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INTRODUCTION:
RS232 is the most known serial port used in transmitting the data in
communication and interface. Even though serial port is harder to program than the
parallel port, this is the most effective method in which the data transmission requires
less wires that yields to the less cost. The RS232 is the communication line which enables
the data transmission by only using three wire links. The three links provides transmit,
receive and common ground...
The transmit and receive line on this connecter send and receive data between
the computers. As the name indicates, the data is transmitted serially. The two pins are
TXD & RXD. There are other lines on this port as RTS, CTS, DSR, DTR, and RTS, RI.
The 1 and 0 are the data which defines a voltage level of 3V to 25V and -3V to -25V
respectively.
The RS-232D has existed in two types. i.e., D-TYPE 25 pin connector and DTYPE 9 pin connector, which are male connectors on the back of the PC. You need a
female connector on your communication from Host to Guest computer. The pin outs of
both D-9 & D-25 are show below.
Pin outs
Function
3
2
7
Pin no.
2
3
4
RD
TD
RTS
CTS
6
5
1
6
7
8
DSR
SG
DCD
4
9
20
22
DTR
RI
D-Type-9
pin no.
D-Type25
Null Modems
A Null Modem is used to connect two DTE's together. This is commonly used as a cheap
way to network games or to transfer files between computers using Zmodem Protocol,
Xmodem Protocol etc.This can also be used with many Microprocessor Development
Systems.
It only requires 3 wires (TD, RD & SG) to be wired straight through thus is more cost
effective to use with long cable runs. The theory of operation is reasonably easy. The aim
is to make to computer think it is talking to a modem rather than another computer. Any
data transmitted from the first computer must be received by the second thus TD is
connected to RD. The second computer must have the same set-up thus RD is connected
to TD. Signal Ground (SG) must also be connected so both grounds are common to each
computer. The Data Terminal Ready is looped back to Data Set Ready and Carrier Detect
on both computers. When the Data Terminal Ready is asserted active, then the Data Set
Ready and Carrier Detect immediately become active. At this point the computer thinks
the Virtual Modem to which it is connected is ready and has detected the carrier of the
other modem.
All left to worry about now is the Request to Send and Clear To Send. As both computers
communicate together at the same speed, flow control is not needed thus these two lines
are also linked together on each computer. When the computer wishes to send data, it
asserts the Request to Send high and as it's hooked together with the Clear to Send, It
immediately gets a reply that it is ok to send and does so.
PROCEDURE:
1.
Connect one end of the 9 pin D-type female to female connector to the serial port
of your PC(system1).
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
DESCRIPTION:
PROCEDURE:
31. Connect one end of the 25 pin D-type male to male connector to the parallel port
of your PC(LPT)(system1).
32. Connect other end to the 25 pin D-type female connector of the PC to PC
communication trainer kit.
33. Repeat step 1 and 2 with the other PC(system2).
34. Connect the STROBE pin of system1 to the ACK pin of system 2 in the trainer
kit.
35. Connect the STROBE pin of system2 to the ACK pin of system 1 in the trainer
kit.
36. Connect data pins D0 to D7 of system1 to pins D0 to D7 of system2.
37. Common the ground terminals.
38. Run parallel.exe in both the PCs.
For transmitting system:
39. Select the file to be sent in the PC from which you want to transfer file (say
system1).
For receiving system:
40. Set the transmission rate. The user can choose the preset rate if choose delay
option is selected or can assign any rate from 1 to 100 ms if user delay option is
selected.
41. Select the path for the file to be stored.
NOTE: The receive file button is disabled until the file path for the receiving file is
selected.
42. Click send file button in the transmitting PC.
43. Click receive file button in the receiver PC.
44. file transfer completed message appears both in the transmitter and receiver PC
once the transfer is complete.
45. The file contents will be displayed on the text box in the receiver PC.
46. Click clear button to clear the contents in the text box.
Pinouts
Register
Signal Name
Bit
DB-25
Pin
I/O
Direction
/
\
13
\
12
25
\
11
24
10
23
9
22
8
21
7
20
6
19
5
18
4
17
3
16
2
15
purpose
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
\
/
/
14 /
/
1
Network Simulator
To use the software, the computer system should have the following.
1. Windows XP or Windows 2000 OS
2. Dot Net environment
3. The display should be in 1024 x 768 resolution
At the time of data entry, tab is to be used for next data
The Network Simulator consists of experiments in the following topics.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Network Topologies
Data Transfer Protocols
Routing Protocols
Encryption and Decryption
Network Sockets
From the main screen of the Network Simulator, different experiments can be chosen.
1
LAN TOPOLOGIES
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Bus
Wireless LAN
From this LAN Topology screen, different topology experiments can be chosen.
Expt.1. Ethernet
Input Parameters
No. of Nodes
Frame Interval
Frame Size
Maximum Back-off-time
Error Generation
- 2 to 4
- 250 milliseconds. to 1000 milliseconds.
- 64 Bytes to 1,500 Bytes
- 4 to 32
-9
-6
-3
- 10 , 10 and 10
Result:
Result gives the following performance parameters
1. Payload: Amount of data delivered from sender to receiver
2. Overhead: Amount of control information used to send the data from the sender
to the receiver
3. Queuing time: Total amount of time spent by packets in the sender queue
4. Medium Access Time: Total amount of time spent by the head-of-line packet
before transmission
5. Dropped frames: Number of frames dropped due to buffer overflow
6. Frame error: Number of frames lost in the network due to bit errors
7. Checksum error: Number of frames dropped by receiver due to checksum error
8. Mean delay: The average time taken to transmit a packet successfully
9. Average attempts: Average number of attempts taken for a successful
transmission of a packet
10. Simulation time: Total duration of the simulation
11. Throughput: The rate of transmission of data during the simulation
12. Goodput: The rate of transmission of user data during the simulation
13. Data frames generated: Total number of data frames generated and delivered
during the simulation
14. Frame transmission probability: The probability of successfully transmitting a
frame.
15. Collision count: Total number of packet collisions during the simulation
16. Defer count: Total number of back offs by all sending nodes during the
simulation
Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes Overhead) / Transmission time
2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)
3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts
4. failed attempts = Collisions + errors
5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions
6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate when only one
node is transmitting
Model Calculation
Kbps
1c) Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off time
and different error generation and analyze the results.
1d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze the results. Repeat the experiment by changing the input parameters
1e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer and analyze the results. When the data
transfer is going on, disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.
Input Parameters
Number of Nodes
Frame Interval
Frame Size
Error Generation
- 2 to 4
- 250 milliseconds by default
- 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
-9
-6
-3
- 10 , 10 and 10
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frames that are transferred from the node depends upon the token hold on time of the
node. After the token hold on time, the token is passed on to the next priority node.
During the file transfer, suppose one node in the ring is disconnected, and then a message
window appears prompting for ring reconfiguration disconnecting the node. If the
answer is yes, the particular node is disconnected and other nodes form a ring and
activities continue. If the answer is no, then all the nodes are disconnected. In this case,
all the nodes are to be reconnected using connect switch.
2c) Repeat the experiment for different packet sizes, different maximum back off time
and different error generation and analyze the results.
2d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters. Disconnect one node and
answer to the question yes and observe the operation and record it. Disconnect one node
and answer to the question no and observe the operation and record it.
2e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.
Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes Overhead) / Transmission time
2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)
3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts
4. failed attempts = defers due to token capture + errors
on,
Input Parameters
Number of Nodes
Frame Interval
Frame Size
Error Generation
- 2 to 4
- 250 milliseconds to 1000 milliseconds
- 512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
-9
-6
-3
- 10 , 10 and 10
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automatically disconnected and the token bus is reconfigured leaving that node
automatically. No question is asked. The node can be reconnected using connect switch.
3d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters. Disconnect one node and
see the effect and record it.
3e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.
on,
Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes Overhead) / Transmission time
2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)
3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts
4. failed attempts = defers due to token capture + errors
5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions
6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate calculated from
simulation time and time slot period
20
21
22
Input Parameters
Number of Nodes
Frame Interval
Frame Size
Maximum Back-off-time
Error Generation
- 2 to 4
- 250 milliseconds to 1000 milliseconds
- 64 Bytes to 1,500 Bytes
- 4 to 32
-9
-6
-3
- 10 , 10 and 10
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the time and information that the particular station is going to transmit. All the stations in
the cell are informed that another unit will transmit, so they cannot transmit even if the
media seems to be free. In this way, collision is avoided. Whenever access point is
possible to transmit, it will transmit the received from the source to the destination.
4d) Select 3 nodes and carry out data transfer between the nodes simultaneously and
analyze. Repeat the experiment changing the input parameters
4e) Select 4 nodes and do the data transfer. When the data transfer is going
disconnect one node and observe and record the effect.
on,
Calculations:
1. Goodput = (Total bytes Overhead) / Transmission time
2. Frame Probability = (Successful attempts / Total attempts)
3. Total Attempts = Successful attempts + failed attempts
4. Failed attempts = Collisions + errors
5. Mean delay = Total file transmission time / number of transmissions
6. Efficiency = Actual rate / Ideal rate whereas Ideal rate = Rate when only one
node is transmitting.
27
Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT
Transferring a data file from one system to another system mainly in WAN
In this experiment, there is one sender and one receiver.
From the sender, file from the system can be opened for transmission
This file can be sent to the receiver by using Start Button. In between there is a network
of networks.
28
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously. In Network, the error information is
displayed.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters in the bottom
of the page, namely, Payload, Transfer time, Throughput and Losses.
29
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software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Stop_And_Wait directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file Time-Frame.xls. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packet is resent. It can be clearly viewed in the graph.
1 to 10 packets
500 Kbps to 5 Mbps
512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
50 mSec. To 500 mSec.
0% to 50%
100 mSec. To 1000 mSec.
Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT
Transferring a data file from one system to another system mainly in WAN
In this experiment, there is one sender and one receiver.
From the sender, file from the system can be opened for transmission
This file can be sent to the receiver. In between there is a network of networks.
At the time of sending, sender window and receiver window are opened. The progress bar
in these windows shows the amount of data transferred and received.
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters
In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, first, we have to close the Simulator
software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Go_Back_N directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file Time-Frame.xls. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packets are resent according to the Go back n algorithm. It can be
clearly viewed in the graph.
33
Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the Local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite the Excel files in the directory.
6d) By reducing the bandwidth and by increasing the window size, we will be able to see
congestion packet drop also in the network.
33
1 to 10 packets
500 Kbps to 5000 Kbps
512 Bytes to 2,048 Bytes
50 mSec. To 500 mSec.
0% to 50%
100 mSec. To 1000 mSec.
Note: At the time of giving input parameters, it is to be noted that the input value given
for Retransmit Time out parameter should be more than the RTT
This file can be sent to the receiver. In between there is a network of networks.
There are trace windows in Sender, Network and Receiver and the data transfer
information with time stamp appears continuously.
At the end of the data transfer, result appears with performance parameters
35
In order to view the Frame sent Vs Time graph, first, we have to close the Simulator
software.
In C drive, inside the Simulator directory, in the Selective_repeat directory, the graph is
stored as Excel file. In the computer system, Excel Software should be available to view
the graph by opening the file Time-Frame.xls. The graph can be seen and the data
derived from the Trace can be seen. The graph can be printed in Excel software. During
the time out, the packets are resent according to the Go back n algorithm. It can be
clearly viewed in the graph.
36
Note: Before conducting another simulation experiment, the graphs and performance
must be printed or stored in some other place in the Local disk. Otherwise, the new
experiment will overwrite the Excel files in the directory.
7d) By reducing the bandwidth and by increasing the window size, we will be able to see
congestion packet drop also in the network.
36
ROUTING ALGORITHMS
37
38
39
Input Parameters
Routers 3 to 7
Connectivity between the Routers - to be given
Weightage or Cost or Distance between the routers number 1-10
Source Router to be selected
Process
The Distance vector algorithm is executed.
Initially, in iteration 1, the source router creates the router table with the distance
information of the neighbouring routers. It also gathers distance information of the other
routers connected to the neighbouring routers.
By using Next switch, second iteration is done.
In the second iteration, it calculates the shortest distance to the unconnected nodes from
the information gathered in the first iteration and refines the routing table. If there are n
routers, then n-1 iterations are required to get shortest distance for all the routers.
The routing table gives the shortest distance for all the routers from the source router and
also information to which router the packet should go next.
Experiments to be carried out
8a) Select say 5 routers and draw the connectivity. Input the distance between the
routers. Select Source router. Study the iteration and routing table for each iteration.
Check finally, whether the short distance is calculated and correct next best hop.
8b) Keep the layout as it is. Change the distance between the routers. Do the iterations
and for each iterations, study and check. Verify the result at the end.
8C) Keep the layout as it is. Change the Source router and do the experiment. Verify the
result at the end.
8d) Do different configuration and do the iterations and verify the result.
Storing of transferred files, results and traces
39
40
40
41
Input Parameters
Routers 3 to 7
Connectivity between the Routers - to be given
Weight or Cost or Distance between the routers number 1-10
Source Router to be selected
Process
The Link State algorithm is executed.
There are parent group and transitive group. Initially, in iteration 1, the source router is in
parent group and all the directly connected routers are in transitive group and router table
is created.
By using Next switch, second iteration is done.
In next iteration, the short distance neighboring router is taken into parent group and the
routers associated with the particular router are placed in the transitive group and routing
table is constructed. In this way, if there are n routers available, then n number of
iterations is required to find the shortest distance in this method.
Finally, the routing table gives the shortest distance for all the routers from the source
router and also information to which router the packet should go next.
Experiments to be carried out
9a) Select say 6 routers and draw the connectivity. Input the distance between the
routers. Select Source router. Study the iteration and the routing table every time
created. Check finally, whether the short distance is calculated and correct next best hop.
9b) Keep the layout as it is. Change the distance between the routers. Do the iterations
and for each iterations, study and check. Verify the result at the end.
9C) Keep the layout as it is. Change the Source router and do the experiment. Verify the
result at the end.
9d) Do different configuration and do the iterations and verify the result.
41
42
42
Input Parameters
Input Text to be given
Shift number is to be given
Process
The Shifting algorithm is executed at the time of encryption.
At the time of decryption, again shifting algorithm is executed.
Experiment to be carried out
Enter some text in the text box available.
Give the shifting index and use Shift key.
Encrypted message appears in the window.
When re-shift key is used, re- shift algorithm is used with the encrypted message and the
re shifted message is displayed.
43
Input Parameters
Initially, a plain text of 10 characters (max) is given.
Process
The RSA algorithm is used for encryption and decryption
Experiment to be carried out
Encryption
Encryption key is used in the menu bar. Then again Encryption key below the text
window is used to encrypt the message. RSA Algorithm procedure is stage by stage
executed and the steps are shown in the output window. Secret Key and Public Key are
generated and displayed.
Decryption
Decryption key is used in the menu bar. Then again Decryption key below the text
window is used to decrypt the message. Decrypting stage is executed and the steps are
shown in the output window. The decrypted text is displayed.
NETWORK SOCKETS
- IP address
- IP address
Process
In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 80
- Remote Port number
When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number. As for as the
Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number. Once the socket is
created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file. Log is created in the
server.
47
8. The user can disconnect the client and server also. In the server side, log is
generated for every activity
9. The simulator is closed. In the Simulator directory in C drive, the html file is
opened in notepad and the content is altered and saved.
10. Again the same application is run
11. It is to be verified that the modified content is appearing in the client window.
49
- IP address
- IP address
Process
In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 21
- Remote Port number
When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number
As for as the Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number
In ftp operation, 2 sockets are generated. They are control socket and data socket.
Once the socket is created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file.
Log is created in the server.
49
50
7. The user can disconnect the client and server also. In the server side, log is
generated for every activity
8. The simulator is closed. In the Simulator directory in C drive, the index.txt file is
opened in notepad and the content is altered and saved.
9. Again the same application is run
10. It is to be verified that the modified content is appearing in the client window.
51
- IP address
- IP address
In the experiment, at the time of connecting the client to the server, communication pipe
namely socket is created. The socket is characterized by 4 parameters.
- Server ID
- Client ID
- Local Port number 25
- Remote Port number
When the client sends the connect request to the server, it generates a 16 bit random
number which lies between 1024 and 65,536 and sends it as port number As for as the
Server is concerned, this port number is the Remote Port number
In e-mail operation, 2 sockets are generated. They are control socket and data socket.
Once the sockets created, the client can send the request to the server and get the file.
51
52
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Ethernet
In early 1970s, the Xerox Company developed an experimental version of coaxial Ethernet. In
1980s, Xerox published The Ethernet in collaboration with Digital and Intel. It outlined
methodology, physical topology and constraints. The IEEE became responsible for Ethernet
specification. The IEEE published standard 802.3 to establish Ethernets position in OSI model.
Ethernet was defined as existing across the data link and physical layers.
Medium Access Control (MAC)
In terms of non-switched Ethernet, medium access control is an effective methodology that allows
devices on a LAN to share their interconnecting media.
Due to shared nature of the media, it is obvious that more than one device might send data at the
same time, therefore Ethernet MAC has to be able to
- decide when to send data
- what to do if its data collides with another devices data
- how long to wait after a collision before retransmission
The Ethernet MAC sublayer
The MAC sublayer has two primary responsibilities:
- Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and frame parsing /
error detection during and after reception
- Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and recovery from
transmission failure.
The Basic Ethernet Frame Format
The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format. The basic data frame format
contains the seven fields as shown.
IEEE 802.3 MAC Data Frame Format
Preamble(PRE) Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros that
tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that provides a means to synchronize the
frame-reception portions of receiving physical layers with the incoming bit stream.
Start-of frame delimiter (SOF) Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an alternating pattern of ones
and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1- bits indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the
left-most byte of the destination address.
Destination addresses (DA) Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station(s)
should receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field indicates whether the address is an
individual address (indicated by a 0) or a group address (indicated by a 1). The remaining 46 bits
are a uniquely assigned value that identifies a single station, a defined group of stations, or all
stations on the network.
Source addresses (SA) Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. The SA
is always an individual address and the left-most bit in the SA field is always 0
Length/Type consists of 2 bytes. The data is 1500 bytes maximum. To represent the value, 2
bytes allotted.
Data is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal to 1500. If the length
of the data field is less than 46, the data field must be extended by adding a filler (a pad)
sufficient to bring the data field length to 46 bytes
Frame check sequence (FCS) Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by sending MAC and is recalculated by the
receiving MAC to check for damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA,
Length/Type, and Data fields.
Frame Transmission:
Whenever MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the accompanying address and data
information from the LLC sublayer, the MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring
the LLC information into the MAC frame buffer.
- The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and SOF fields.
- The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields.
- The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of LLC data bytes is
less than 46, a pad is added to bring the data field length up to 46.
- An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields and appended
to the end of the Data field.
After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission starts. The IEEE 802.3 standard
currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be
either transmitting or receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously.
Half-Duplex Transmission The CSMA/CD Access Method
The CSMA/CD protocol was originally developed as means by which two or more stations could
share a common media in a switch-less environment when the protocol does not require central
arbitration, access tokens, or assigned time slots to indicate when a station will be allowed to
transmit. Each Ethernet MAC determines for itself when it will be allowed to send a frame.
The CSMA/CD access rules are summarized by the protocols acronym:
Carrier Sense Each station continuously listens for traffic on the medium to determine when
gaps between frame transmissions occur.
Multiple access Stations may begin transmitting any time they detect that the network is quiet
(there is no traffic)
Collision detect If two or more stations in the same CSMA/CD network (collision domain)
begin transmitting at approximately the same time, the bit streams from the transmitting stations
will interfere (collide) with each other, and both transmissions will be unreadable. If that happens,
each transmitting station must be capable of detecting that a collision has occurred before it has
finished sending its frame. Each must stop transmitting as soon as it has detected the collision
and then must wait a quasirandom length of time (determined by a back-off algorithm) before
attempting to retransmit the frame.
Token Ring
IBM originally developed the Token Ring network in the 1970s. The IEEE 802.5 specification for
Token Ring was modeled after IBM Token Ring.
Token Ring Operation
In Token Ring network, a small frame, called a token is passed around the network. Possession
of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token has no information to send,
it passes the token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token for a maximum period
of time.
If a station possessing the token does have information to transmit, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit
of the token (which turns the token into a start-of frame sequence), appends the information that it
wants to transmit, and sends this information to the next station on the ring. While the information
frame is circling the ring, no token is on the network, which means that other stations wanting to
transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring Networks. If early token
release is supported, a new token can be released when frame transmission is complete.
The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station, which
copies the information for further processing. The information frame continues to circle the ring
and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The sending station can check the
returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by the destination.
Unlike CSMA/CD networks (such as Ethernet), token-passing networks are deterministic which
means all the systems will have opportunity to transmit.
Priority System
Token Ring networks use a sophisticated priority system that permits certain use-designated,
high-priority stations to use the network more frequently. Token Ring frames have two fields that
control priority: the priority field and the reservation field.
Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority value contained in a token can
seize that token. After the token is seized and changed to an information frame, only stations with
a priority value higher than that of the transmitting station can reserve the token for the next pass
around the network. When the next token is generated, it includes the higher priority of the
reserving station. Stations that raise a tokens priority level must reinstate the previous priority
after their transmission is complete.
Fault-Management Mechanisms
Token Ring networks employ several mechanisms for detecting and compensating for network
faults. For example, one station in the Token Ring network is selected to be active monitor. This
station, which potentially can be any station on the network, acts as a centralized source of timing
information for other ring stations and performs a variety of ring-maintenance functions. One of
these functions is the removal of continuously circulating frames from the ring. When sending
station fails, its frame may continue to circle the ring. This can prevent other stations from
transmitting their own frames and essentially can lock up the network. The active monitor can
detect such frames, remove them from the ring, and generate a new token.
Frame Format
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens and data/command frames.
Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end
delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the information field. Data
frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command frames contain control
information and have no data for upper-layer protocols.
IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring specify Tokens and Data/Command Frames
The DSSS Physical layer uses 11 bit Barker sequence to spread the data before it is transmitted.
Each bit transmitted is modulated by the 11 bit sequency. This process spreads the RF energy
across a wider bandwidth than would the required to transmit the raw data.
The frequency hop physical layer has 22 hop patterns to choose from. The frequency hop
physical layer is required to hop across the 2.4 GHz ISM band covering 79 channels.
Each channel occupies 1 MHz of bandwidth and must hop at the minimum rate specified. Each
of the physical layers uses their own unique header to synchronize the receiver and determine
signal modulation format and data packet length.