Over-current and Earth Fault Protection

Introduction
As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is
more than load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is
reduced to a low value and therefore a fault is accompanied by large current.
Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up
when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.
The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay.
The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means
of CT's.
Over-current relaying has following types:
1. High speed Over-current protection.
2. Definite time Over-current protection.
3. Inverse minimum time Over-current protection.
4. Directional Over-current protection (of above types).
Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is
most widely used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment
generally) means the machine is taking more current than its rated current.
Hence with overloading, there is an associated temperature rise. The
permissible temperature rise has a limit based on insulation class and
material problems.
Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a
be phase faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are
generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance
is always desirable on short-circuits.
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is
provided in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine
from sustained through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these
include:
1. Fuses
2. Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by overcurrent relays.
3. Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
4. Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.
The primary requirements of over-current protection are:

The protection should not operate for starting currents,

permissible over-current, and current surges. To achieve this,
the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). If time
delay cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous relaying is
used.
The protection should be coordinated with neighboring overcurrent protections so as to discriminate.

Applications of Over-current Protection

Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied

where there is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected
section and that outside the protected section and these magnitudes are
almost constant.

The over-current protection is provided for the following:

Motor Protection
Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against
overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and
instantaneous phase and ground over-current relays can be employed for
motors above 1200 H.P. For small/medium size motors where cost of CT's
and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC
fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload protection and HRC
fuses for short-circuit protection.

Transformer Protection
Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only,
when the cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, overcurrent relays are provided in addition to differential relays to take care of
through faults. Temperature indicators and alarms are always provided for
large transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are
generally protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuitbreakers is not generally justified Line Protection.
The lines (feeders) can be protected by
(1)
Instantaneous over-current relays.
(2)
Inverse time over-current relays.
(3)
Directional over-current relay.
Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.
Protection of Utility Equipment
The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic
equipment are all provided with over-current protection.

Relays used in Over-current Protection

The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time /
current characteristic and other features desired. The following relays are
used.
1. For instantaneous over-current protection. Attracted armature type,
moving iron type,
permanent magnet moving coil type and static.

2. For inverse time characteristic. Electromagnetic induction type,

permanent magnet
moving coil type and static.
3. Directional over-current protection. Double actuating quantity induction
relay
with directional feature.
4. Static over-current relays.
5. HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage
and high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.
6. Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.
Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types
Characteristics of relay units for over current protection
There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their
type and characteristics. The major characteristic includes:
1. Definite characteristic
2. Inverse characteristic
3. Extremely Inverse
4. Very Inverse
In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e.

I0 * T = K
Where:
I = Current in relay coil
T = Relay lime
K = Constant.
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e.

I1 * T = K
In more inverse characteristic

In * T = K
Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired.
Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which
operate in less than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they
are not instantaneous in real sense.
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such
relays are provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss.
bellows, escape mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.
The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating
quantity can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer.
The typical characteristics are shown in (Fig. 1)
An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the

magnitude of the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher

magnitudes of actuating quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is
one in which operating time is little affected by magnitude of actuating
current. However even definite time relay has a characteristic which is
slightly inverse
The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also
called Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).

(Fig.1) Inverse Definite Minimum Time

(IDMT) characteristics

Nex
t

Principle of trip circuit

Referring to (Fig. 2) the three current transformers and relay coils connected
in star and the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the
protected zone the secondary current of CT's increases.
These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay
contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breakeroperates The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays
(Fig. 2) responds to phase faults and earth faults including single-phase to
earth fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase
to phase and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.
For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of
CT's and polarity connections should be correct.

Fig.2) Over Current protection

with three phase OC relays

Methods of CT Connections in Over-current Protection of 3-Phase

Circuits

Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current

relays

or

by

two

over-current

relays

(See

Table 1
Fig
1

Description

Note

One OC with
For balanced
one CT for over load only.
load protection.

Two OC relays
with two CT's
for phase to
phase fault
protection.

Three OC
relays with
three CT's for
phase to phase
fault
protection.

EF current >
two time
pick-up
phase
current

Three OC
relays with
three CT's for
phase to phase
fault protection
and phase to
earth fault.

EF setting
less than
phase fault
setting

Two OC and
one EF relays
for phase to
phase and
phase to earth
fault protection

Table

1).

Earth-Fault Protection

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth
Fault. Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since
earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most
cases. When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase
relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection lacks
sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth
fault protection senses earth fault current. Following are the method of earth
fault protection.

Connections of CT's for Earth-fault Protection

1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay

Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line
currents is zero. Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.

IR+I Y +I B =0
The sum (IR+I Y +I B ) is called residual current
The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows
through it (Figs.3 and Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate.
However, in presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and
(IR+I Y +I B ) is no more zero. Hence flows through the earth-fault relay.
If the residual current is above the pick-up value, the earth-fault relay
operates.
In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away
from the location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the
protected
zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection

(Fig.3) Earth-fault Relay connected in Residual

Circuit.

(Fig.4) Earth fault protection

combined with phase fault protection

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2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit (Fig. 5).

Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig 5. The relay
is connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth
connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by
connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection of that voltage
level. The fault current finds the return path through the earth and then flows
through the neutral-to-earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is
dependent on type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of
fault. In this type of protection,
The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The protected area is
not restricted to the transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses
the earth faults
beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such protection is called
unrestricted earth-fault protection. The earth-fault protection by relay in

neutral to earth circuit depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of
large generators, voltage transformer is connected between neutral and earth

(Fig. 5) Earth-fault protection by earthfault-relay connected

in neutral-to-earth circuit.

Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection

It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and earth-fault relay in a

combined phase-fault and earth-fault protection. (Fig. 4) The increase in
current of phase causes corresponding increase in respective secondary
currents. The secondary current flows through respective relay-units Very
often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three, because in case of
phase faults current in any at least two phases must increase. Hence two
relay-units are enough.
Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current Transformers. (Zero
Sequence CT)
In this type of protection (Fig. 6) a single ring shaped core of magnetic
material, encircles the conductors of all the three phases. A secondary coil
is connected to a relay unit. The cross-section of ring-core is

(Fig.6) Principle of corebalance CT for earth fault

protection
Ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no-earth-fault condition,
the components of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are balanced
and the secondary current is negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is
disturbed and current is induced in the secondary. Core-balance protection
can be conveniently used for protection of low-voltage and medium voltage
systems. The burden of relays and exciting current are deciding factors. Very
large cross-section of core is necessary for sensitivity less than 10 A. This
form of protection is likely to be more popular with static relays due to the
fewer burdens of the latter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with
core balance schemes.

Theory of Core Balance CT

. Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and a, b and c be

corresponding components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity,
we get resultant flux as,

=k (Ia

Ib + I c )

where k is a constant = K * Ia. Referring to theory of symmetrical

components

(Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in neutral to ground
circuit. During normal condition, when earth fault is absent,

(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0
Hence r = 0 and relay does not operate
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path.

For example for single line ground fault,

If = 3Iao = In
Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the resultant flux r in
the core. Hence core balance current transformer is also called as zero
sequence current transformers (ZSCT).
Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable Termination Joints
The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is
through cable terminal box. Ref. (Fig. 7), the Core Balance Protection is used
along with the cable box and should be installed before making the cable
joint.
The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable
needs particular attention with respect to the core balance protection.
The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover of cable-box
and then to earth through the earthing connection between cable-box. For
eliminating the error due to sheath current (Ish) the earthing lead between the
cable-box and the earth should be taken through the core of the core balance
protection.
Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box should
be insulated from earth.
1. Cable terminal box
2. Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1)
3. Insulator support for 1
4. Earthing connection passing through 5
5. Core balance CT

Fig (7) Mounting of Core

Balance CT with Cable
Terminal Box
Frame-leakage Protection
The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The
switchgear is lightly y insulated from the earth. The metal-frame-work or
enclosure of the switchgear is earthed with a primary of a CT in between (Fig.
8).
The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes and other
conduits are slightly insulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about
12 ohms. In the event of an earth fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault
current finds the' path through the neutral connection. While doing so, it is
sensed by the earth fault relay.

(Fig. 8) Principle of frame-leakage

protection
of metal-clad-switchgear
Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-faults within
its protected zone.

Earth-fault protection can be achieved by following methods:

1. Residually connected relay.
2. Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit.
3. Core-balance-scheme.
4. Frame leakage method.
5. Distance relays arranged for detecting earth faults on lines.
6. Circulating current differential protection.

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Directional Over-current Protection

The over-current protection can be given d irectional feature by adding
directional element in the protection system. Directional over-current
protection responds to over-currents for a particular direction flow. If power
flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-current protection
remains un-operative.
Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power
directional relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does not
measure the power but is arranged to respond to the direction of power flow.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved
by directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in
which fault occurs, relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it
actuates for faults occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults
occurring in the other direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing

through sub-section B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided with a directional

(Fig. 9) Principle of directional protection

Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C
alone. Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip
unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power
protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator
continues to run as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.

(Fig. 10) Reverse powers

protection against motoring
action of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of
power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in
relation to the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in
construction than directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure
the magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in
Reverse Power Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and
direction of power flow.

Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current

Relay :
The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected
to a secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected
to a line VT, having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common
methods of connecting the relay depending upon phase angle between

current in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil.

Fig.11 Numerical Over

current, and Overload
Protection Relay

3-Phase Directional over current relays

When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it
is necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the
introduction of directional control elements. These are basically power
measuring devices in which the system voltage is used as a reference for
establishing the relative direction or phase of the fault current.
Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to
respond to the actual system power for a number of reasons:
1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault
power factor is usually low. A relay

V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system

voltages

V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault

location on faulted phases
V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote
from fault location
Fig.12 Phase voltages for a
B-C fault

Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high

torque and might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit.
When the fault is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across
the short-circuited points which are reduced. So a BC phase fault
will cause the B and C phase voltage vectors to move together, the
locus of their ends being the original line be for a homogeneous
system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across
the fault, but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to
neutral voltage. At other points in the system the vector displacement will
be less, but relays located at such points will receive voltages which are
unbalanced in their value and phase position.
The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the
torques developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even
differ in sign if the quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully.
To this end, each phase of the relay is polarized with a voltage which will
not be reduced excessively except by close three-phase faults, and which
will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the current under all
conditions.

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Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities
are applied to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the
phase angle, at unity system power factor, by which the current and
voltage applied to the relay are displaced.
Relay maximum torque
The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the
current applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to
the relay to produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic
can be varied by the addition of phase shifting components to give
maximum torque at the required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are
discussed below. Examination of the suitability of each arrangement

involves determining the limiting conditions of the voltage and current

applied to each phase element of the relay, for all fault conditions, taking
into account the possible range of source and line impedances.
30 relay connection (0 MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage V ac. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied V ac voltage by 90, so the
maximum torque occurs when the current lags the system phase to
neutral voltage by 30. For unity power factor and 0 .5 lagging power factor
the maximum torque available is 0 .866 of maximum. Also, the potential
coil voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30 and gives a tripping
zone from 60 leading to 120 lagging currents, as shown in (Fig. 13a).
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that
ensures correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders,
is 0, and it can be shown that a directional element having this
connection and 0 MTA will provide correct discrimination for all types of
faults, when applied to plain feeders
If applied to transformer feeders , however, there is a danger that at least
one of the three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse
direction; for this reason a directional element having this connection
should never be used to protect transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory
under all conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements
are employed. When only two phase elements and an earth fault element
are used there is a probability of failure to operate for one condition. An
inter-phase short circuit causes two elements to be energized but for low
power factors one will receive inputs which, although correct, will
produce only a poor torque. In particular a BC fault will strongly
energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C element
will receive Ic and the collapsed V cb voltage, which quantities have a large
relative phase displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory
provided that three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two
phase and one earth fault element relay, with the B phase element
omitted, operation will depend upon the C element, which may fail to
operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.

A phase element connected

l a Va c
B phase element
connected l b Vb a
C phase element
connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and
inputs
for phase A element

(b)

B-C Fault with voltage

distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams

for the 30 connection

60 No. 1 connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90,
so maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase
to neutral voltage by 60. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with
delta current produced by adding phase A and phase B currents at unity
power factor, gives a current leading the voltage Vac by 60, and provides a
correct directional tripping zone over a current range of 30 leading to
150 lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of maximum torque
and at zero power factor lagging 0 .866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this
relay connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional
discrimination with the minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to
either plain or transformer feeders, is 0.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility
of the element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed
BC fault.

A phase element connected lab

Va c
B phase element connected I b c
Vba
C phase element connected Ic a
Vc b
(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60
No. 1 connection
(phase A element)
However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is
unlikely that the over current element which the directional element
controls will receive sufficient current to cause it to operate. For this
reason the connection may be safely recommended for the protection of
plain feeders.
When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the

directional elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of a

delta/star transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to
occur, the source impedance would have to be relatively small and have a
very low angle at the same time that the arc resistance of the fault was
high. The possibility of mal-operation with this connection is very remote,
for two reasons: first, in most systems the source impedance may be
safely assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if the arc resistance
is high enough to cause mal-operation of the directional element it is
unlikely that the over current element associated with the mal-operation
directional element will see sufficient current to operate.
The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is
necessary to connect the current transformers in delta, which usually
precludes their being used for any other protective function. For this
reason, and also because it offers no advantage over the 90 connection,
it is rarely used.

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60 No. 2 connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the
flux of the voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90 so the maximum
torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral
voltage by 60. This connection gives

A phase element connected

Ia Vc
B phase element connected
Ib Va
C phase element connected

Ic Vb
(Fig.15) Vector diagram
for the 60 No. 2
connection
(phase A element).
a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30 leading to
150 lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of the relay
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0 .866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element using
this connection is 0. However, even if this maximum torque angle is
used, there is a risk of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the
exception of three-phase faults. For this reason, the 60 No. 2 connection
is now never recommended.

A phase element connected Ia

Vbc
B phase element connected Ib
Vca
C phase element connected Ic
Vab
(Fig.16) Vector diagram for
the 90- 30 connection
(Phase A element)
90 relay quadrature connection
This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay; depending on the
angle by which the applied voltage is shifted to produce the relay
maximum torque angle, two types are available.
90- 30 characteristic (30 MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage displaced by

30 in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage

coil lags the applied voltage Vbc by 60, and the relay maximum torque is
produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
60. This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
current range of 30 leading to 150 lagging; see (Fig.16). The relay torque
at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power
factor lagging 0.866. A relay designed .for quadrature connection and
having a maximum torque angle of 30 is recommended when the relay is
used for the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source
behind the relaying point.
90- 45 characteristic (45 MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vbc displaced by
45 in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage
coil lags the applied voltage V bc by 45, and the relay maximum torque is
produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
45. This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
current range of 45 leading to 135 lagging.
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .707 of the maximum torque and
the same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected

Ia ,Vbc
B phase element connected Ih
Vca
C phase element connected Ic
Vab
(Fig.17) Vector diagram for
the 90-45 connection
(Phase A element)
This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer feeders
or feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of the relay. The
90- 45 connection is essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or
transformer feeders, in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults
beyond the star/ delta transformer. This connection should also be used

whenever single-phase directional relays are applied to a circuit

Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of the
directional element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain feeder, a
phase-ground fault on a transformer feeder with the zero sequence source
in front of the relay and a phase-phase fault on a power transformer with
the relay looking into the delta winding of the transformer.
It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to
establish the maximum angular displacement between the current and
voltage quantities at the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of
the current input to the relay would be insufficient to cause the over
current element to operate. It can be shown analytically that the
possibility of mal-operation with the 90 - 45 connection is, for all practical
purposes, non-existent.

(Fig.18) Directional relays applied

to parallel feeders.

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Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that
might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used,
isolate both lines and completely disconnect the power supply. With this
type of system configuration it is necessary to apply directional relays at
the receiving end and to grade them with the non-directional relays at the
sending end, to ensure correct discriminative operation of the relays
during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional relays R'1 and
R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into the
protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings than

relays R1 and R2. The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of
the normal full load of the protected circuit and 0 .1 TMS, but care must be
taken to ensure that their continuous thermal rating of twice rated current
is not exceeded.

Ring mains
Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of
a ring main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the
mid-point substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be
made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are
located on the same feeder, that is, one at each end of the feeder.
It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is
an even number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the
same substation and will have to be directional, whereas when the number
of feeders is an odd number, the two relays with the same operating time
are at different substations and therefore do not need to be directional.
It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the
operating times of the relays at each substation are different, the
difference between their operating times is never less than the grading
margin, so the relay with the longer operating time can be non-directional.
Grading of ring mains
The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to
open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise
and then anti-clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise
direction round the ring are arranged to operate in the sequence 1234
56 and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise direction are arranged to
operate in the sequence 1'2'3'4'5'6', as shown in (Fig.19)

(Fig.19) Grading of ring mains

The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of
current flow that will cause the relays to operate.
A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as
those at the supply point where the power can flow only in one direction,
and a single-headed arrow a directional relay, such as those at
intermediate substations around the ring where the power can flow in
either direction. The directional relays are set in accordance with the
invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional protection that the
current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars into the
protected line in order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault
current direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two
parallel paths and divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances.
Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made
inoperative because of the direction of current flow, and the other set
operative. It will also be found that the operating times of the relays that
are inoperative are faster than those of the operative relays, with the
exception of the mid-point substation, where the operating times of relays
3 and 3' happen to be the same.

The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault
and the last to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both
paths to the fault. Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be
disconnected from the ring and the power supply is maintained to all the
substations.
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over
current protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be
possible. With two sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first
is to open the ring at one of the supply points, whichever is more
convenient, by means of a suitable high set instantaneous over-current
relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single
infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two supply
points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a
unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to
grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed.

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Directional Earth-Fault Protection

In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is
actuated from secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of
directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual current.
In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of
line VT. In directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the
residual voltage. Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which
earth fault occurs with respect to the relay location and it operates for fault in
a particular direction. The directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has
two coils. The polarizing quantity is obtained either from residual current

I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)
or residual voltage

VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages.

Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to
the coils is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets
current during earth-faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,

V = Va + V b + Vc
RS

Where V a , V b a n d V c are secondary voltages of the potential transformer

('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase
potential transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in
potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.

(Fig. 20) Connections of a

directional earth-fault relay.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current
coil and the residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The
torque is proportional to

T = I RS * V RS * cos ( - )
= angle between I RS and VRs
= angle of maximum torque.

Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up
value over-currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer.
The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic,
definite time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line
to ground faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in
neutral to ground circuit or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to
fault in which power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations.
Such directional relays are used when power can flow from both directions to
the fault point.

Co-ordination

Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that
can flow in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally
impracticable, system analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to
use machine transient reactance X' d and to work on the instantaneous
symmetrical currents. The data required for a relay setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the
type and rating of the protective devices and their associated

current transformers.
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents
that are expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting
and stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault
current supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the
shortest operating times at maximum fault levels and then
checked to see if operation will also be satisfactory at the
minimum fault current expected. It is always advisable to plot
the curves of relays and other protective devices, such as
fuses, that are to operate in series, on a common scale. It is
usually more convenient to use a scale corresponding to the
current expected at the lowest voltage base or to use the
predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common
MVA base or a separate current scale for each system voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally
be stated as follows:
10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating
characteristic in series with each other.
11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current
settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the
primary current required operating the relay in front is always equal
to or less than the primary current required operating the relay
behind it.
PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay coordination are those using either time or over current or a combination of
both time and over-current. The common aim of all three methods is to give
correct discrimination. That is to say, each one must select and isolate
only the faulty section of the power system network, leaving the rest of the
system undisturbed.
1. Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays
controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that the
breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A simple radial distribution system
is shown in (Fig. 21) to illustrate the principle.

(Fig. 21) Radial systems with

time discrimination
Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed
end of each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a
definite time delay over current relay in which the operation of the current
sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the
setting of the current element is below the fault current value this element
plays no part in the achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the
relay is sometimes described as an 'independent definite time delay relay'
since its operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level
of over current.
It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of
discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible
to allow a fuse to blow for a fault on the secondary side of trans-former A.
Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is adequate.
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the
subsequent operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before
the relays at C, D and E have time to operate. The main disadvantage of this
method of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for
faults in the section closest to the power source, where the fault level
(MVA) is highest.

1. Discrimination by current
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies
with the position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance
values between the source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays
controlling the various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably
tapered values such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its
breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.

(Fig. 22) Radial system with

current discrimination
For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1)

Where

Zs = source impedance = 11

/ 250 = 0.485 ohms

ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 ohms

Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A
So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault
current of 8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable
section between C and B. However, there are two important practical
points which affect this method of co-ordination.
1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a
fault at F 2, since the distance between these points can be
only a few meters, corresponding to a change in fault current
of approximately 0 .1%.
2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level,
typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault level
the fault current would not exceed 6800 A even for a cable
fault close to C, so a relay set at 8800 A would not protect any
of the cable section concerned.

Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for

correct grading between the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the
problem changes appreciably when there is significant impedance
between the two circuit breakers concerned. This can be seen by
considering the grading required between the circuit breakers at B and A in
(Fig. 22).

Assuming a fault at F 4, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)

Where
ZS = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0 .485 ohms
ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms
ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA
transformer 0.04 ohms
ZT = transformer impedance
=0.07(112/4) =2.12 ohms
Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to
operate at a current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a
fault at F 4 and would thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a
safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further 10% for
variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a
relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B. Now,
assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4
MVA transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)

I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:

I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.

In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would
operate correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the
transformer.

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Discrimination by both time and current

3 Discrimination by both time and current
Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental
disadvantage. In the case of discrimination by time alone, the
disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults are cleared in
the longest operating time. Discrimination by current can only be applied
where there is appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned.

It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of either

time or current co-ordination that the inverse time over current relay
characteristic has evolved. With this characteristic, the time of operation
is inversely proportional to the fault current level and the actual
characteristic is a function of both 'time' and 'current' settings.
The advantage of this method of relay
Co-ordination may be best illustrated by the system shown in (Fig.23)
which is identical to that shown in (Fig.21) except that typical system
parameters have been added.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study of
the system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system
impedances to a common base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference
base, we have:
4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4) =17.5%
11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%

11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %

30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %
132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%

1 3 2 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%

The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which
are an important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this
example, a voltage base of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve
plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which is assumed to protect the largest
outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating characteristic of the highest
rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the over current relays at
the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:
Substation B
CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
200A fuse at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA

That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of
the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and
4.76 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable
discrimination with the 200 A fuse is achieved.
Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:

(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA

That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics
of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and
9.52 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable
discrimination with the relay at substation B is achieved.

(Fig.23) Time and current grading

Substation D
CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay in substation C at fault levels up to

(10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA

That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics
of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and
34.2 MVA at 132 kV and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable
discrimination with the relay at substation C is achieved.
Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay
in substation D at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (0.36+ 0.29) = 1540 MVA

That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating
characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%,
that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9,
suitable discrimination with the relay at sub-station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the
times obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum
fault level reveals significant differences. These differences can be
summarized as follows:
Relay
B
C
D
E

Fault
level
(MVA)
98.7
123
1540
3500

Time from
Fig.12
(seconds)
0.25
0.65
1.05
1.45

Time from
Fig.14
(seconds)
0.07
0.33
0.07
0.25

These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse
time characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance
times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in
fault clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:
Relay

Fault
Time from
level
Fig.14
(MVA)
(seconds)
B
35.7
0.17
C
98.7
0.42
D
123
0.86
E
1540
0.39
To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average
operating time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its
maximum and minimum fault levels, and to compare these with the
operating time shown in (Fig.21) for the definite time over current relay.

Relay

Fault level
(Max./Min
MVA)

B
C
D
E

98.7/35.7
123/98.7
1540/123
3500/1540

Time from
Fig.14
(seconds)
(Max./ Min)
0.07/0.17
0.33/0.42
0.07/0.86
0.25/0.39

Average
time
(seconds)
0.12
0.375
0.465
0.32

This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault
level all along the system network the overall performance of the inverse
time over current relay is far superior to that of the definite over current
relay.
4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends
upon a number of factors:
1. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2. The overshoot time of the relay.
3. Errors.
4. Final margin on completion of operation.
A.
Circuit breaker interrupting time
The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely interrupted
the current before the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.
B.
Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer
until any stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction
disc relay will have stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static
relay circuits may have energy stored in capacitors. Relay design is
directed to minimizing and absorbing these energies, but some allowance
is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes place, but the time which would have been required by the
relay if still energized to achieve the same amount of operational advance.
C.
Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject
to some degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both
relays involved in the grading may have a positive or negative error, as
may the current transformers, which can have phase and ratio errors due
to the exciting current required to magnetize their core. This does not,
however, apply to independent definite time delay over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the
calibration curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to
be expected, some tolerance must be allowed.
D.

Final margin

After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must
just fail to complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin,
is required to ensure that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent)
remains.
E.
Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the
operating speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one
time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit
breakers and lower relay overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under
the best possible conditions 0.35s may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is
better to adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the
circuit breaker and relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value
that takes into account the relay errors, the CT errors and the safety
margin.
A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the
fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay
over-shoot time and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the
variable time values required, it is first assumed that each inverse time
over current relay complies with Error Class E7 .5 defined as normal British
practice in BS 142:1966.
The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are 7.5% but allowance should
also be made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from
reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective
error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to apply to the relay nearest to the fault,
which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for
the overall current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required
between inverse time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the
equation:
t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.
As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are
concerned, it is assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined
as normal British practice in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an
El 0 relay are 10%, but allowance should also be made for the effects of
temperature, voltage, frequency and departure from reference setting. A
practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 10, that is,
20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be
considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay,
it is not necessary to add a further error for the current transformers.
Hence, for the time interval t' required between independent definite time
delay over current relays, it is proposed to adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.

STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees
and (Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British
Standards Institution specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse
definite minimum time over current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of
such a relay to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the
assumed relay settings and the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the
permissible grading margin between the over current relays at each section
breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system fault current it is
desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the power source, in
order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the time
errors, which are in this situation disproportionately large when compared
with the clearance time of modern circuit breakers; this can only be
achieved by improving the limits of accuracy, pick-up and overshoot

(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy

set by BS 142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current
relay
NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE
ACCURACY CLASS E7.5%
TIME/CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC
ALLOWABLE LIMIT
At 2 times setting 222E
At 5 times setting 1.13E

At 10 times setting 1.01E

At 20 times setting 1.00E
NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms
All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of
the relay; in other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque
or weakening of the damper magnets or contact pressures, and the
construction must remain simple with the minimum number of moving
parts. While these requirements present considerable difficulties in
manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances, the
progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to
discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between both the current
and the time setting of the relays on adjacent breakers.

(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over

current relay to a sectioned

Radial feeder
These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power
source to be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the
number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.

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