Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Critchley
0 UNESCO
1994
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction
Logging systems
Impact of logging on vegetation and soil
Impact on streamflow
Impact on erosion and sedimentation
Impact on the forest nutrient budget
How can logging be improved?
Costs and benefits
Selected references
The International Hydrological Programme
MAB Programme activities in the humid tropics
1
5
7
12
23
28
35
43
45
47
48
3ifgRih
TROPENBOS
Netherlands
Committee
IHP
vrije Universiteit
1. INTRODUCTION
No wonder, therefore, that there is increased scope for and interest in the third option, the management of forest for continued
production of both timber and other commodities by means of
some form of selective logging. Whilst it is ominous that currently
only a tiny proportion of the worlds tropical forests are being
managed in a fully sustainable manner, the silver lining is that
relatively simple precautions can lead to substantial improvements. Indeed, the main tenet of this document is that there is
room for use without abuse: mankind can reap benefits from this
rich resource while maintaining its value for the future.
Exploitation or conservation ?
The booming exploitation of tropical forests in recent years has
been matched by growing prophecies of environmental doom. In
both tropical and temperate countries conservationists have become increasingly concerned with the welfare of the indigenous
peoples living in tropical forests as well as with the environmental
consequences of forest destruction at various levels of scale,
ranging from the local silting up of streams to changes in the
global climate. As the environmentalists have become more and
more vociferous about their views of the impending catastrophes
accompanying deforestation, a battle between exploiters and
conservationists has resulted. However, the struggle has been
emotive, short of hard factual evidence and often divorced from
the cold light of day. On the one hand, many environmental disasters, such as floods, droughts or massive landsliding, are often
hastily blamed on deforestation without taking into account
climatic variability or geological instability. On the other hand, it is
an undeniable fact that ruthless logging operations in many parts
of the tropics have wrought environmental havoc: environmental
friendliness is rarely the main concern of commercial companies.
This booklet aims to put the picture into perspective with respect
to different logging practices. We begin with an analysis of what is
actually known about the various environmental impacts of logging. This is then followed by a set of guidelines for simple,
improved logging practices which are known to keep environmental damage to a minimum. In this way the interests of both environmentalists and all that they stand for, and those of the timber
companies and governments of the countries fortunate enough to
have such magnificent forests, may be reconciled. As will be demonstrated in our conclusions, ecological benefits and economic
returns need not be mutually exclusive.
Many
environmental
disasters, such as
floods and
droughts, are often
hastily blamed on
logging
Mechanisation has
largely replaced
traditional methods
of logging
2. LOGGING SYSTEMS
Figure 1.
High-lead yarding.
Figure 2.
Skyline logging.
Typically,
f or
every
tree which is
hwd,
a second is destroyed
and a third is
damaged beyond
recovery
Where heavy
machinery is
employed,
up to 30% of the
surface may be laid
bare in the form of
roads, log landings
and skidder tracks
4.
IMPACT ON STREAMFLOW
Cycle
Of all the
environmental
effects associated
with logging,
it is probably
the hydrological
changes which are
the most
misunderstood
I Crown
drip/
Figure 3.
13
01
0
I
20
I
40
I
60
I
60
I
too
I
120
Flgure 4.
When a gap is
formed, evaporation
is reduced, at least
temporarily I
There is strong
evidence that
effects of selective
timber harvesting
operations on peak
discharges can be
kept small by a
reasonable amount
of care
16
250
I.
1.
270
1.1.
290
310
17
It is often
conveniently
forgotten that floods
are a natural
hazard in areas with
heavy rainfall
19
20
The repeated
passage of heavy
vehicles and logs
over the skid tracks
has dramatic
consequences for the
water intake capacity
of the soil I
21
regard for the environment: where road and track lay-out has
been poorly planned and constructed, and where heavy equipment has been allowed to roam the forest (timber cruising),
meanwhile compacting the earth and creating larger gaps than
necessary by wanton destruction of vegetation.
Clearly these effects are linked to the method of logging used - as
well as to the physical characteristics of the catchment itself.
Again, in the case of skyline, helicopter, or animal-based extraction procedures, soil disturbance and thus overland flow and sheet
erosion are minimal, particularly when only small volumes of timber are harvested. The opposite is true for operations removing
large volumes of wood, using wheeled skidders, crawler tractors,
or a high-lead yarding system in the case of steep terrain. As we
have seen, typically IO-30% of the soil may become more or less
seriously disturbed during such intensive monocyclic operations.
Similarly, flat terrain underlain by highly permeable sandy soils
tends to be far less vulnerable in this respect than steeper areas
with clayey soils of low permeability.
Peak flows: what changes?
The experimental evidence with respect to the effect of logging on
the magnitude of peak flows is, again, rather limited. Whilst peak
discharges in all experiments reported to date have shown to be
increased as a result of logging, the increases were rarely statistically significant. It could be argued that these experiments may
have produced biased results because the loggers, being aware
of the hydrological monitoring programme and its objectives, may
have tended to behave more carefully than they might have done
otherwise. There are also numerous anecdotal accounts of greatly
altered streamflow regimes following commercial forest exploitation. True as these may be, the experimental results at least
provide strong evidence that effects of timber harvesting operations on peak discharges, and thus downstream flooding, can be
kept small by the application of a reasonable amount of care
during the exercise. As will be discussed in more detail in Chapter
7, the lay-out of the extraction network is of particular importance
in this respect.
22
The eroded particles - which may only have been moved a few
centimetres - are then vulnerable to further transport downslope
by overland flow. The tell-tale signs of such sheet erosion are a
series of steps a centimetre or so high running across the slope,
or the accumulation of litter and soil behind small obstructions
such as tree roots, rocks, etc. As indicated earlier, both splash
and sheet erosion are of little importance in undisturbed forest
conditions, but they may well produce substantial amounts of
sediment after the soil is bared, particularly after compaction.
Once this stage is reached, topographic irregularities often lead to
the concentration of overland flow in micro-channels termed rills.
If the process continues long enough, these rills may deepen and
widen into gullies.
Both rills and gullies are often observed on poorly sited skidder
and tractor tracks and along badly drained feeder roads, particularly where erodible subsoil material has become exposed by
bulldozing. Intensive rilling and gullying is a sure sign that large
volumes of soil material have been removed from the site unnecessarily, hampering forest regeneration and future productivity.
Heavy erosion is
commonly observed
on poorly drained
roads - especially
where erodible
subsoil is exposed
24
- .-.
---
Building roads in
midslope locations
displaces
unnecessarily large
amounts of material and is highly
damaging to slope
stability
Difficulties in quantification
The extent of the increase in erosion and sediment yield after
logging in moist tropical forests is poorly quantified, and more
work on this topic is urgently required. However, putting numbers
on these processes is difficult for several reasons. High on the list
of complicating factors are the differences between individual
catchments. Amounts of sediment carried by rivers draining fully
forested tropical catchments may easily vary by a factor of 20-30,
depending on topography and soil erodibility. Furthermore the
erosion and sediment delivery rates for a given catchment may
differ enormously from year to year due to variability of rainfall:
this effect has to be isolated from the impact caused by logging.
No single study has, so far, achieved an accurate picture of the
true extent of erosion and sediment delivery for logged forests.
Nevertheless, the evidence available to date suggests that sediment yields in areas with initially low sediment production may
increase by between two and ten times as a result of road construction alone - depending on the siting and extent of the road
network - and this may then increase to twenty times the original
amount from undisturbed forest as a result of log extraction by
means of tractors or skidders. Roads and compacted tracks often
form a lasting source of runoff and sediment to the streams and
where the extraction network has been poorly sited or constructed, a return to pre-logging sediment concentrations is never likely
to occur. Where stream sediment loads used to be low, increased
sediment concentrations after timber or mineral exploitation may
ultimately affect the composition of the fish population in the
streams and therefore directly affect the diet of forest dwellers.
Recovery after logging
Some general reduction of stream sediment loads does of course
take place as the forest regenerates, but the rate of this recovery
is the least documented of all. Although there is some evidence
that erosion on former skid tracks may be halved after a few
years where recolonisation is successful, rilling and gullying of
steep, compacted tracks may last much longer. Even where regrowth occurs rapidly, sediment temporarily stored in the catchment (in hillside depressions or at the foot of the slopes) will
continue to find its way to the streams, and this tends to keep the
sediment yield values high for a number of years after logging.
There is some evidence to suggest that annual sediment yields
are reduced to about twice the original rates after two to five
years, depending on the amount and intensity of rainfall.
26
Vegetation
recovering on
f orn 2er skid tracks
27
28
--
EXCHANGE
COMPLEXES
--mm_ ---__
-__---
rock
weathering
-----__
SOIL
-.
-T
Ro&
Figure 6.
\.
nutrient
losses in
water movemantr
from
,,--------------forrrt
- -_______-_-_-_--
29
--
Amounts of
nutrients removed in
harvested. timber
may be substantial
Once an area is
opened up by
logging roads there
is often an influx of
land-hungry people
32
33
34
It is almost certain
that natural inputs
of nutrients to the
richly stocked
forests of
South-east Asia are
not sufficient
to sustain harvesting
intensities of
100 m3 per hectare
and above
60
50
40
30
Track-type machine
\\
20
\
b..
14 % moisture
.
-.
---_
IO
21 % moisture
i
I
I
I
\
Rubber-tyred
machine
1
0
10
12
I4
16
16
20
22
24
26
28
30
Figure 7.
36
Road infrastructure
The considerable potential of the haulage roads and skid trails to
contribute to environmental damage has been stressed in previous chapters. Even if no other measures are introduced, the
careful planning of this infrastructure can help enormously to
minimise damage, both on-site (erosion) and off-site (stream
sedimentation). Roads and major skid tracks should be located on
ridge crests wherever possible. This will not only minimise surface
erosion, but also the frequency and size of road-related landslides. This has its price, however, because in steep terrain some
of the most productive parts of the forest stand are often found on
ridges. Where sloping terrain cannot be avoided, maximum road
gradients need to be specified and adequate drainage facilities
designed. As roads generally provide the most direct routes for
runoff and sediment to water courses, the number of stream
crossings should be minimised (Figure 8). Where crossings are
necessary, they should be located and constructed in such a way
as to minimise sediment contributions to the stream. Whilst proper
planning and construction of the haulage road network is essential, subsequent maintenance is equally important. This aspect is
often overlooked or inadequately addressed. The recent finding
that the application of reduced tyre pressure not only reduces
vehicle operational and maintenance costs but also expenditure
on road surfacing and maintenance, is good news therefore. Additional advantages of reduced tyre pressure include a decline in
the rutting of road surfaces and therefore erosion, and an extended haul season due to improved traction.
Figure 8.
Uphill log extraction
tends to divert
runoff and sediment
away from streams,
in contrast to
downhill extraction.
37
Much of what has been said about roads also holds for skid
tracks, and the proper planning of their location and drainage
should be one of the key elements of any logging agreement. As
illustrated in Figure 8, uphill extraction of timber is to be preferred
to downhill extraction, because the former tends to divert the flow
of runoff and sediment away from the streams. Needless to say,
this will greatly reduce downstream flooding and sedimentation
hazards. Similarly, log landings should be located in such a way
as to minimise contributions of runoff and sediment to streams.
Finally, they may need to be ripped after completion of the
operation to promote their recolonisation.
Mechanisation
It is unrealistic to expect logging companies to revert to the
original damage-limiting methods of manual or animal-based timber extraction, but it is certainly possible to demand the minimum
use of heavy equipment. Usually, the bigger the machine, the
more damage is caused through destruction of vegetation and
compaction of surfaces, particularly where soils are clayey or wet.
38
Adequate drainage
facilities need to be
designed I
Streamside buffer
strips are one of the
simplest and most
effective
measures It
Enough is
currently known to
make interim
recommendations...
42
Improved practices
are not necessarily
more expensive than
conventional logging
operations
Because of the economic shyness that is so prevalent in scientific and environmental circles, and the general tendency of
traditional economists to ignore the costs associated with potentially adverse off-site consequences of logging (such as increased
flooding and stream sedimentation), it is difficult to attach a complete economic picture to improved practices. However, there is
a steadily growing body of evidence showing that the combination
of improved logging efficiency and reduced environmental damage can indeed be economically profitable. For example, it was
established that, within the framework of the Queensland polycyclic system, application of controlled logging practices raised
the average cost of logs delivered to the mill by as little as 3%.
Whilst the demonstrated off-site benefits like reduced stream sedimentation in Queensland were not quantified in economic terms,
there is little doubt that the savings in downstream water treatment costs did more than offset any increases in logging costs.
However, and perhaps somewhat as a surprise to some, improved logging practices are not necessarily more expensive than
conventional operations. For example, application of the CELOS
harvesting system in Surinam reduced the overall costs of timber
extraction by 16-31% compared to conventional logging techniques, due to savings brought about by increased efficiency. To
this should be added the substantial reductions in damage inflicted to the remaining stand (up to 40%) that may be obtained by
well-planned and well-conducted operations. Similarly positive
results have been obtained by various studies in East Malaysia.
43
Improved
selective logging
practices are the key
to sustained
production from
moist tropical
forests
44
SELECTED REFERENCES
In keeping with the sty/e and format of this Series, no specific references to literature have been included within the main body of the text.
However, the following books and articles comprise our principal
sources of information, and form a basis for further reading.
Abdul Rahim Nik, 1990. Effects of Selective Logging Methods on
Streamflow Parameters in Berembun Watershed, Peninsular
Malaysia. PhD Thesis, Department of Forestry, University College of Wales, Bangor, U.K.
Adams, P.W. & Andrus, C.W. 1991. Planning timber harvesting operations to reduce soil and water problems in humid tropic steeplands. Paper presented at the International Symposium on
Forest Harvesting in South-east Asia, Singapore, June 1991.
Appanah, S. & Putz, F. 1984. Climber abundance in virgin dipterocarp
forest and the effect of pre-felling climber cutting on logging
damage. The Malaysian Forester 47: 335-342.
Blakeney, K.J. 1992. Cable and helicopter logging for reduced damage.
Paper presented at the international Symposium on Harvesting
and Silviculture for Sustainable Forestry in the Tropics, Kuala
Lumpur, October 1992.
Brown, G.S. 1955. Timber extraction methods in N. Borneo. The Malaysian Forester 18: 11 l-1 32.
Bruijnzeel, L.A. 1990. Hydrology of Moist Tropical Forests and Effects
of Conversion: A State of Know/edge Review. UNESCO, Paris,
and Free University, Amsterdam.
Bruijnzeel, L.A. 1992. Managing tropical forestry watersheds for production: where contradictory theory and practice co-exist. In:
Wise Management of Tropical Forests 7992 (ed. by F.R. Miller &
K.L. Adam), pp. 37-75. Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Burgess, P.F. 1971. The effect of logging on hill dipterocarp forests.
Malayan Nature Journal 24: 231-237.
Cassells, D.S. et a/, 1984. Watershed forestry management practices in
the tropical rainforest of N.E. Australia. In: Effects of Forestry
Land Use on Erosion and Slope Stability (ed. by C.L. OLoughlin
& A.J. Pearce), pp. 289-298. IUFRO, Vienna.
Clinnick, P.F. 1985. Buffer strip management in forest operations: A
review. Australian Forestry 48: 34-45.
De Graaf, N.R. 1986. A Silvicultural System for Natural Regeneration of
Tropical Rain Forest in Suriname. Pudoc, Wageningen, the
Netherlands.
Dykstra, D.P. & Heinrich, R. 1992. Sustaining tropical forests through
environmentally sound harvesting practices. Unasylva 169: 9-l 5.
Douglas, I. et a/. 1992. The impact of selective commercial logging on
stream hydrology, chemistry and sediment loads in the Ulu
Segama rain forest, Sabah. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B 335: 397-406.
45
Gillman, G.P. et al. 1985. The effect on some soil chemical properties
of the selective logging of a north Queensland rainforest. Forest
Ecology and Management 12: 195214.
Gilmour, D.A. 1977. Logging and the environment, with particular reference to soil and stream protection in tropical rainforest situations. FAD Watershed Management Guide no.1, pp. 223-235,
FAO, Rome.
Gomez-Pompa, A. et al. 1990. Rain Forest Regeneration and Management. Man and the Biosphere Series Volume 6, UNESCO, Paris
& Parthenon Publishing Group, Carnfotth, U.K.
Hendrison, J. 1990. Damage-controlled Logging in Managed Tropical
Rain Forest in Suriname. Pudoc, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
ITT0 Tropical Forest Management Update, 1991-l 994. Various issues.
ANUTECH Pty Ltd., Canberra.
Jonkers, W.B.J. 1987. Vegetation Structure, Logging Damage and Silviculture in a Tropical Rain Forest. Pudoc, Wageningen, the
Netherlands.
Kamaruzaman Jusoff, 1991. Effect of tracked and rubber-tyred logging
machines on soil physical properties of the Berkelah Forest
Reserve, Malaysia. Pertanika 14: 1-l 1.
Ludwig, Ft. 1992. Cable crane yarding: an economical and ecologically
sustainable system for commercial timber harvesting in loggedover rain forests of the Philippines. Paper presented at the
International Symposium on Harvesting and Silviculture for
Sustainable Forestry in the Tropics, Kuala Lumpur, Oct. 1992.
Malmer, A. & Grip, H. 1990. Soil disturbance and loss of infiltrability
caused by mechanized and manual extraction of tropical rain
forest in Sabah, Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management 38:
l-12.
Marn, H.M. & Jonkers, W.B. 1981. Logging damage in tropical high
forest. Working Paper no. 5. FAO/UNDP Forestry Development
Project Sarawak, Kuching, 15 pp.
Pearce, A.J. & Hamilton, L.S. 1986. Water and Soil Conservation
Guidelines for Land-use Planning. Report of a seminar-workshop
held at FTC Gympie, Queensland, Australia.
Poels, R.L.H. 1987. Soils, Water and Nutrients in a Forest Ecosystem in
Suriname. Pudoc, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Proctor, J. 1987. Nutrient cycling in primary and old secondary rainforests. Applied Geography 7: 135-l 52.
Van der Plas, MC. & Bruijnzeel, L.A. 1993. Impact of mechanized
selective logging of rain forest on topsoil infiltrability in the Upper
Segama area, Sabah, Malaysia. International Association of
Hydrological Sciences Publication no. 216: 203-211.
Whitmore, T.C. 1990. An introduction to Tropical Rain Forests.
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Zulkifli Yusopp, 1989. Effects of selective logging methods on dissolved
nutrient exports in Berembun watershed, Peninsular Malaysia.
Paper presented at the Regional Seminar on Tropical Forest
Hydrology, Kuala Lumpur, September 1989.
46
The International
Hydrological
Programme
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Figure 8: