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3. CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Concrete is a word of Latin derivation (con together), (crete to grow) and its history can
be charted from 5000 BC. It is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding
medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of aggregate. In hydraulic
cement concrete, the binder is formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water.
Concrete is made from cement, aggregate and water with the occasional addition of
admixture. Concrete is always a heterogeneous material with variable properties. This
section outlines the typical properties by, or inherent in, concreting materials.
3.1 Cements
The most widely used cement in this country, and indeed the word is ordinary Portland
cement; it accounts for approximately 90% of all cement production. It is made by heating
limestone and clay, or other suitable raw materials, together to form a clinker rich in
calcium silicates. This ground to a fine power with a small proportion of gypsum (calcium
sulphate) which regulates the rate of setting when the cement is mixed with water. Over the
years, several varieties of Portland cement have been developed: rapid-hardening, sulphateresisting, white and low heat. As their names imply, they exhibit special characteristics or
properties which are of value in appropriate circumstances. They have in common the fact
that they all contain the same active minerals-only the proportion of each is different.
The setting of cement is a chemical reaction between cement and water, not a drying
process. This reaction is called hydration. It evolves heat and is irreversible. Setting is
gradual stiffening process which is determined by arbitrary limits in the relevant standards.
Strength continues to gain after hardening and may take many years to reach its ultimate
value.
The following are the most important properties of cement.
Initial setting time the noticeable stiffening of cement paste is known as initial set. The
time taken for initial set is known as initial setting time. It is about 45 minutes for ordinary
Portland cement and it can be adjusted by adding the admixture called retarders.
Final setting time final set is the stage at which setting is complete and the hardening
process which is responsible for the development of strength begins. The time taken for the
final set is known as final setting time and it is around 10 hours for ordinary Portland
cement.

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3.1.1 Types of Cement

Ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland cement rapid-hardening Portland cement (RHPC)
is ground somewhat finer than ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The rapid development of
strength is due to higher C3S content and fines. Both kinds of cement are manufactured to
conform with BS 121. RHPC is not 'quick setting' but merely gains strength more rapidly than
OPC after hardening. This cement should be used only where the early strength
requirement is there and not be used in mass concrete construction. This cement is
recommended for:

In pre-fabricated construction
When the formwork is to be removed early
In road repair works
In cold weather where heat generation will be helpful in preventing freezing

Sulphate-resisting Portland cement sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) is a form of

Portland cement with a low tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content. It usually has a higher
content of tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) than other Portland cements, which gives it a
darker colour. Sulphates can react with hydrated tricalcium aluminate, which can weaken
the cement paste in concrete. Concrete made with SRPC is more resistant to attack by the
sulphate compounds which may be found dissolved in ground water and sea water.
Concrete made with SRPC has been found to be satisfactorily in nearly all troublesome
conditions which arise with below-ground concreting. However, resistance to sulphate
attack depends on the cement content and imperviousness of the concrete as well as on the
concentration of sulphate encountered. Details of requirements may be found in BS8110
and BRE Digest 174(63)
SRPC is similar to other Portland cements and it is not resistant to acids, nor is it immune to
the effects of some other dissolved salts, such as magnesium compounds, which may occur
natural waters or effluents. The Standard for sulphate-resisting Portland cement is BS
4027(4). SRPC is recommended in:

Marine condition where both sulphate and chloride attacks are there
Construction of sewage treatment plants
Foundations and basement in soil having sulphate attack
Chemical factories

White Portland cement white cement is distinguished by its low content of iron
compounds which impart the grey-green colour to ordinary cements. It is made by using
white china clay and limestone as the raw materials. Gypsum is added to control setting,
and special care is taken at all stages of processing not introduce coloured contaminants. It
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is used for decorative white concrete and also for some coloured concretes, in which case a
pigment is added to the mix.
Low beat Portland cement low heat Portland cement (LHPC) gains strength and evolves
heat more slowly than the normal concrete of similar composition, though ultimately the
strength and heat of hydration are virtually the same. It is intended for use in large masses
where the rapid evolution heat would cause high temperatures and stresses which might
lead to cracking. The ratio of compounds present is different from other cements and its
special qualities call for a separate specification, BS 1370(3). This Standard requires that the
heat of hydration should not exceed 60 and 70 kcal/kg at 7 and 28 days respectively; typical
figures for ordinary Portland cement are around 84 and 88 kcal/kg at these ages.
LHPC is not normally available except to special order and it is usually considered only for
very large structures (e.g. gravity dam construction). For smaller works where the effects of
excessive heat of hydration may be a problem, it is worth considering the use of sulphateresisting Portland cement as this usually has a lower rate of heat evolution than ordinary
Portland cement. As mentioned above, the total heat evolved by most Portland cements is
similar, but rate at which it is evolved is the important parameter to consider when1heat of
hydration poses a problem in construction.
Masonry Cement
Mortars, if made with ordinary Portland cement and sand, tend to be too harsh or too
strong for rendering and brick or block laying. It has been customary to overcome this
problem by adding lime to mix, but nowadays masonry cement is available. This consists of
ordinary Portland cement with the addition of a fine powder and a plasticizing agent
Masonry cement is not a suitable substitute for ordinary Portland cement and lime for
mortars of very high strength, and should never be used in concrete.
3.1.2 Delivery and storage of cement
Cement may be supplied in bulk, in bags or drums. Bulk cement is deleivered by tanker,
usually in loads of 10 tonnes, and blown into silos on site by compressed air. Bagged cement
is commonly supplied bags containing 50kg, though special cements may be supplied in bags
containing other quantities.
It is self-evident that cement should be kept dry during storage. Problems of long-term
storage are usually avoided by planning cement deliveries so as to anticipate only the shortterm requirements. Storage in moist air leads to the phenomenon of 'air-setting', which
results in the formation of lumps of hydrated cement. These lumps should be screened out
and discarded if found in in cement.

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Bagged cement should be stored on a raised floor in a damp-proof shed in order to prevent
deterioration. Failing this, it should be stacked on a raised timber platform and covered by
waterproof covers with generous overlaps (Figure 1). The bags should be used in the order
in which they are received; thus each delivery should be kept separate to avoid confusion.
To avoid 'warehouse set' which results from the compaction of the cement, bags should not
be stacked higher than about 1 1/2 m (5 ft.). Although the paper bags used for packing
cement are fairly waterproof, they are not vapour-proof, so undue exposure should be
avoided. To avoid risk of accidental confusion, cements of different types should be stored
separately. This is particularly so if high alumina cement is being used on the same site as
any of the Portland cements.
All British Standards for cements require the manufacturer to satisfy himself that his
product conforms to the Standard and, if requested, to issue a certificate to that effect. In
practice, cements can be assumed to meet the relevant Standard with a comfortable margin
to spare.
3.1.3 Testing of cements
3.1.3.1 Field Tests
There are some field tests which give some basic idea about the quality of the cement
without elaborate facility of laboratory in the field. These tests are as given under:

Date of manufacture is important because the strength reduces with age. Date of
manufacture should be seen on the bag. A rough indication of reduction in strength
with age is given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 reduction of cement strength with age
Period of storage Strength w.r.t. 28 days strength
Fresh
100%
3 months
80%
6 months
70%
12 months
60%
24 months
50%

Open the bag and see that lumps should not be present in the bag. It will ensure that
no setting has taken place.
Thrust your hand into the cement bag and it should give cool feeling. It indicates
that no hydration reaction is taking place in the bag.
Take a pinch of cement between the fingers. It should give smooth feeling.
Throw handful of cement on water. It should float initially before finally settling.

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Take 100 g of cement and make a stiff paste. Prepare a cake with sharp edges and
put on the glass plate. Immerse this plate in water. Observe that the shape
shouldn't get disturbed while settling. It should be able to set and attain strength.

3.1.3.1 Laboratory Tests

Although most of the tests are conducted in the laboratories of producers and a
certificate is also being provided by the supplier along with the supply, yet some of the
tests are also conducted by the user in their own laboratories for confirmation and also
to assess the deterioration of strength potential during transit. The various tests which are
generally conducted on cement are as given under
Fineness of cement fineness of cement determines the rate of hydration reaction. Finer
cement reacts faster with water and the rate of development of strength and corresponding
heat of hydration is higher. Fineness can be determined either by specific surface using air
permeability test or it can be determined by actual sieving.
Standard Consistency Test this test in itself doesn't give any quality parameter of cement
but it ascertains the volume of water which is to be added for other tests like initial setting
time final setting time soundness and strength etc. it is determined by the Vicat apparatus,
which measures the depth of penetration of a 10mm diameter plunger under its own
weight. When the depth of penetration reaches a certain value, the water content required
gives the standard consistence of between 26 and 33 (expressed as a percentage by mass of
dry cement).
Setting time this is the term used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste. Broadly
speaking, setting refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid state. For the determination of
initial set, the Vicat apparatus is again used, this time with a 1 mm diameter needle, acting
under a prescribed weight on a paste of standard consistence. When the needle penetrates
to a point 5 mm from the bottom of a special mould, initial set is said to occur (time being
measured from adding the mixing water to the cement).
Final set is determined by a needle with a metal attachment hollowed out so as to leave a
circular cutting edge 5 mm in diameter and set 0.5 mm behind the tip of the needle. Final
set is said to have occurred when the needle makes an impression on the paste surface but
the cutting edge fails to do so.
Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties in obtaining
good specimens and in testing with a consequent large variability of test results. Cementsand mortar and, in some cases, concrete of prescribed proportions are used for the
purpose of determining the strength of cement. The British Standard method for testing the
compressive strength of cement BS EN 196-1: 2005 specifies a mortar prism test.
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3.2 Aggregates
The term aggregates is used to describe the gravels, crushed stones and other materials
which are mixed with cement and water to make concrete. As aggregates concrete, the
selection of suitable material is important.
Gravels, sands and crushed stone as granite, Basalt and the harder types of limestone and
sandstone, are in common use as aggregates. BS 812 describes ascertaining whether
aggregate is suitable for concrete work, but for natural aggregates the permissible limits for
the test results are given in BS 822, 1201
3.2.1 Characteristics of aggregates
The two essential requirements of an aggregate are durability and cleanness.
Durability aggregates should be hard and should not contain materials which are likely to
decompose or change in volume when exposed to the weather, or to affect the
reinforcement. Examples of undesirable materials are coal, pyrites and lumps of clay: coal
may swell, pyrites may decompose, and causing iron oxide stains to appear on the concrete
surface, and lumps of clay may soften and form weak pockets. High-strength mixes may call
for additional special properties. In particular, the crushing value or impact value, density, or
mineralogical type may be specified.
Cleanness aggregates should be clean and free from organic impurities: aggregate
containing organic material makes poor concrete. The particles should be free from coatings
of dust of Clay, as these prevent the proper bonding of the material. An excessive amount of
fine dust or stone 'flour' may prevent the particles of stone from being properly coated with
cement and thus lower the strength of the concrete. Gravels and sands are usually washed
by the suppliers to remove clay, silt and other impurities which, if present in excessive
amounts, result in a poor quality concrete. However, washing must not be carried to such an
extent that all fine material passing the 300 m (No. 52) sieve is removed; otherwise the
resulting concrete mix will be lacking in cohesion and in particular may be unsuitable for a
mix which is to be placed by pump.
3.2.2 Types of aggregate
The term 'fine aggregate' is used to describe natural sand, crushed rock, crushed gravel or
other material, most of which passes through a 5mm BS sieve. 'Coarse aggregate' is the
term used to describe material such as natural gravel, crushed gravel or crushed rock, most
of which is retained on this sieve.

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3.2.2.1 Fine aggregate (Sand)

Aggregates between 4.75mm and 0.150 mm in size are called as fine aggregate. The sand is
a non-cohesive material. It means that there is no bonding between the sand particles and
therefore the particles are called as granules.
Sources of Sand:
Pit Sand obtained from old stream beds
River Sand obtained from large rivers
Stream Sand obtained from small streams near hills
Crushed stone sand obtained from the screenings left from crushed stone
Sea sand obtained from beaches and should be washed to remove the salinity.
Classification of Sand:
Coarse sand 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm
Medium sand 2.0 mm to 0.425 mm
Fine sand 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm
Sand for Concrete Work:
Fine sand is not recommended for structural concrete
Coarse sand shows difficulties in surface finishing of concrete but provides good
strength
Concrete mix design is done to suit the available sand and coarse aggregates
Sand for Mortars and Plasters:
Sharp sand gives higher strength but unsuitable for mortar as its lacks plasticity or
workability
Coarse sand does not adhere easily to the bricks during brick laying
Fine sand is ideal for mortar and plaster
Sand for filling:
Coarse sand is suitable for filling. The void between particles is large so that there is
no suction of water. Suction of water can take place due to capillary action.
Sand required for filling behind retaining walls should be free draining.
3.2.2.2 Course aggregate
Aggregates retained on 4.75 mm sieve size are called coarse aggregates. They are in the
form of irregular broken stone or naturally- occurring rounded gravel. Its maximum size can
be up to 63 mm. But 20 mm size is normally used for the structural elements. The different
size of aggregates used for various type of construction works are given in table 3.2 as
follows,

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Table 3.2 Maximum size of Aggregate for various works

Type of Works
Maximum size specified
Non reinforced work
R.C. Foundation work
R.C.Work ( beams, columns, slabs, staircase
and wall in buildings)
Shell roof and thin members

40 to 75mm
40mm
20mm
10mm

3.2.3 Properties required for compliance with specifications

Particle size distribution The distribution of the different sizes of particles in the coarse or
fine aggregates is termed grading. The grading may be coarse or fine depending on the
distribution of the particles and may be continuous (particles of different sizes) or single
sized (particles of predominantly one size. The test method covers the determination of the
particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregates by sieving, is sieve analysis of fine and
coarse aggregates, (ASTM C136 96a) or (BS 812-103.1).
Resistance to degradation of coarse aggregate hardness is the resistance of an aggregate
to wear and is normally determined by an abrasion test: ASTM C 131 96), while the
toughness of an aggregate is defined as its resistance to failure by impact and is determined
by aggregate crushing value (ACV) which gives a relative measure of the resistance of an
aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load is "Methods for
determination of aggregate crushing value (ACV)" (BS 812-110)
Soundness the soundness of an aggregate is a measure of its durability which is defined as
The ability of individual particles to retain their integrity and not suffer physical,
mechanical or chemical changes to extents which could adversely affect the properties of
the concrete in either engineering or aesthetic respects. The physical causes of large or
permanent volume changes of aggregate are freezing and thawing, thermal changes at
temperatures above freezing, and alternating wetting and drying. If the aggregate is
unsound such changes in physical conditions result in a deterioration of the concrete in the
form of local scaling, so called pop-outs, and even extensive surface cracking. A test method
covers the testing of aggregates to estimate their soundness when subjected to weathering
action in concrete or other applications. This is accomplished repeated immersion in
saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying to partially or
completely dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal
expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the
expansion of water on freezing. "Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
Magnesium Sulfate"(ASTM C 88 99a)

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Presence of sulfate or chloride ions in aggregates because of the danger of chlorideinduced corrosion of steel reinforcement, the BS specifications specifies the maximum total
chloride content in the mix. The chlorides may arise from all ingredient of the mix. Apart of
the danger of corrosion of steel reinforcement, if salt is not removed, it will absorb moisture
from the air and cause efflorescence: unsightly white deposits on the surface of the
concrete. The presence of Sulphates will cause low ultimate strength and disintegration due
to expansion. "Methods for determination of sulphate content"(BS 812-118) for chloride
ions: "Method for determination of water-soluble chloride salts" (BS 812-117)
Flakiness or Elongation of the aggregate particles the particle shape is of importance
with regard to the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Particles with high ratio of
surface area to volume are of particular interest as they lower the workability of the mix.
Elongated and flaky particles are of this type. The latter can also adversely affect the
durability of concrete as they tend to oriented in one plane, with water and air voids
forming underneath. The presence of elongated or flaky particles in excess of 10 to per cent
of the mass of coarse aggregate is generally considered undesirable, although no recognized
limits are laid down. Methods for determination of particle shape: for flakiness index (BS
812-105.1), and for Elongation index (BS 812-105.2).
Presence of organic impurities in fine aggregates natural aggregates may be sufficiently
strong and resistant to wear and yet may not be satisfactory for concrete-making if they
contain organic impurities which interfere with the hydration process. The organic matter
consists of products of decay of vegetable matter in the form of human or organic loam,
which is usually present in sand rather than in coarse aggregate, and is easily removed by
washing. A test method used for that is "Organic impurities in fine Aggregates for Concrete"
(ASTM C 40 99)
3.2.4 Storage of aggregates
Aggregates should be stored so that it is self-draining and so that it does not become
contaminated with other materials. If clean base for the stock pile is not immediately
available, then a layer of lean concrete should be placed, laid to falls in order to take water
away from the stockpiles and also away from the mixer. Good drainage is particularly
important for sea-dredged materials.
Stockpiles should be as large as possible as this helps to ensure uniformity of moisture
content. Where possible, delivers should be allowed to stand in the Stock piles for 12 hours
before use. The use of aggregates from the lower part the stockpile should be avoided since
dirt and water from the higher layers can accumulate there. The various sizes should be
separated from each other by diving walls of sleepers or concrete blocks, and practice of
mixing alternate lorry-loads of, for instance, 10mm and 20mm material the same day should
be avoided. It is frequently convenient to arrange the stockpiles radially with the mixer at
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the centre, although this does not impose a limitation on the number of aggregates which
can be stored.
3.3 Water
Mixing water for concrete is usually required to be fit for drinking or to be taken from an
approved source. This is to ensure that the water is reasonably free from such impurities as
suspended-solids, organic matter and dissolved salts, which are frequently contained in
natural water and which may adversely affect the properties of the concrete, especially the
setting and hardening.
3.4 Admixtures
Admixtures are materials which are added to concrete during mixing. Their intention is to
improve some property or properties of the concrete. The word 'additive' is normally
reserved for chemical additions made to cement during manufacture and it is, strictly
speaking, not interchangeable with the word 'admixture'.
Both admixtures and additives (using the above distinction) can confer benefits on a
concrete. Indeed all Portland cements contain at least one interground additive gypsum,
without which it would be very difficult to control stiffening of a mix within a reasonable
period of time. The low cost of many admixtures is offset to some extent by the problems
associated with handling and dispensing the admixture accurately at the concrete mixer.
Overdosing, in particular, is to be avoided because excessive doses readily have adverse
effects on the properties of the concrete. In some cases the benefits to be obtained by using
an admixture could more easily be obtained by adjusting the proportions of other
constituents of the mix. For convenience, admixtures may be classified according to their
main purpose. In each class there is generally just one widely used active material
accelerating, retarding and water-reducing admixtures are covered by BS 5075.
Accelerators chloride is the most commonly used accelerator. It is used either on its own
or contained in a proprietary admixture. A serious drawback with calcium chloride is that it
may lead to corrosion of embedded steel, which includes reinforcement and pre-stressing
wires. Calcium chloride should never be used in pre-stressed concrete, should not normally
be used in reinforced concrete. Nor should it be used with sulphate-resisting Portland
cement because the latter's sulphate-resisting properties are thereby impaired, a factor
which is of importance when, for example, calcium chloride is considered for use in the
mass concrete of a foundation.
Water-reducing admixtures some surface-active chemicals have of inducing repelling
cement particles and therefore act as agents concrete. The dispersed particles less water to
lubricate them and the net result is that, for a given workability, lower water content is
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required in the presence of these chemicals, which are known as water-reducing

admixtures. In trade literature the terms densifiers, hardeners, water proofers and
plasticizers are sometimes used for these admixtures, on the grounds that the reduction in
water content can lead to improvement in a number of properties of the concrete.
The most frequently used raw material for formulating this class of admixture is calcium (or
sometimes sodium) lignosulphonate, a by-product of the wood processing industry. The
material is also called 'sulphite lye' or simply 'lignin' in the trade; it is usually sold as a brown
liquid with a distinctive and rather unpleasant odour. An addition of 0.20% of the admixture
by weight of cement will, in a typical case, enable the water content of a mix to be reduced
10% without loss of workability. This in turn allows the cement content of a mix to be
reduced without loss of ultimate strength, which may lead to an over-all saving in cost
However, to ensure sufficient durability, minimum cement content may be specified, and
care should be taken to ensure that the cement content is not reduced below this level
Air-entraining admixtures air-entrained concrete is more durable than non-air entrained
concrete under the action of frost and the de-icing salts and fluids which are used on roads
and airfield pavements in winter. The air bubbles have a plasticizing effect on the mix, which
usually necessitates some minor changes in mix proportions. An air content of 5% by
volume is considered optimum for concrete with 20 mm (3/4 in.) aggregate, and this is
normally achieved with the addition of about 0.1% air-entraining admixture by weight of
cement. Each 1% addition of air can reduce the potential strength by 4 to 7% in a typical
concrete, but reduction in the water content and extra cement in the mix can compensate
for this drop. The increase of cement is comparatively small since it is possible to lower the
water content while maintaining a reasonable workability.
Pigments although experiments have been carried out on the production of coloured
clinkers during the cement manufacturing process, the only practical way of preparing
coloured concrete at the moment is to add a colouring agent to the concrete during mixing.
Either grey or white Portland cement serves as the base, the latter giving brighter colours.
Pigments based on iron oxides are available in powder form in a range of colours: red,
brown, yellow and black. They are inexpensive, colour-fast to light and the alkalis in cement,
temperature stable (to varying degrees), and they have good tinctorial strength. An addition
of 4% iron oxide powder by weight of cement is normally sufficient to impart a satisfactory
tint to a concrete or mortar mix. Other pigmenting materials include carbon black, green
chromium oxide, titanium white and cobalt blue as well as two organic green and blue dyes.
If large quantities of pigment are used, there may be an effect on the workability of the mix.
In most cases this effect is small, but problems with workability and strength may occur
when trying to produce a dense black with carbon black. Care must be taken with the
batching of pigments if uniformity of colour is to be achieved. Pigments generally should
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comply with BS 1014; also some materials used as pigments are not covered by this
standard.
Water-repelling admixtures structural concrete which is designed to resist cracking and is
made from dense concrete cast in thick enough sections will be virtually impermeable to the
flow of water, even under pressure. However, chemicals are sometimes employed as waterrepelling admixtures. These are especially useful when the concrete has a porous texture,
as, for example with cast stone, or when the section is thin, as in a rendering for lining a
leaky basement. Admixtures, however, can only marginally improve the impermeability of
concrete.
The usual chemical admixture for this application is calcium stearate; a metallic soap
supplied in powder form which has a repelling action on water and is compatible with
cement. A further use of water repelling admixtures is to reduce the need for frequent
cleaning of buildings which would otherwise be necessary when a rain has washed dirt into
the surface. Water-repelling cement is sometimes used for the same purpose these are
available as a number of proprietary water proofing systems which are based on cement.
These often included calcium chloride in the formulation which, at high dosage rates, acts as
quick setting admixtures. Sometimes a rubber latex dispersion is also included to act as a
bonding and permeability-reducing agent.

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