Republic of the Philippines

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Architecture and Fine Arts

Department of Architecture
NDC Compound, Sta. Mesa Manila

CONTROL CHARTS / SHEWHART CHARTS

(Tools in Conveying Quality Control Concepts in
Construction)

Submitted by:

GALANO, GLENN PAUL E.

MUROS, JUCEL A.
BS Architecture 5-2

Submitted to:

ARCH. EMILIE T. GARCIA

Approved Specialization 3 Class Adviser

Date Submitted:

JANUARY 7, 2016
Definition of Control Chart

Control charts, also known as

Shewhart charts (after Dr. Shewhart) or
process-behavior charts, is one of the
seven basic tools of quality. These are
statistical tools used in quality control to
(1) analyze and understand process
variables, (2) determine process capabilities, and to (3) monitor effects of the variables
on the difference between target and actual performance.
Control

charts

indicate

data

points, upper and lower control limits,

and often include a central (average)
line, to help detect trend of plotted
values. These charts visually display the
fluctuations of a particular process
variable, such as temperature, in a way
that lets the quality control engineer easily determine whether these variations fall within
the specified process limits. If all data points are within the control limits, variations in
the values may be due to a common cause and process is said to be in control. If data
points fall outside the control limits, variations may be due to a special cause and the
process is said to be out of control.
Father of Control Chart
Dr. Walter Andrew Shewhart (March 18, 1891 March 11,
1967) was an American physicist, engineer and statistician,
sometimes known as the father of statistical quality control. He
invented the control chart.
Bell Telephones engineers had been working to improve
the reliability of their transmission systems. In order to impress
government regulators of this natural monopoly with the high
quality of their service, Shewhart's first assignment was to improve the voice clarity of
the carbon transmitters in the company's telephone handsets. Later he applied his
statistical methods to the final installation of central station switching systems, then to
factory production. When Dr. Shewhart joined the Western Electric Company Inspection
Engineering Department at the Hawthorne Works in 1918, industrial quality was limited
to inspecting finished products and removing defective items. That all changed on May
16, 1924. George D. Edwards, Dr. Shewharts boss, recalled that Shewhart prepared a
little memorandum only about a page in length. About a third of that page was given
over to a simple diagram which at this modern era would be recognize as a schematic

control chart. That diagram, and the short text which preceded and followed it, set forth
all of the essential principles and considerations which are involved in what
professionals know today as process quality control.
Shewhart's work pointed out the importance of reducing variation in a
manufacturing process and the understanding that continual process-adjustment in
reaction to nonconformance actually increased variation and degraded quality. In 1931,
he published a book entitled Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product
which summarized the methods and work that he has done.
In-depth Background of Control Charts
A process may either be classified as in control or out of control. The
boundaries for these classifications are set by calculating the mean, standard deviation,
and range of a set of process data collected when the process is under stable
operation. Then, subsequent data can be compared to this already calculated mean,
standard deviation and range to determine whether the new data fall within acceptable
bounds.
For good and safe control,
subsequent data collected should fall
within three standard deviations of
the mean. Control charts build on this
basic idea of statistical analysis by
plotting

the

mean

or

range

of

subsequent data against time. For

example, if an engineer knows the
mean

(grand

average)

value,

standard deviation, and range of a process, this information can be displayed as a bell
curve, or population density function (PDF). The image above shows the control chart
for a data set with the PDF overlay.
The centerline is the mean value of the data set and the green, blue and red lines
represent one, two, and three standard deviations (represented with Greek letter sigma
) from the mean value. In generalized terms, if data points fall within three standard
deviations of the mean (within the red lines), the process is considered to be in control.
Functions of Control Charts
There are several functions of a control chart:

It centers attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over time.

It provides a tool for ongoing control of a process.

It differentiates special from common causes of variation in order to be a

guide for local or management action.

It helps improve a process to perform consistently and predictably to achieve

higher quality, lower cost, and higher effective capacity.

It serves as a common language for discussing process performance.

Purpose of Control Charts

The main purpose of using a control chart is to monitor, control, and improve
process performance over time by studying variation and its source. Another purpose is
to allow simple detection of events that are indicative of actual process change. This
simple decision can be difficult where the process characteristic is continuously varying.
The control chart provides statistically objective criteria of change. When change is
detected and considered good its cause should be identified and possibly become the
new way of working, where the change is bad then its cause should be identified and
eliminated.
Chart Usage
If the process is in control
(and

the

process

statistic

is

normal), 99.7300% of all the

points will fall between the control
limits. Any observations outside
the limits, or systematic patterns
within, suggest the introduction of a new (and likely unanticipated) source of variation,
known as a special-cause variation. Since increased variation means increased quality
costs, a control chart signaling the presence of a special-cause requires immediate
investigation.
This makes the control limits very important decision aids. The control limits
provide information about the process behavior and have no intrinsic relationship to any
specification targets or engineering tolerance. In practice, the process mean (and hence
the center line) may not coincide with the specified value (or target) of the quality
characteristic because the process design simply cannot deliver the process
characteristic at the desired level.
Principles of Variation

Every process is subject to variation.

More variation in the process means more loss to the society.

Two types of causes affect variation. These are:

o Common Cause (also known as chronic or chance cause)

The

cumulative

effect

of

many small

and

individually

uncontrollable causes of variation in a process. This expresses

the effect (characteristic) negatively.
o Special Cause (also known as sporadic or assignable cause)

One of a few causes of variation that result in a large variation in

the process.

Action on variation entirely depends on type of cause identified.

Common Cause vs. Special Cause

Common Cause

Special Cause

Consists of many individual causes

Consists of one or few causes

Results in relatively smaller variation

Results in large variation

Process need not be tampered with

Process is considered stable

Process

need

to

be

investigated

and

corrected
Process is unstable

Types of Data Used in Control Charts

Variable Data
o Data that can be measured
o E.g. weight, height, length, hardness, diameter, angle

Attribute Data
o Data that can be counted
o E.g. defects, scratches, dent, spatters, blow, holes, cracks

Variable Control Charts vs. Attribute Control Charts

Sometimes, the quality control engineer has a choice between variable control
charts and attribute control charts. Attribute control charts have the advantage of
allowing for quick summaries of various aspects of the quality of a product, that is, the
engineer may simply classify products as acceptable or unacceptable, based on various
quality criteria. Thus, attribute charts sometimes bypass the need for expensive, precise
devices and timeconsuming measurement procedures. Also, this type of chart tends to
be more easily understood by managers unfamiliar with quality control procedures;
therefore, it may provide more persuasive (to management) evidence of quality
problems.

Variable control charts however are more sensitive than attribute control charts.
Therefore, variable control charts may alert us to quality problems before any actual
"unacceptables" (as detected by the attribute chart) will occur. Douglas Montgomery, a
name known in Industrial Statistics, remarked that the variable control charts were the
leading indicators of trouble that will sound an alarm before the number of rejects
(scrap) increases in the production process.
Common Types of Control Charts
The types of charts are often classified
according to the type of quality characteristic that they
are supposed to monitor: as mentioned from above,
there are the variable control charts and the attribute
control charts. Specifically, the following charts are
commonly constructed for controlling variables:

Xbar Chart: In this chart, the sample

means are plotted in order to control
the mean value of a variable (e.g., size
of piston rings, strength of materials,
etc.).

R Chart: In this chart, the sample

ranges are plotted in order to control
the variability of a variable.

S Chart: In this chart, the sample

standard deviations are plotted in
order to control the variability of a
variable.

S**2 Chart: In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in order to control
the variability of a variable.

For controlling quality characteristics that represent attributes of the product, the
following charts are commonly constructed:

C Chart: In this chart, the number of

defectives

(per

batch,

per

day, per

machine, per 100 feet of pipe, etc.) are

plotted. This chart assumes that defects of
the quality attribute are rare, and the
control limits in this chart are computed
based on the Poisson distribution (distribution of rare events).

U Chart: In this chart, the

rate of

defectives, that is, the number of defectives

divided by the number of units inspected
(the n; e.g., feet of pipe, number of
batches) are plotted. Unlike the C chart,
this chart does not require a constant
number of units, and it can be used, for example, when the batches (samples)
are of different sizes.

Np Chart: In this chart, the number of defectives (per batch, per day, per
machine) are plotted, as seen in the C chart. However, the control limits in
this chart are not based on the distribution of rare events, but rather on the
binomial distribution. Therefore, this chart
should be used if the occurrence of
defectives is not rare (e.g., they occur in
more than 5% of the units inspected). For
example, we may use this chart to control
the number of units produced with minor
flaws.

P Chart: In this chart, the percent of

defectives

(per

batch,

per

day, per

machine, etc.) are plotted, as seen in the

U chart. However, the control limits in this
chart are not based on the distribution of
rare events but rather on the binomial
distribution (of proportions). Therefore, this chart is most applicable to
situations where the occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g., we expect the
percent of defectives to be more than 5% of the total number of units
produced).
Sample Size and Subgrouping
There are a few key conditions that must be met when constructing control charts:

The initial predictions for the process must be made while the process is
assumed to be stable. Because future process quality will be compared to
these predictions, they must be based off of a data set that is taken while the
operation is running properly.

Multiple subsets of data must be collected, where a subset is simply a set of n

measurements taken over a specific time range. The number of subsets is

represented as k. A subset average, subset standard deviation, and subset

range will be computed for each subset.

From these subsets, a grand average, an average standard deviation, and an

average range are calculated. The grand average is the average of all subset
averages. The average standard deviation is simply the average of subset
standard deviations. The average range is simply the average of subset
ranges.

The upper and lower control limits for the process can then be determined from this
data:

Future data taken to determine process stability can be of any size. This is
because any point taken should fall within the statistical predictions. It is
assumed that the first occurrence of a point not falling within the predicted
limits shows that the system must be unstable since it has changed from the
predictive model.

The subsets are defined, based on the data and the process. For example, if
you were using a pH sensor, the sensor would most likely output pages of
data daily. If you know that your sensor has the tendency to drift every day,
you might select a 30 minute subset of data. If it drifts monthly you might set
your subset to be 24 hours or 12 hours.

Finally, the population size N is assumed to be infinite. Alternatively, if the

population is finite but the sample size is less than 5% of the population size,
we can still approximate the population to be near infinite. That is, n/N <=
0.05 where n is the sample size and N is the population size.

Control Limits vs. Specification Limits

Control limits indicate the limits of variability, in a process under control, which we
would expect from its past history. These limits often apply to subgroups (e.g. subgroup
mean). Specification limits, on the other hand, are externally imposed by the customer.
These limits apply to individual units.
Control Limits

Specification Limits

Variation in the process

Requirement of the customer

Noise of the process

Voice of the customer

Limits

Limits

changes

with

setting,

correction, process change, etc.

Indicates capability

changes

only

when

customer wishes to change

Indicates requirement

Steps in Constructing Control Charts

Collect the data

Calculate sub-group average

Calculate overall average

Calculate the range

Compute average of range

Calculate control limit for X and R

Plot the chart

Interpret the chart if it indicates process stability or process capability.

Process Stability

Look at the pattern of variation

Should be random and not a
systematic pattern
Look for presence of special
causes
Five Rules of Special Cause
Identification

Process Capability

Establish process variation

Compare with specification
and
establish
process
capability

Stable Process
This chart indicates process bounces about its center in a random fashion or
variation and has no systematic pattern. Therefore, no action is required.

Unstable Process
The quality of the individual points
of a subset is determined unstable if any
of the following occurs:

Rule 1: Any point falls beyond 3 from the centerline (this is represented by
the upper and lower control limits).

Rule 2: Two out of three consecutive points fall beyond 2 on the same side
of the centerline.

Rule 3: Four out of five consecutive points fall beyond 1 on the same side of
the centerline.

Rule 4: Nine or more consecutive points fall on the same side of the
centerline.

The quality of a subset is determined unstable according to the following rules:

Any subset value is more than three standard deviations from the centerline.

Two consecutive subset values are more than two standard deviations from
the centerline and are on the same side of the centerline.

Three consecutive subset values are more than one standard deviation from
the centerline and are on the same side of the centerline.

Five Rules of Special Cause Identification in Control Charts

Rule 1: Points beyond Control Limit =

Presence of special cause; Identify root
cause and take action.

Rule 2: Run of Seven Points on One Side

of Central Line = Presence of special
cause; Process has shifted.

Rule 3: Six Consecutive Points Increasing or Decreasing = Presence of

special cause; Process is deteriorating.

Rule 4: Periodicity = Presence of special

cause;

Periodic

interference

in

the

process.

Rule 5: Fourteen Consecutive Points

Alternating Up & Down = Presence of
special cause; Identify root cause and
take action.

References:

Control chart, Wikipedia Article

Walter A. Shewhart, Wikipedia Article

Chapter 13: Control Charts, Chance Encounters by C.J. Wild and G.A.F. Seber

Quality Control Charts: Statistic Textbook

Statistical Process Control: Basic Control Charts by Chris Bauman, Jennifer De

Heck, Evan Leonard, and Merrick Miranda

Control Charts as a Productivity Improvement Tool in Construction by Joseph

Hubert Ault

Quality Control Circle and Its Concepts with Seven Tools by M. Ganesh Murugan