CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION
HCFC22 has been predominantly used in residential air conditioners
and heat pumps for the past few decades and its sales volume has been the
largest among various refrigerants. Even though the ozone depleting potential
of HCFC22 is not as high as CFCs, it still contains ozone depleting chlorine.
Due to its ozone depleting effect, Montreal Protocol and its amendments have
set the phase-out deadlines on HCFC22in different countries and areas.
The Montreal Protocol sets limits (cap) for the HCFC consumption,
defined as production plus imports less exports and specified destruction: in
1996 (freeze at calculated cap), 2004 (65% of cap), 2010 (25%), 2015 (10%),
and 2020 (0.5%) with full consumption phase-out by 2030 in non-Article 5
countries. Aprea et al ( 2011) reported that the schedule for Article 5 countries
like Egypt begins with a freeze of the amount of HCFC in 2013 (based on
2010 production and consumption levels) with declining limits starting in
2015 (90%), 2020 (65%), 2025 (32.5%), and 2030 (2.5%) followed by phaseout in 2040. Exports from Article 5 countries into non-Article 5 countries are
effectively restricted to meet the more stringent non-Article 5 schedules to
avoid separate domestic and export products and to exploit newer
technologies derived from joint ventures and licensing agreements.
Park and Jung (2006) sated that various alternatives for HCFC22 have
been proposed and tested in an effort to comply with the Montreal protocol in
the past years,. At this time, HFC refrigerant mixtures such as R-410A and R407C are used in some countries to replace R-22. R-410A is a near azeotropic
mixture with a gliding temperature difference (GTD) of less than 0.2C. Its
vapor pressure is roughly 50% higher than that of HCFC22 and hence the
capacity increases significantly with R-410A. Due to high pressure,
1

compressors need to be redesigned completely and also the heat exchangers

needs to be optimized to accommodate lower volumetric flow rates associated
with the use of R-410A. Even though a simple thermodynamic cycle analysis
shows that the cycle COP of R-410A is somewhere lower than that of
HCFC22, the actual energy efficiency of R-410A is similar to that of
HCFC22 due to the improved compressor efficiency and reduced energy
losses in some components of the refrigeration system. On the other hand,
R407C is a non-azeotropic refrigerant mixture (NARM) whose GTD is
roughly 6 C. Its vapor pressure is similar to that of HCFC22 and hence it is
expected that R-407C may be used in existing equipment without major
changes. Since it is a NARM, however, fractionation may occur in case of the
leak in the system. At the same time, many companies expend much effort to
develop their own alternatives for R-22. Especially, refrigerant mixtures
composed of environmentally safe pure refrigerants have gotten a special
attention from the industry with the expectation of possible energy efficiency
without major changes in the system.
Limitations of both R-410A and R-407c lead many researchers to
search about the best R-22 replaced refrigerant in both for old equipment and
new one. Strategy of R-22 replacement has three mechanisms available to
eliminate this substance. First, especially for old equipment with remaining
life, a drop-in process is recommended. This involves the pure exchange of
the refrigerant without any modifications to the refrigerating plant and
keeping the existing lubricant oil. The second option is to undertake a
retrofitting process. This is understood as an active adaptation of the
refrigeration plant to the new refrigerant, which could also entail the
replacement of the lubricant oil, the expansion valves and certain other
elements of the system. Finally, the last option, although only possible for
new equipment, is to design new plants with long-term refrigerants, such as
2

hydrocarbons, ammonia or carbon dioxide as reported by Mohanraj et al

(2009).
A number of R-22 alternatives for vapor compression residential air
conditioners and heat pumps systems have been proposed in the literature
based on thermodynamic property data. Thus, the objectives of the present
work are studying investigation the performance characteristics of water
chiller work with R-22, R-438A and R-422A respectively. Comparison
between performance characteristics of the air conditioning system using
R-22 and its alternatives. Indicate the best drop-in replacement refrigerant for
old systems.
The present thesis consists of six chapters and five appendices. Chapter
(1) gives a brief introduction. Chapter (2) deals with an overview of the
literature related to performance characteristics of compression residential air
conditioners and heat pumps working with R-22 alternatives. Chapter (3)
describes the experimental test rig including instrumentation, test procedure
and data reduction. Results of experimental investigations are discussed in
Chapter (4). Conclusion of experimental investigations are given in Chapter
(5). Specification of water chiller system components, specification of the
instrumentation devices, instruments calibration and uncertainty analysis are
given in appendices (A), (B), (C), and (D), respectively.

CHAPTER (2)
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction
R-22 has been widely used for many decades in vapour compression
refrigeration system. It is generally accepted and most suitable refrigerant for
air-conditioners and in medium and low temperature applications for
commercial and industrial refrigeration. Unfortunately, it belongs to the
family of hydro-chlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants, which considered as
harmful working fluids to the environment. Due to their stratospheric ozone
layer depletion, they are now being controlled substances by the Montreal
protocol. Montreal Protocol and its amendments have set the phase-out
deadlines on R-22 in different countries and areas. EU and Japan have banned
the import of R-22 systems since 2004, and the USA has prohibited the use of
R-22 as refrigerant in new equipment from 2010. In accordance with the
Montreal Protocol, all developing countries will freeze R-22 consumption at
its level in 2015, and will ban the use of R-22 in A/C industry from 2030.
With increasingly understanding the consequences caused by the ozone
depletion, many countries and areas have accelerated the phase-out process of
R-22.
2.2 Environmental Impacts
In general, the atmosphere is divided into five layers, which are defined
by distance above the surface of the earth. They are; troposphere (0-15km);
stratosphere

(15-50km);

mesosphere

(50-85km);

thermosphere

and

ionosphere (above 85km).

HCFC refrigerants are a family of chemical compounds derived from
the hydrocarbons (methane and ethane) by substitution of chlorine and
fluorine atoms for hydrogen. The emission of chlorine and fluorine atoms

present in HCHC refrigerants is responsible for the major environmental

impacts. The two important ones are ozone depleting and greenhouse.

2.2.1 Ozone depletion

Ozone (O3) is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen composed naturally
through a process called photochemical analysis where the sunlight has an
impact on oxygen molecules, the ozone exists throughout the year over the
equatorial belt, and moves toward the polar regions by the movements of air
in the stratosphere that is filled by ozone on the altitudes ranging from 20 to
35 kilometers, Its thickness ranges between 2 to 8 km as reported in (MSEAEEAA, 2009).
It is an extremely rare component of the Earths atmosphere; in every
ten million molecules of air, only about three are ozone. Most of the ozone
(90%) is found in the upper atmosphere (UNEP, 2000).
HCFCs, CFCs and halons are stable chemicals, which persist for many
years in the atmosphere. They eventually break down in the stratosphere to
release halogens; chlorine in the case of HCFCs, CFCs and bromine in the
case of halons. Chlorine and bromine can destroy ozone but are not destroyed
themselves during this process. Thus one halogen atom can destroy thousands
of molecules of ozone.
Ozone layer is the natural filter and preventive shield surrounding Earth
to protect all creatures against harmful UV-B rays effects coming from the
sun to earths surface. Effects include human skin cancer and eye cataract;
effect on photosynthesis in green plants, reducing plant growth and affecting
agricultural crops; and impact on marine ecosystems, all of which leads to an
unbalanced general system of nature and life on earth, which, in turn, affects
the global climate change; hence, threatening human health and environment
safety.
5

2.2.2 Greenhouse
The greenhouse effect is caused by absorption of long wave radiation
from earth's surface by carbon dioxide, and the other naturally occurring
"greenhouse gases", in the troposphere (0-15 km). Short wave radiation from
the sun has most of its harmful components filtered out by the ozone layer.
The rest of the short wave radiation heats the surface of the earth and the seas.
These surfaces give off long wave radiation, which can be trapped by a
variety of greenhouse gases, which act like an insulating blanket. There is
thus a tendency for global warming.
The environmental effects are measured by ozone depletion potential
(ODP), global warming potential (GWP) and total equivalent warming impact
(TEWI). ODP is a relative index indicating the extent to which a chemical
may cause ozone depletion. The reference level of 1 is the potential of R11 to
cause ozone depletion. GWP is also a relative index indicating the extent to
which a chemical may cause greenhouse effect. To combine the impact of
different greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, TEWI has been
defined as the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that would give
approximately the same integrated radiative forcing over a particular
integration time horizon (ITH). TEWI takes into account contributions from
the substance itself (direct) and the data on energy consumption of the
equipment during its operation (indirect) that may contribute to global
warming.
TEWI is expressed as the sum of contributions from direct and indirect
global warming potentials as:

TEWI = (GWP x Lx n)+ (GWP x m (1- (recovery) +(n x Eannual x )

Leakage

Recovery losses

Energy consumption-

direct global warming potential

indirect global
Warming potential

Where, GWP is the global warming potential (CO2-related), L is the leakage

rate per year (kg), is the system operating time (years), m is the refrigerant
(kg), recovery is the recycling factor, E

charge

annual

is the energy

consumption per year (kWh) and is the CO2-emission per kWh. The ODP
values of pure CFC and HCFC refrigerants are shown pictorially are shown
pictorially in Fig. 2.1.The GWP values of pure and mixed refrigerants are
illustrated in Fig. 2.2 and Fig. 2.3 .

1
0.9

0.9

0.82

0.8

0.87

0.7
ODP

0.6
0.5

0.4

0.4

0.36

0.3
0.2
0.03

0.1
0

R11

R12

R113

R114

R115

R22

R123

0.08

0.11
0

R124

R141B R438A R422A

Refrigerants

Fig. (2.1) Ozone depletion potential of pure CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants
(Calm and Hourahan, 2001).

12000

10900
9700

10000

GWP

8000
6000

6800
6000
4800

4000
2200

2000
2000
0

400
R11

R12

R113

R114

R115

R22

R123

1000

R124

1100

R141B

R142B

Refrigerants

Fig. (2.2) Global warming of pure CFC and HCFC refrigerants (Calm and
Hourahan, 2001).

4000

3650

3500
3000

2729

2600

GWP

2500
2000

2000

1750

1684

R407C

R438A

2100

2200

2300

R410A

R410B

R417A

2530

1500
1000
500
0

R404A

R407A

R407B

R422D

Refrigerants

Fig. (2.3) Global warming of HFC mixtures (Dupont,2009)

8

R422A

2.3 International Efforts

The efforts can be sorted in two directions.

2.3.1 Ozone layer depletion

Molina and Rowland studied of ozone layer depletion since 1974 for
first time then the scientific confirmation of the depletion of the ozone layer
prompted the international community to establish a mechanism for
cooperation to take action to protect the ozone layer. This was formalized by a
treaty called the Vienna Convention for the protection of the ozone layer,
which was adopted and signed by 28 countries on 22 March 1985 in Vienna.
This led in September 1987 to the drafting of the Montreal Protocol on
substances that deplete the ozone layer. The Protocol was signed by 24
countries and by the European Economic Community and entered into force
on 1 January 1989. The treaty states that the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
recognize that worldwide emissions of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs)
significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is
likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. The
Parties previously agreed to an extended phase-out schedule, with final phaseout in developed countries by 2030 and in developing countries by 2040.
These schedules have now been brought forward. The September 2007
adjustments to the Montreal Protocol oblige Article 5 countries to take action
as soon as possible to freeze their baselines in respect of HCFC production
and consumption levels (average consumption and average production for the
years 2009-2010) in 2013, and as a first step, to reduce their production and
consumption of HCFCs by 10 per cent by 2015 ( UNIDO,2009).

2.3.2 Climate change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was agreed in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro and ratified thereafter.
Many countries joined the international treaty to begin to consider what could
be done to reduce global warming and to work on adaptation strategies to
cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. More recently, a
number of nations approved an addition to the treaty, the Kyoto protocol,
which has more powerful (and legally binding) measures. The UNFCCC
secretariat supports all the institutions involved in the international climate
change political process. The Kyoto protocol is an international agreement
linked to the United Nations framework convention on climate change. It was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997, and entered into force on 16
February 2005. To date, 180 nations have ratified the treaty. The detailed
rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at the Seventh
Conference of the Parties in Marrakesh in 2001 ( UNIDO,2009).

2.4 Egyptian Strategy for Phasing Out Use of HCFCs Substances

Egyptian Meteorological Authority (EMA) measures ozone for
monitoring ozone layer change above Egypt, especially above Aswan (above
the tropical area where ozone is naturally generated). Figure (2.4) show that
Ozone measurement changes above Cairo and Aswan Straight lines
demonstrate that there is no clear tendency for change.
MSEA is currently conducting an amendment and updating legislations and
regulations related to the use and importation of HCFC substances; in
addition to developing a strategy for phasing out use of such substances in
various fields. Table (2-1) shows the timetable of phasing out the use of the
ozone depleting HCFCs in "Article 5" countries (including Egypt) that applies
to Montreal Protocol (Egypt State of Environment Report, 2009).
10

Table (2.1): Timetable for phasing out use of HCFCs (UNIDO, 2009)
Substance

Base Level

Production/Consumption Rate Control

First Group

Average

Freezing production/consumption

HCFC

Consumption levels (1st January, 2013)

substances

Rate in

10% reduction (1st January ,2015)

2009-2010

35% reduction (1st January , 2020)

67.5% reduction (1st January ,2025)
100% reduction (1st January, 2030) with a
possible exemptions for necessary uses.

Fig. (2.4) Ozone measurement changes above Cairo and Aswan (MSEAEEAA.,2009)

11

2.5 R-22 Replacement

From precession R-22 must be phased-out and it must be replaced in
both for old equipment and new one. Strategy of R-22 has three mechanisms
available to eliminate this substance, which are schematized in Fig. (2.5).
First, especially for old equipment with remaining life, a drop-in process is
recommended. This involves the pure exchange of the refrigerant without any
modifications to the refrigerating plant and keeping the existing lubricant oil.
The second option is to undertake a retrofitting process. This is understood as
an active adaptation of the refrigeration plant to the new refrigerant, which
could also entail the replacement of the lubricant oil, the expansion valves and
certain other elements of the system. Finally, the last option, although only
possible for new equipment, is to design new plants with long-term
refrigerants, such as hydrocarbons, ammonia or carbon dioxide.

Fig. (2.5) Mechanisms and some refrigerant options to substitute R22 in

medium and low temperature applications. (Llopis et al., 2012)

12

2.6 Experimental and Theoretical Studies

A large number of experimental and theoretical studies are found in literature
pertaining to HC, HFC and their mixtures as alternatives to halogenated
refrigerant by researchers from various parts of the world. A brief summary of
these results is given in the following sections
(Mohanraj et al., 2009)

2.6.1 Hydrocarbons refrigerants as R22 alternatives

Choi et al. (1996) evaluated the performance of flammable refrigerants
as R22 alternative for water-to-water residential heat pump applications at
different compressor speeds. The results showed that based on the capacity
R32/R152a was found to be the best performer due to good glide matching in
the heat exchangers and have good thermodynamic and transport properties.
The HC mixture (R290/R600a) is found to have the highest COP with a loss
in the system capacity.
Purkayastha and Bansal (1998) experimented with R290 and LPG
(R290 98.95%, R170 1.007%, R600a 0.0397%) as substitute for R22 in
a 15 kW heat pump. It has been reported than COP of HC refrigerants (R290
and LPG mixture) were respectively 18% and 12% higher compared to that of
R22. However volumetric refrigeration capacity and condenser are highly
lower by 16% and 14% and 13% and 10%.
Chang et al.(1999) measured the performance characteristics of heat
pump system using hydrocarbon refrigerants (propane, isobutane, butane and
propylene) and binary mixtures of propane/ isobutene and propane/butane as
alternative to R-22 They concluded that The cooling and heating capacities of
R290 are slightly smaller than those of R-22 with a slightly higher COP than
that of R-22. The capacity and COP of R-1270 are slightly greater than that of
13

R-22, which is an indication of a possible alternative for air conditioning and

heat pumping applications. When zeotropic refrigerant mixtures of R-290=R600a and R-290=R-600 are used, the cooling and heating capacities increase
almost linearly with respect to mass fraction of R290. COPs for the mixtures
are higher than linearly interpolated values based on those of pure
components. The COP of hydrocarbon mixtures for the cooling condition is
higher than that of R-22 for a wide range of the mixture compositions.
Hydrocarbon refrigerants have a higher thermal conductivity and a lower
viscosity in the liquid phase than R-22, which is a potential for higher heat
transfer coefficients in the evaporator and condenser. When considering
average heat transfer coefficient, it is concluded that hydrocarbon's heat
transfer performance is comparable to R-22. Zeotropic mixtures show heat
transfer degradation due to composition difference between vapor and liquid
phases.One thing to keep in mind is the flammability of hydrocarbon
refrigerant. Leak-free design of a system, or indirect heating or cooling design
using the secondary heat transfer fluid can be a possible solution. Safety
should be considered when using hydrocarbon as a refrigerant.
Chang et al. (2000) investigated with R290, R1270, R600, and R600a
and binary mixtures of R290/R600a and R290/R600 as R22 alternatives in a
heat pump. It has been reported that cooling and heating capacity of R290
were smaller and COP was slightly higher than that of R22. The capacity and
COP of the R1270 were slightly greater than R22. The COP of the zeotropic
mixture R290/R600a with 50% mass percentage of R290 was enhanced by
7% and R290/R600 at composition of 75:25 (by mass percentage) showed
11% improved performance. It has been found that system is degraded for
zeotropic HC mixtures due to composition variation in phase change.
Granryd (2001) reviewed the HC refrigerants for different
applications. He compared R290 with R22 and reported that R290 gave lower
14

capacity by 315% than that of R22. The heat transfer coefficient of R290 in
condenser was also found to be lower than that of R22.
In 2001 Devotta and Waghmare use NIST CYCLED has been used for
the comparative thermodynamic analysis for the comparative thermodynamic
analysis. and they found that the characteristics of HC 290 are very close to
those of HCFC-22, and compressors require very little modification.
Therefore, HC-290 is a potential candidate provided the risk concerns are
mitigated as had been accomplished for refrigerators.
Urchuegua et al. (2004) reported the experimental characterization of
two commercial scroll and reciprocating compressors working with R22 and
R290 with same mineral oil as lubricant. His experiments reported that the
refrigerating capacity in both types of units was reduced 1320% due to the
use of propane but at the same time COP was increased by 13%.
Chaichana et al. (2003) studied the options of using natural working
fluids (R717, R744, R290, R600, R600a and R1270) as substitutes for R22 in
solar boosted heat pumps based on thermo-physical properties and the thermal
performance. Their results indicate that R744 is not suitable for solar boosted
heat pumps because of its low critical temperature and high operating
pressure values. R717 seems to be more appropriate in terms of operating
parameters and performance which requires major changes in the system.
Condensing pressure values of R600 and R600a are 5070% less than R22.
Hence R600 and R600a cannot be used as drop in substitute for R22. R290
and R1270 have close saturation pressure values compared to that of R22.
The performance of R22, R290 and R1270 was comparable. Hence, R290 and
R1270 were identified as direct drop in substitutes for R22.
Thermodynamic analysis of refrigerant mixtures for possible replacements
for CFCs by an algorithm compiling property data was reported by
Arcaklioglu et al (2006). To achieve this aim the point properties of the
15

refrigerants are obtained from REFPROP where appropriate. According to his

calculations using the current systems the best mixtures, which can either fit
or provide better performance for the CFC based refrigerants, are as follows
For R12, R290/R600a (56/44) mixture provides 0.4% better COP. For R-22,
R32/R125/R134a (32.5/5/62.5) mixture provides 0.8% better COP. For R502,
R32/R125/R134a (43/5/52) mixture provides 2% better COP.
Park and Jung. (2006) studied the thermodynamic performance of two
hydrocarbon refrigerants and seven mixtures composed of R1270, R290,
RE170 and R152a as alternatives for R22 in residential air conditioning
applications. It has been reported that all the pure and mixed fluids tested
have low GWP of 358 as compared to that of R22. Also their test results
showed that expect R1270, all the other refrigerants have higher COP with
lower discharge temperature and similar refrigeration capacity.
Park and Jung. (2007) studied performances of two pure
hydrocarbons and seven mixtures composed of propylene, propane,
HFC152a, and dimethylether were measured to substitute for HR-22 in
residential air-conditioners and heat pumps. The pure and mixed refrigerants
tested have greenhouse warming potentials (GWPs) of 358 as compared to
that of CO2 and the mixtures are all near-azeotropic having the gliding
temperature difference (GTD) of less than 0.6 0C .The following conclusions
were drawn. COPs of these fluids are similar to, or better than, that of R22.45%R1270/ 40%R290/15%DME mixture showed the highest COP which
is 5.7% higher than that of R-22.Capacities of propane (R-290) and
20%R1270/80%R290 are lower than that of R-22 by 11.5 and 6.6%,
respectively, while other fluids showed a similar capacity to that of R22.Compressor-discharge temperatures of all fluids tested were lower than
that of R-C22 by 1117 0C. This indirectly indicates that these fluids would
show long-term stability and reliability. The refrigerant charge for all
16

refrigerants tested was reduced up to 55% as compared to R-22 due to their

lower density.
Thermodynamic performance of R-433A (30% propylene and 70%
propane)and R-22 is measured in a heat pump bench tester under air
conditioning and heat pumping conditions was studied by Park et al
(2008).He concluded that The COP of R-433A is 4.97.6% higher than that of
R-22.The capacity of R-433A is 1.05.5% lower than that of R-22.The
compressor discharge temperature of R433A is 22.627.9 _C lower than that
of R-22.The amount of charge for R-433A is 57.057.7% lower than that of
R-22 due to its low density.R-433A is a good long term environmentally
friendly alternative refrigerant to replace R-22 in residential air-conditioners
and heat pumps due to its excellent thermodynamic and environmental
properties with minor changes.
Ki-Jung Park (2009) back to study thermodynamic performance of R432A (80% propylene (R1270) and 20% dimethylether (RE170)) and R-22 is
measured in a heat pump bench tester under both air-conditioning and heat
pumping conditions. He concluded that the COP of R-432A is 8.58.7%
higher than that of R-22.The capacity of R-432A is 1.96.4% higher than that
of R-22.The compressor discharge temperature of R432A is 14.1 17.3oC
lower than that of R-22.The amount of charge for R-432A is 50% lower than
that of R-22 due to its low density.R-432A is a good long term drop-in
environmentally friendly alternative refrigerant to replace R-22 in residential
air conditioners and heat pumps due to its excellent thermodynamic and
environmental properties.
Cleland et al. (2009) studied the using of hydrocarbons as drop-in
replacements for R-22 in on-farm milk cooling equipment and he concluded
that Drop-in replacement of R-22 by the hydrocarbon refrigerant Care-50 in a
farm milk silo refrigeration system gave about 6% lower energy use, and had
17

no noticeable effect on milk cooling capacity. The conversion was very

simple and potentially cost-effective because, apart from the change in
refrigerant (and associated labeling and documentation), no other alterations
or adjustments to the system were made. Both the laboratory and farm trials
showed that hydrocarbons are attractive alternatives R-22 for on-farm milk
cooling equipment.
Teng et al (2012) studied investigates the feasibility of replacing R-22
window air conditioners with hydrocarbon refrigerants (propane, R290) for
various charged masses (25 70%), and analyzes the performance at different
outside air temperatures (26, 29, 32 oC)Results show that the best charged
mass for replacing R-22 with R290 refrigerant is approximately 50 55% of
the R-22 refrigerant for various outside air temperatures. In addition, a
comparison of R-22 and R290 refrigerants shows that the EER of R290
refrigerant exhibits an upward trend as the outside air temperature increases,
improving the EER by approximately 20% in the ideal situation. The
refrigerant in a window air conditioner can be changed from R-22 to
R290refrigerant, and the ODP and GWP differences are negligible. Results
show that R290 refrigerant is suitable for use in higher outdoor temperature
and higher EER values of R290 air conditioner, and simultaneously helps
combat global warming and reduce carbon emissions.

2.6.2 Carbon dioxide as an alternative

Brown et al. (2002) compared the performance of CO2 and R-22 in a
residential air conditioning system using semi-theoretical vapor compression
and trans critical cycle models. The simulated R22 system has conventional
component configuration, while CO2 system includes liquid-line/suction-line
heat exchanger. It has been reported that COP of the CO2 system is 10% less
and power consumption is 38% higher than that of R22. The cooling
18

capacities of both the systems were identical at 35 o C ambient temperatures

and will decrease linearly with increase in the ambient temperature.

2.6.3 HFC mixtures as alternatives

Knig. (1997) compared propane as R-22 replacements with R-410A,
R-407C. Theoretical comparison of these replacements showed that only
slight difference in terms of COP and capacity.
Jung et al. (2000) studied the performance of HFC and hydrocarbon
mixtures as alternatives to R-22. It has been reported that COP of ternary
mixtures composed of R-32, R-125, R-134a is 45% higher than that of R-22.
The COP of binary mixture composed of R-32 and R134a is 7% higher and
capacities are similar to R-22 and COP of binary azeotrope of R-290 and
R134a is 35% higher than R-22. Compressor dome temperature and
discharge temperature were found to be lower than that of R-22 and hence the
system reliability and fluid stability with these mixtures would be better than
that of R-22.
Motta and Domanski (2000) reported the simulation results of R-22
and its alternatives R-410A and R-407C at high outdoor temperatures. Their
results indicate that R-410A has more pronounced performance degradation
than R-22 and R-407C because of low critical temperature. R410A has the
highest COP degradation. The change of COP for R-22 and R-407C is similar
because their critical temperatures are within 10 K of each other. The
presence of liquid-line/suction-line heat exchanger will improve the capacity
and COP of all refrigerants studied.
Devotta et al. (2001) NIST CYCLED has been used for the
comparative thermodynamic analysis. Among the refrigerants studied (HFC134a, HC-290, R-407C, R-410A, and three blends of HFC-32, HFC-134a and
HFC-125) and they found that. HFC-134a offers the highest COP, but its
19

capacity is the lowest and requires much larger compressors. For retrofitting,
R-407C is probably the best candidate.
Kim (2002) reported an experimental assessment of performance tests
for R-22 and four alternative fluids (R-134a, R-32/134a (30/70%), R-407C,
and R-410A) at operating conditions typical for a residential air conditioner .
The zeotropic mixtures, R-407C and R-32/134a (30/70), have the closest
performance characteristics to R-22, with R-32/134a having a slightly better
COP. The important operating parameters (evaporator and condenser
pressures and compressor discharge temperature) did not deviate significantly
from the R-22 values. Also, the low-pressure R-134a had a COP comparable
to the R- 22 COP, but it had a much lower capacity. The binary nearazeotrope, R-410A, displayed a 44% higher capacity than R-22 when tested at
the same compressor rpm. At a reduced compressor speed at which R-410A
capacity matched that of R-22, the COP of R-410A was 22% better than the
COP of R-22. However, it has to be realized that this COP improvement
resulted from significantly lower pressure losses (especially in the evaporator,
suction line, and at compressor valves), and from reduced friction losses in
the compressor running at a lower speed.
Payne and Domanski (2002) tested with R-410A in a R-22 based split
air-conditioning systems with outdoor temperature ranging from 27 to 55 oC.
The capacity and efficiency of both systems decreased linearly with
increasing outdoor temperature. The capacities of both systems were
approximately equal at 35 oC whereas at 55 oC outdoor temperature, the R410A capacity was reduced by 9% compared to that of R-22. The
performance of R-410A was degraded more than R-22 when ambient
temperature gets increased more than 68 0C due to its lower critical
temperature.

20

Li et al. (2002) studied the performance of high temperature hot water

heat pump with non-azeotropic refrigerant mixture R-22/R-141b. the results
shows that the coefficient of performance is maximum when the molar
component of R22 is about 75%. It is shown that the maximum pressure of
the system is under 2.5 MPa after taking R-22/R-141b as working fluids, even
though the highest cooling water temperatures is about 80 oC
Rakhesh et al. (2003) experimentally studied the performance of R407C and R-407A as alternatives for R-22 in a heat pump. The results
reported that R-22 gives highest overall COP at all condensing and evaporator
temperatures. The overall COP of R-407C is slightly higher than R-407A. At
low evaporator temperature, the performance of R-407C and R-407A are
comparable. The isentropic efficiency is highest for R-22 and lowest for R407A. The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is highest for R-22 and
lowest for R-407C. The heating capacity is highest with R-22 followed by R407C and R-407A. The variation of cooling capacity is highest with R22 and
lowest with R-407A at all temperatures.
Aprea and Greco (2003) reported that Performance evaluation of R22
and R407C in a vapour compression plant with reciprocating compressor. The
investigation has revealed that R22 performs better than R407C mainly
because of a better compression process due to a number of factors, including
the facts that the isoentropic and volumetric efficiencies of the semi-hermetic
compressor are better than that of R407C.
Calm and Domanski (2004) reported that R-410A and R-407C are the
leading replacements for R-22 in unitary air conditioners and heat pump
applications.
Spatz and Motta (2004) made a thermodynamic analysis, comparison
of heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics, system performance
comparisons using a validated detailed system model, safety issues, and
21

determination of the environmental impact of refrigerant selection. Three

potential alternatives to the R-22 were studied: two HFCs (R-404A and R410A) and one HC (R-290). He concluded that

R-410A was shown to be

an efficient refrigerant in this application due in large part to its thermal

properties resulting in improved heat transfer and pressure drop
characteristics .The R-290 systems efficiency was also quite good. Using the
assumptions stated in this paper and in a similar system. The enhanced
R404A system also shows favorable efficiency characteristics especially at
average operating conditions.
Thorough examinations of all the fluid properties of R-290 lead to the
conclusion that systems employing this refrigerant would have comparable or
slightly better efficiency (<5%) than R-22. This evaluation, as well as others
does not support claims of propane energy-efficiency advantages over R-22
that can approach 30%.
The environmental impact (from a global warming prospective) of
refrigeration systems can be reduced using optimized R-410A refrigeration
system, and this approach appears preferable to the use of R-290 in these
applications. The added risks of using a highly flammable refrigerant are not
justified when there are equally or more efficient and environmentally
acceptable alternatives such as R-410A andR-404A.
Kim et al. (2004) studied the performance of a heat pump with HFC
mixtures (R32/R134a) at different compositions. It has been reported that the
enhancement of COP was obtained at equal proportions of mass fraction in
cooling mode operation. Cooling capacity was increased from 2.64 to 3.38
kW in the cooling test, whereas COP changed from its peak value of 3.26 and
2.85. In the heating condition, heating capacity was increased from 1.82 to
2.38 kW but COP degraded slightly from 2.19 to 2.05. It is recommended that
the composition of R32 in the circulating mixture is enriched for heating
22

mode operation in order to improve heating capacity. For cooling mode

operation, it is desirable to adjust the refrigerant composition to in order to
obtain the highest COP and to reduce the energy consumption.
The performance of an air to water vapor compression heat pump has
been investigated experimentally. The main purpose of this study was to
investigate the possibilities of using R134a as a working fluid to replace R-22
for vapor compression heat pumps. Pure R-22, pure R134a and some binary
mixtures of R-22/R134a were considered as working fluids by Karagoz
(2004). His results indicated that the COP of pure R134a is higher than that
pertaining to pure R-22.The mixture ratio has the greater effect on the COP
values. Generally, minimum COP occurs at a zero mass ratio of R134a, and as
the concentration of R134a increases, the COP increases until the mixture
ratio of 50/50% R134a/R-22. The maximum COP occurs at a mixture ratio of
around 50/50% R134a/R-22.The COP increases with increasing evaporator
source inlet temperature for the pure refrigerants and refrigerant
mixtures.R134a and zeotropic mixtures of R134a/R-22 can be a substitute for
R-22.
Szen et al. (2004) predicted the performance of the heat pump was
using a fuzzy-logic controller under various working-conditions and mixing
ratios of R12/R22 refrigerant mixtures, instead of requiring an expensive and
time consuming experimental. Fuzzy-logics linguistic terms provide a
feasible method for defining the performance of the heat pump. Input data for
the fuzzy logic are mixing ratio, evaporator inlet temperature and condenser
pressure. In the comparison of performance, results obtained via analytic
equations and by means of the fuzzy-logic controller, the coefficient of
performance (COP), and rational efficiency (RE) for all working situations
differ by less than 1.5% and 1%, respectively. The statistical coefficient of
multiple determinations (R2-value) equals to 0.9988 for both the COP and the
23

RE. With these results, we believe that fuzzy logic can be used for the
accurate prediction of the COP and the RE of the heat pump.
Cabello et al. (2004) reported an experimental evaluation of a vapour
compression plant performance using R-134a, R-407C and R-22 as working
fluids. The conclusion was the mass flow rate evolution becomes the most
important influence on the refrigerating capacity behavior. With reference to
the electrical power consumption, the refrigeration plant consumption
working with R22 tends to decrease more slowly with increasing compression
ratios than using the other working fluids. This fact is transferred to the COP,
obtaining a smaller value of the COP using R22 than using R407C for high
compression ratios.
Aprea et al. (2004) reported An analysis of the performances of a
vapour compression plant working both as a water chiller and a heat pump
using R22 and R417A.The experimental verified experimentally that the COP
and the exergetic efficiency of the plant, when the R22 is used as working
fluid, are higher than the COP and the exergetic efficiency obtained
considering as working fluid the R417A, both when the plant operates as a
heat pump and as a water chiller. In particular, the efficiency defects of
R417A are always higher than the defects of R22 of about 6% related to the
valve and the heat exchangers, and of about 10% referring to the compressor.
Moreover, it has been experimentally verified that the COP of R22 is higher
than that of R417A also of about 18% related to the water chiller system and
of about 15% referring to the heat pump.
Because of the potential variation of the fluid composition, lots of
designers are concerned by the use of zeotropic refrigerant mixtures in
refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Idrissi et al. (2005), reported a
local simulation model of a water-to-water heat pump is proposed by adopting
a modular approach. Thus, the overall model consists of the association of an
24

elementary model for each basic component, namely the compressor,

condenser, evaporator and receiver. Implemented with a ternary zeotropic
blend R-134a/R-125/R-32. The numerical results show that, compared to the
nominal composition of R-407C (R- 134a/R-125/R-32; 52/25/23%), the
circulating composition in the machine is low in the less volatile component
R-134a (-3% absolute variation) and rich in the most volatile component R-32
(+3% absolute). In the regions of condensation beginning and evaporation
end, the local composition is noticeably different from both the circulating
and nominal compositions. In these regions, the local mass composition of R134a increases (+4/+10% absolute) whereas the local mass composition of R125 and R-32 are in deficit (-3/-6% absolute).
Devotta et al. (2005) reported that retrofitting R22 systems with
R407C is a better option to extend the life of R22 systems even though the
performance is slightly lower.
Han et al. (2007) investigated with ternary mixture composed of
R32/R125/R161 as an alternative to R407C. It has been reported that,
pressure ratio, power consumption are found to be lower than R407C. The
above mixture has high refrigeration capacity and coefficient of performance
compared to R407C. The discharge temperature also was found to be slightly
higher than R407C.
The exergetic method of analysis is a useful tool in explaining the various
energy flows in a process and in the final run helps to reduce losses occurring
in the system. Arora et al. (2008) explained the method of carrying out an
exegetic analysis of an actual vapour compression refrigeration (VCR) cycle.
A computational model has been developed for computing coefficient of
performance (COP), exergy destruction, exergetic efficiency and efficiency
defects for R502, R404A and R507A. The present investigation has been
done for evaporator and condenser temperatures in the range of -50 0C to 0C
25

and 40 0C to 550C, respectively. The results indicate that R507A is a better

substitute to R502 than R404A. The efficiency defect in condenser is highest,
and lowest in liquid vapour heat exchanger for the refrigerants considered.
Assaf et al. (2011) presented Modelica-based modelling and simulation
of dry-expansion shell-and-tube evaporators working with alternative
refrigerant mixtures. The model is experimentally validated using a standard
shell-and-tube evaporator working with HFC-134a.he It is concluded that the
effect of the temperature profile of any refrigerant mixture can be substantial
on the relative performance of a particular heat exchanger configuration
compared to counter-flow configuration.
An experimental research was carried out to investigate the
performance of R-22 and its ozone-friendly alternative refrigerants (R404A
and R507) in a window air-conditioner by Bolaji (2011). He concluded that
R-22 had the lowest pressure ratio and discharge temperature closely followed
by R507. The average discharge temperature obtained using R507 and R404A
were 4.2% and 15.3% higher than that of R-22, respectively. The lowest
compressor power and energy consumption were obtained from R507
retrofitted system. Also, the highest refrigeration capacity and coefficient of
performance (COP) were obtained using R507 in the system. The average
refrigeration capacities of R507 and R404A were 4.7% higher and 8.4%
lower than that of R-22, respectively, while the average COP of R507
increased by 10.6% and that of R404A reduced by 16.0% with respect to that
of R-22. Generally, the investigation has revealed that R507 can be used
successfully as a retrofitting refrigerant in existing window air-conditioners
originally designed to use R-22 in the event of HCFC phased out.

26

2.6.4 HFC/HC mixtures as alternative

Kim et al. (1994) experimented with two azeotropic mixtures of
R134a/R290 (45/55 by mass percentage) and R134a/R600a (80:20 mass
percentage). The performance characteristics of the azeotropes are compared
with that of R12, R290, R134a and R22. The cooling and heating capacity of
R290/R134a was greater than that of R22 and COP was found to be lower
than that of R22 and R290. The COP of the R134a/600a mixture is higher
than R12 and R134a. The cooling capacity is also found to be higher than
R134a and R600a. The discharge temperature of the azeotropic mixtures
studied are found be lower than that of R22 and R12.
Maczek et al. (1997) investigated with ternary zeotropic mixture
composed of R744/R32/R134a as an alternative for R22 in a heat pump. It has
been reported that above mixture with mass fraction (7:31:62) showed an
increase in capacity and COP by 18.6% and 2.5% respectively. This mixture
was found to be promising alternative only for low temperature heat pump
applications because of its excessive condensing temperature.
Payne et al. (1998) compared the performance of R22, R290 and the
flammable zeotropic mixtures R32/R290 and R32/R152a in a residential
water-to-water heat pump. In cooling mode at constant capacity R32/ R290
(50:50) mixture produced 8% higher COP than R22. In heating mode, the
COP of R32/R290 was 13% lower and the COP of R290 was 1% higher than
that of R22 in the water to air system. R290 shows the best performance
compared to the other fluids due to its zero environmental impacts, thermo
physical properties and oil solubility.
Yang et al. (1999) investigated with HFC/HC ternary mixtures
(R32/R125/R152a and R32/R125/R290) and binary mixtures (R125/R290 and
R32/ R290) as alternatives to R22. Their experimental investigations reported

27

that performance of R32/R125/R152a mixture was found to be close to R22

over wide range of operating conditions and also have better efficiency.
Aprea et al. (2004) made performance study of vapor compression
plant working as water chiller and heat pump using R22 and its substitute
R417A. It has been reported that R417A does not require a change of
lubricant and it is quite compatible with mineral oil, alkyl-benzene and ester
oils. The compression ratio of R417A is higher than R22 in both the cases.
The COP of the R22 is higher than that of R417A of about 18% in the case of
water chiller and 15% in the case of heat pump applications. The discharge
temperature of R417A was also found to be lower than R22 in both chiller
and heat pump applications. It is observed that the exergy destroyed in the
components of the plant working with R417A as working fluid are greater
than the exergy destroyed while using R22 on an average of about 14%.
Experimental investigation with R407C with 10% and 20% HC blend
composed of 45% of R290 and 55% of R600a (by weight) as an alternative in
window air conditioners without changing the mineral oil.
Jabaraj et al. (2006) it has been reported that 19% increase in
condenser tube length is required to suit the mixtures as compared to R22.
The experimental results reported that R407C with 20% HC blend was found
to be the promising alternative to R22 in window air conditioners without
changing the mineral oil.
Calm (2006) has investigated 28 different pure refrigerants for chiller
applications. The results reported that R123 remains the best current option to
reduce the substantial global warming contributions from chiller and air
conditioning applications. R123 has low ODP and very low GWP, very short
atmospheric lifetime and the highest energy efficiency of all the current
options.

28

A review reported by Mohanraj et al. (2009).about the various

experimental and theoretical studies carried out around the globe with
environment

friendly

alternatives

such

as

hydrocarbons

(HC),

hydroflurocarbons (HFC) and their mixtures, which are going to be the

promising long-term alternatives. In addition, the technical difficulties of
mixed refrigerants and future challenges of the alternatives are discussed. The
problems pertaining to the usage of environment friendly refrigerants are also
analyzed. he concluded that the Researchers from various parts of the world
reported the experimental and theoretical results with environment friendly
alternatives. Based on the results regarding the performance, it can be
understood that HC mixtures and R152a are found to be better substitutes for
R12 and R134a in domestic refrigeration sector. R290, R1270, R290/R152a,
R744 and HC/HFC mixtures are found to be the best long-term alternatives
for R-22 in air conditioning and heat pump applications. R123 was found to
be an attractive alternative to R11, R12 and R-22 in chiller applications.
R152a and HC mixtures are found to be a best option for automobile air
conditioners. The use of low environmental impact refrigerants like the
natural refrigerants (R290, R1270 and R744) and HC/HFC refrigerants in air
conditioning and heat pump applications play a vital role in the developing
countries India for reducing the environmental impact of halogenated
refrigerants.
Torrella (2010) presented an on-site experimental study of the R-22
replacement by two possible substitutes, the HFC-417A and the HFC-422D,
in a water chiller in which the energy performance was evaluated. This chiller
is part of the centralized HVAC system of a lecture room building at the
Jaume I University of Castellon, Spain. This communication compares and
analyses main operation parameters of the chiller when operating with each
refrigerant in real conditions. From the experimental measurements, it was
29

observed that the evaporating and condensing temperatures were different

when working with each refrigerant. Accordingly, this difference in pressures
and compression ratios must be taken into account for more accurate
comparisons. It was observed a drop-in cooling capacity and in compressor
power consumption with regard to the operation with R-22 when the chiller
worked with any of the substitute refrigerants. That fact is also to be
considered in the R-22 substitution process.
An experimental investigation of the global environmental impact of
the R-22 retrofits with R422D by Aprea and Maiorino (2011).They
concluded that the storage investigation have demonstrated that for each test
the R-22 retrofit with R422D leads to an increase of the energy consumption
up to 28.9%.Since the GWP of R422D is much higher than that of R-22 and
even if the charge of R422D is 8% lower than that of R-22, the direct effect of
the R422D is 42% higher than that of R-22.As a consequence of the retrofit
with R422D, the plant investigated has shown an increase of TEWI up to
36.8%.The performance investigation highlighted that the operation with
R422D is less efficient than that with R-22. In particular, the difference
between the COP for R-22 and that for R422D is, on average, 20%, and it
grows with the raising of the air temperature of cold reservoir.R-22 retrofit
with R422D leads to an increase of the condensing Pressure, which indicates
that the heat exchange surface of the condenser is insufficient to reject the
thermal power, worsening the efficiency. To improve the energy performance
and then to reduce the indirect effect, we proposed two ways: increasing the
heat exchange surface and adoption of electronic expansion valves. Based on
theoretical considerations it is possible to obtain a 20% reduction of energy
consumption.
Experimental evaluation of HCFC-22 replacement by the drop-in fluids
HFC-422A and HFC-417B for low temperature refrigeration applications
30

carried by Llopis et al (2011). A double stage vapour compression plant with

sub cooler, in an evaporating temperature range from -31 and 17oC and in a
condensing temperature range from 30 and 48 oC was used. The experimental
results showed that when using any of the drop-in fluids there is an important
increment on the refrigerant mass flow rate through the plants, which in some
cases would need to readjust the expansion valves. However, with the
substitutes there is an important reduction of the specific refrigerating effect,
which tends to reduce the cooling capacity. Regarding the energy
performance with the R-22 drop-in fluids it has been measured a reduction in
the capacity in the plant, being this reduction higher than expected from a
theoretical analysis. Furthermore, regarding the COP in medium and low
evaporating temperatures, the reduction with the R-22 substitutes is important
and higher to the values predicted with a theoretical analysis.
La Rocca and Panno (2011). presented an experimental analysis
comparing the performance of a vapour compression refrigerating unit
operating with R-22, and its performance in comparison to a new HFC fluid,
R-417A, R-422A and R-422D. Results revealed that R-22 was energetically
more efficient than the other fluids. R-417A, R-422A and R-422D are
characterized by ODP = 0 and in the existing installations they can easily
replace R-22 without having to change the lubricant, or renewing the
refrigeration circuits and the accessories. This makes replacement a
particularly easy operation that can be carried out without any special
technical equipment and at a very low cost. Change in energy performance as
a result of a R-422D retrofit.
An experimental analysis for a vapor compression refrigeration plant
for a walk-in cooler was studied by Aprea et al. (2011). The results
demonstrated that the cooling capacity for R422D was lower than for R-22,
while the electrical power absorbed with R422D was higher than that with
31

R-22. As consequence, the COP of R422D was lower than that of R-22.
Furthermore, technical proposals are introduced with the aim of retrofitted
with R422D.
Llopis et al. (2012) R-22 replacement with two drop-in fluids (R422A, R-417B) and a retrofit refrigerant (R-404A) in a two-stage refrigeration
plant for low temperature. The experimental measurements showed that when
using any of the substitute fluids there is an important incremental difference
in the refrigerant mass flow rate through the plant, which in some cases would
make it necessary to readjust the expansion valves of the system. An
important reduction in the capacity has been measured when using the drop-in
fluids R4-22A and R-417B, whereas, for the retrofit refrigerant R-404A the
capacity is enhanced to an important degree. Regarding the COP of the plant,
the reduction in COP with any of the tested fluids is important and is greater
than the values predicted by a theoretical analysis.

32

2.8 Physical Environmental and Safety Characteristics of R-22 , R-438A and

R-422A
Table (2-2) shows composition and main thermodynamic properties of
R-22 and its substitutes fluids considered in this work R-438A and R-422A
while their p-h diagrams are shown in Fig. (2.6-a) and Fig. (2.6-b),
respectively. The pressure levels of R-43a and R-422A are higher than
corresponding pressures in R-22 higher and medium temperatures. Hence,
R-438A andR-4 22A are better to replace R-22 for air conditioning
applications than lower temperature applications. Furthermore, R-438A and
R-422A have a temperature glide, which makes them unsuitable for flooded
evaporators. Another important difference is that there is an important
reduction in the latent heat of phase change (h fg) as compared to R22, which
will tend to reduce the capacity provided by the plants.

33

Table (2.2): Physical Environmental and Safety Characteristics of R-22 , R438A and R-422A (Elgendy et al.,2014)
Composition (%wt)

R-22

R-438A

R-422A

CHCIF2

8.5% R-32

85.1%

R-125

45%

11.5%

R-

R-125

134a
44.2% R-134a

3.4%

1.7% R-600
0.6% R-610a
-1

Molecular weight (g mol )

86.47

99.1

113.6

Normal boiling point (C)

-40.81

-42.33

-44.03

Critical temperature (C)

96.14

85.27

71.73

Critical pressure (bar)

49.9

43

37.46

Glidea (C)

6.19

2.46

hfg (T=-30C)

226.81

203.7

167.44

hfg (T = 5C)

200.9

176.9

140.6

hfg (T = 40C)

166.60

140.3

104.8

g (T=-30C) (m3 kg-1)

0.135

0.143

0.0862

g (T=5C) (m3 kg-1)

0.0403

0.0386

0.0248

ODP

0.05

GWP (100 years)

1810

2265

3100

ASHRAE Safety group

A1

A1

A1

34

R-600

100

Pressure (bar)

R-22
R-438A

T=40C
10
T=5C

T=-25C

1
100

200
300
400
Specific enthalby (kJ/kg)

500

Fig. (2.6-a) Pressure -enthalpy diagram of the R-22 and its drop-in R-438A.

Fig. (2.6-b) Pressure -enthalpy diagram of the R-22 and its drop-in R-422A.

35

2.8 Concluding Remarks

The literature survey revealed that although many investigations were
carried out on air conditioner working with R22 alternatives, Both R-410A
and can't be consider as a drop-in and a little work was conducted on an air
conditioner running with R-422A and no investigation was carried for R-

438A to evaluate its performance at various operating conditions. Moreover,

previous investigators did not explore its effect even for water to water chiller
using R-422A and R-438A. However, there is a lack of information on the
performance characteristics of water to water chiller using R-422A and R438A.Therefore, the present work aimed at evaluating the performance
characteristics of a vapor compression water chiller for various operating
conditions. A comparison, based on energy points of view, is considered
among R-22 alternatives as working fluids in water chiller. An experimental
apparatus was designed, constructed and equipped with necessary
instrumentation. R-22, R-422A or R-438A is used as a primary working fluid
and water is adopted as the secondary heat transfer fluid at both the condenser
and evaporator. Influences of evaporator water inlet temperature, condenser
water inlet temperature and condenser water flow rate on the performance
characteristics of the system is experimentally investigated.

36