: used as an analogy for natural selection. He used it to prove that
natural selection occurs by using breeding as an example. Natural selects for species just
as we select traits we want to see in our domesticated animals.
Biogeography: nested geographic distribution. Species on island are often related to
species on the nearby mainland. (Adaptive Radiation for island evolution.) This
eventually lead to the idea of descent with modification.
Population pressure: a term coined by Malthus. population growth requires resources.
fossil record: the fact that fossilized species no longer existed contributed to the idea of
extinction and enabled species to be organized in a time series(strata)
embryology/comparative anatomy: developing embryos are identical at certain stages.
The longer they are similar = the more closely related they are. A factor of homology.
5) In phylogenetics, what is monophyly, paraphyly, polyphyly?
- monophyly: relationship in which all entities descend from the same common ancestor.
(clade = a monophyletic group)
- paraphyly: either some but not all tax are from a common ancestor.
- polphyly: when the taxa independently evolved analogous traits.
6) What advances were made to the theory of evolution AFTER Darwin, and who?
Mendel: pea genetics (15 years after Origins of Species) and theory of inheritance
Haldane, Fisher, Wright: Mathematical models for population genetics
Mayer, Huxley, Dobzhansky: NeoDarwininan Synthesis
Watson, Crick: DNA structure and function (after NeoDarwinian synthesis)
Kimura, Jukes: Molecular evolution and theory: large scale mapping of Human
Genome.
6) What were Mendels discoveries?
- Alternate forms of genes/alleles
- offspring inherit two copies of parents' DNA (diploid!)
- if possible genes differ, one may be dominant and mask the other phenotype
- two alleles for a heritable trait segregate during meiosis independentally of
other traits.
- Codominance: red plus white = pink
7) What are the 5 assumptions to Hardy-Weinberg? If all assumptions are met in HardyWeinberg, what is the expectation for allele and genotype frequencies?
p2 +2pq+q2 = 1
F(A) = p2+.592pq) =p(p+q)
Assumptions: random mating, no gene flow. no mutations, no natural selection, large
population
Expectation: next generation will in theory have the same gene frequency as that of the
parents.
Inheritance alone does not cause frequencies of allees to change between generations.
Null hypothesis!
8) When an allele is rare, which genotype is it mostly present in? (understand graph)
- heterozygotes
9) What is the effect of these events to the genetics of a population?
Inbreeding- genes are limited, the frequency of homozygotes increases and the
frequency for heterozygotes decreases.
Small population size random error in allele frequencies (genetic drift), loss of
polymorphism. Population bottlenecks can lead to a divergence and a new species
forming. Founder Effect (We descended from Africans because they had the most
genetic diversity.)
Mutation: dominant source of variation is the human genome. Changes the gene pool
Somatic cell line: cells that make up your body so they are not passed
onto the next generation.
germ line: in gametes: passed on so they can be inherited
Migration: changes the gene pool/ gene flow.
10)
What are the 3 different kinds of mutations that can occur?
- Point mutation: alternation in the nucleotide coding sequence
- gene regulation: region regulates genes and alters expression.
- Gene copy Number error: gene is copied more times than it should be.
- Chromosome number and structure: error occurs during meiosis (down
syndrome, plant polyploidy
11)
What are the different ways you can affect a genotype (besides mutations to the
gene, what other mutations can cause changes in a phenotype)?
- Codominance, incomplete dominance, etc.
- genetic drift, gene flow
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- groups that have been reproductively isolated and grown phenotypically divergent
across a span of time.
What is a ring species?
- make a loop of gradual transition with RI at the terminus
- salamanders, classification problems
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phenotypes.
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How do we evolve novel characters? Exaptation - co-opting structure from one fuction to another
Duplicated genes (reprogramming of developmental pathways) - one copy is kept
and the other is used for new functions.
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What is deep homology?
- very different structure that have a common site of developmental genes
39)
Why is the fossil record important? What data can we gather from the fossil
record?
-provides evidence of the evolution of the hominin line
- molecular clock by Sarich and Wilson- chimpanzees hominis around 7mya
- increasing cranial case, allowing for bigger brain and decreased sexual dimorphism
relative to their ancestor
- more terrestial behavior
40)
Humans were previously hypothesized to have evolved on which two continents?
Why? Which has proved to be correct and why?
- Africa - homo habilus - and larger brain size
- Multiregional
- Indonesia - Java Man
41)
What is the migration history of Homo sapiens?