Research Defined

Polit and Hungler (1999) a systematic search for

and validation of knowledge about issues of
importance to the nursing profession
Burns and Grave (1997) as being concerned with
the knowledge that directly and indirectly influences
clinical practice
Nieswiadowmy (2004) a systematic, objective
process of analyzing phenomena important to
nursing

Clinical Nursing Research

- Involves clients/studies that have the
potential for affecting the care of clients
- Systematic and involves steps
Sources of Nursing Knowledge
1. Tradition handing down of knowledge from
one generation to another
2. Authority experts/authorities provide
knowledge for other people
3. Trial and error if one does not work,
another one will be tried
4. Intuition a way of identifying, interpreting
5. Reflection turning thoughts inward
6. Disciplined research most objective and
reliable; uses scientific approach
Purposes:
1. Pure/Basic generate new knowledge
a. Isaacs Law of Motion
2. Applied use knowledge to solve immediate
problems
a. To study the application of various
methods of contraception determine
the effectiveness of each method
3. Action findings are limited to settings
actually studied
a. Application of quality accessories to
improve nursing care to clients in a
particular unit
Specific Purposes if Nursing Research

Description identifying the nature and

attributes of nursing phenomena
Explanation clarifying the relationships
among phenomenon
Prediction estimating the probability of a
specific outcome in a given situation
Control manipulating a situation to produce
a desired outcome

Significance of Research in Nursing

Evidence-Based Nursing Practice
Credibility of the Nursing Profession
Accountability for nursing practice
Documentation of the cost-effectiveness of
nursing care
Roles of Nurses in Research
1. Principal researcher
2. Members of the research team
3. Identifiers of a research problem
4. Evaluator of research findings
5. Users of research findings
6. Patient/client advocate
7. Subject in studies
Paradigms and Methods for Nursing Research
Paradigm a worldview, a general perspective on
the complexities of the real world, with certain
assumptions about reality
1. Positivist Assumption reality exists, there is
a real world driven by natural causes
a. Researcher is independent from those
being studied
b. Values are held in check, objectivity is
sought
c. Quantitative
2. Naturalist Assumption reality is multiple
and subjective and is constructed by
individuals
a. Inquirer interacts with those being
studied, findings reflect this
interaction

b. Subjectivity and values are inevitable,

desirable
c. Qualitative
Positivist
Naturalist
Fixed design
Flexible desig
Discrete, specific concepts
Holistic
Deductive processes
Inductive proc
Control not context
Context boun
Verification of hunches
Encouraging i
Quantitative
Qualitative
Seeks generalizations
Seeks pattern
Quantitative Research
- Objective
- Hard science
- Used to test theories
- There can be overlapping of steps and some
shifting back and forth between steps
- Steps:
o Identifying the problem
o Determine purpose of study
o Review of literature
o Develop theoretical/conceptual
framework
o Identify the study assumptions
Universal assumption
Assumption based on research
A common sense assumption
o Acknowledge limitation of study
o Formulate the hypothesis
o Define terms
o Select the research designs
o Identify the population
o Select sample
o Conduct study
- Major Classes
o Experimental
o Nonexperimental
Qualitative Research
- Subjective
- Soft science
- Used to develop theories
- Major Classes:

o Grounded theory
o Phenomenology
o Ethnography
Quantitative
Subject
Study participant
Concepts, constructs, variables
Data (numeric values)
Relationships
Reliability, validity

Clearly identifies the variables under

consideration
Specifies the population being tested
Implies possibility of empirical theory

o
o
Qualitative
Informant
Study participant
Components of a Research Problem
Concepts, constructs,
phenomenal
- Variables
o A characteristic/quality that takes on
Data (narrative)
Patterns of association
different values i.e. that varies from
Trustworthiness
one person to the next
o e.g. blood type, weight, length of stay
Research Problems and Hypotheses
in the hospital
Research Problem
o Types
- Problem statement
Continuous (height/weight) vs
- Presents the questions to be asked in the
Categorical (marital status,
study
gender)
- Foundation of the research study
Attribute variable
Hypotheses
(nonexperimental, descriptive)
- Attempts to answer the question posed by
vs Created variable
the research problem
(experimental, manipulated)
o Answerable by (+) or (-)
Independent vs Dependent
- Considered an intelligent hunch,
guesses/predictions to help researchers seek
Independent Variable (X)
the solution/answer to their research
- Variable that researcher manipulates in
question
experimental research
Elements
- Not manipulated in non-experimental, occurs
- Aim/purpose of the problem for investigation
naturally before/during the study
- Subject matter/topic to be investigated
Dependent Variable (Y)
- The place or locale where the research is to
- Not manipulated
be conducted
- Based on changes made to the independent
- The period/time of the study during which
variable in experimental
the data are to be gathered
- Variable that the researcher is interested in
- Population, universe from whom the data to
understanding, explaining, or predicting
be collected
Definitions of Concepts and Variables
Evaluating Research Problems
- Conceptual definition the
- Significance
abstract/theoretical definition of a concept
- Researchability of the problem
- Operation definition operations
- Feasibility of addressing the problem
(measurements) a researcher must perform
- Interest to the researcher
to collect the desired information
- Development of a research problem
The fully developed research problem
Population
- May be written on declarative/interrogative
- Must be specified in the research problem
form
- May also be implied
- A good research problem exhibits

Testability
- Measured by either qualitative
Hypotheses
- States a prediction
- Must always involve at least 2 variables
- Must suggest a predicated relationship
between the independent variable and the
dependent variable
- Must contain terms that indicate a
relationship (e.g. more than, different from,
associated with)
Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis
- explicit and expressed in experimental
- seldom expressed if not entirely absent
- usually stated in the null form for testing
- formulated from the specific questions upon
which they are based
Simple vs Complex Hypothesis
Simple expresses a predicated relationship
between one dependent variable and one
independent variable
Complex states a predicated relationship between
2 or more independent variables
Directional predicts direction of relationship
Non-directional predicts existence of a relationship
Research actual prediction of a relationship
Statistical/Null absence of a relationship
Relationship
- cause and effect (causal)
- functional (associative)
Phases in Quantitative Research
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
1. Formulating/Delimiting the problem
2. RRL
3. Understanding fieldwork
4. Defining the framework and developing
conceptual definitions
5. Formulating hypothesis
Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase

6. Selecting a research hypothesis

7. Developing intervention control
8. Identifying the population
9. Designing the sampling plan
10. Specifying methods to measure variables
and collect data
11. Developing methods to protect human and
animals rights
12. Finalizing the research plan
Phase 3: Empirical Phase
13. Collecting the data
14. Preparing data for analysis
Phase 4: Analytic Phase
15. Analyzing Data
16. Interpreting results
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
17. Communicating Findings
18. Utilizing findings
Major Methodological Challenges
Quantitative
a. Reliable
b. Valid
Qualitative
a. Trustworthy
Internal validity
- Recognition that when it is associated with
experimental design, it refers to how well the
study was run
External validity
- Extent to which a studys result (regardless
of whether the study is descriptive or
experimental) can be generalized or applied
to other people or settings
Bias influence producing a distortion in study
results
a. Lack of participant candor
b. Faulty methods of data collection
c. Researchers preconception
d. Faulty study design
Research Control in Quantitative Studies

Achieved by holding constant factors

(extraneous variables) that influence the
dependent variable, to better understand its
relationship with the independent variable
Randomness an important tool for
achieving control over extraneous variables
Generalizability (Qty.) - the extent to which
study findings are valid for other groups not
in the study
Transferability (Qlty.) the extent to which
goal findings can be transferred to other
settings

Reading Research Reportd

Types:
- Oral reports
- Poster sessions
- Journal article
Content of Journal Article
Abstract:
- Introduction
- Method Section
- Results and
- Discussion
- References
RA 9173 legalities of nursing practice
Beneficence above all, do no harm
Right to protection from harm and
discomfort
a. Beneficence maximize good
b. Non-maleficence minimize harm
Right from exploitation
Principle to Respect for Human Dignity
Right to self-determination (absence of
coercion)
Right to full disclosure (absence of
perception/concealment)
Principle of Justice
Right to fair treatment
Right to privacy
Types of Searches in Electrical Databases

Subject search for topics/keywords

Textword search for specific words
Author search for authors
Types of Integrative Literature Review
1. Traditional narrative review
2. Meta-analysis
3. Meta-synthesis
Sampling Plans:
Population aggregate of a population in which a
researcher is interested
Sampling selection of a portion of a population to
represent the population
Eligibility criteria characteristics that define the
population
- Inclusion criteria
- Exclusion criteria
Strata subpopulation of a population (e.g. male or
female)
Target Population entire population of interest
Accessible Population portion of the target
population that is accessible to the researcher
Types of Sampling Plan
1. Probability Sampling involves random
selection of elements, each element has an
equal, independent chance of being selected
a. Simple random sampling
i. Uses a sampling frame a list
of all population elements
ii. Involves random selection if
elements from a sampling
frame
iii. Not to be confused with
random assignment to groups
in experiments
iv. Cumbersome, not used in
large, national surveys
b. Stratified random sampling
i. Divided into strata, then
random sections from
stratified sampling

ii. Enhances representativeness

iii. Can sample proportionally or
disproportionally from the
strata (cluster or multistaging)
iv. Successive random sampling
of units from larger to smaller
v. Widely used in national
surveys
2. Non-probability Sampling
a. Convenience
i. Most commonly available
ii. Most widely used approach
iii. Vulnerable to sampling biases
b. Snowball
i. Referrals from other people
already in a sample
ii. Used to identify people with
distinct characteristics
iii. Used by both qty. and qlty.
researches
c. Quota
i. Another sampling within a
specified strata of a population

ii. Ensures representativeness of

a population
iii. Infrequently used
d. Purposive
i. Sample members are handpicked by researchers to
achieve certain goals
ii. Used more often by qualitative
than quantitative researchers
iii. Can be used in quantitative
studies to select experts or
attain other goals
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Measurement
- Assignment of a # to represent the amount
of an attribute present in an object or
person, using specific rules
Advantages
- Removes guesswork
- Promotes information
- Less vague than words
Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal Measurement assign number to

classify characteristics
2. Ordinal ranks objects based on their
relative standing in an attribute
3. Interval occurs when objects are ordered
on a scale that has equal distances between
points on the scale
4. Ratio occurs when there are equal distance
between several variables and there is a
natural, significant zero
Problem Statement Format
1. Correlational Statement
a. Format is there a correlation
between x and y?
2. Comparative
a. Descriptive study format is there a
difference in Y between people who
have X characteristics and people
who do not have X characteristics
3. Experimental
a. Format is there a difference in Y
between group A who received X and
group B who did not receive X