From Darwin to Dolly

From
Darwin to Dolly
and Beyond
(1900-1950)
07/02
Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond
1900
rediscovery of Mendels laws
Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg

(Austrian botanist, geneticist; 1871-1962)
crosses with garden peas

independently rediscovered
laws of heredity developed
by Mendel
07/02
1900-01
alleles reflect changes in genes
Hugo Marie de Vries

(Dutch botanist; 1848-1935)
independently rediscovered the laws of heredity

developed by Mendel
noticed unpredictable changes that had occurred in
primroses and brought the concept of mutations into
evolutionary theory and genetics
advanced the thesis that species are not continuously
connected but arise through sudden large changes
07/02
1901
accessory chromosomes
Hermann Henking (German zoologist; 1858-1942)

C. E. McClung
Henking reported "a particular chromatin element"

(called X because function was unknown) in spermatozoa
of the fire bug
sees no relation to sex
McClung first to point out the relationship "sex
chromosome"
H. Henking, Z. Wiss. Zool., 5l (1890), quoted in C. E . McClung, 'The

Accessory Chromosome: Sex Determinant?"Biol. Bull, 3 (1902), 4384.
07/02
1902
inborn errors of metabolism
Archibald E. Garrod
(British physician; 1857-1936)
first to apply Mendelian thinking to several inherited

human metabolic disorders
surmised that human diseases such as alkaptonuria were
the result of "inborn errors of metabolism" caused by
genetic defects
first recognition of a role for genetics in biochemistry
importance of this pioneering work was little
appreciated for several decades
07/02
1902
Mendelian inheritance in poultry
William Bateson
(British biologist; 1861-1926)
Demonstrated for the first time that Mendel's rules also

apply to crosses with poultry
07/02
1902
Mendelian inheritance in mice
Lucien Cunot (French zoologist; 1866-1951)

With Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
Confirmed that Mendel's rules also apply to crosses with

mice.
07/02
1902
chromosome synapsis
Thomas Harrison Montgomery

(US zoologist; 1873-1912)
noticed the homologous pairing of maternal and paternal

chromosomes at synapsis prior to the reductive division
07/02
1902/3
chromosome theory of heredity
Walter Stanborough Sutton

(US geneticist; 1876-1916)
Theodor Boveri
(German zoologist; 1862-1915)
Pointed out the interrelationships between cytology and

Mendelism
closes the gap between cell morphology and heredity
07/02
1902/3
chromosome theory of heredity
Sutton observed chromosomal movements during

meiosis and homologous pairs of chromosomes in
grasshopper cells.
stated that chromosomes
are paired and may be the
carriers of heredity,
suggesting that Mendel's
"factors" are located on
chromosomes
egg and sperm cells receive only one chromosome from
each pair when they form during meiosis
this corroborated Mendel's theory that the genetic
"factors" are segregated
Boveri uses improved staining techniques and shows that
chromosomes are individual bodies
proves that each new cell has to receive a full set of these
threads for proper development
Sutton and Boveri propose that each egg or sperm cell
contains only one of each chromosome pair
chromosome theory connects two phemonema:
patterns by which pairs of Mendel's factors assort
themselves
precisely similar sorting and recombination of the
chromosomes in the formation of the germ cells and
the fertilization of the egg
07/02
10
1903
Mendelian heredity in humans
William Ernest Castle

(US biologist; 1867-1962)
Studies albinism in blacks
second confirmation
(after Garrod) that Mendel's
laws also apply to humans
07/02
11
1903
"BIOCHEMISTRY"
Carl Neuberg
(German biochemist; 1877-1956)
first used the term

biochemistry in his
inaugural lecture at the
university of Berlin
To say that a man is made up of

certain chemical elements is a
satisfactory description only for
those who intend to use him as
a fertilizer
Hermann Joseph Muller
Nobel prize for medicine 1946.
07/02
12
1903
"Cytogenetics"
Walter Stanborough Sutton

a field of investigation
incorporating genetics and cytology
concerned with the study of the behaviour of
chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis and their
relation to the transmission and recombination of
genes
07/02
13
1904 "Genetics";
Gene Linkage
William Bateson
(British biologist; 1861-1926)
demonstrates that some characteristics are not inherited

independently
This introduces the concept now called 'gene linkage'
Leads to the need for 'genetic maps' that describe the
order of the linked genes
coins a number of terms:

"allelomorphs" ("alleles") are Mendel's pairs of factors
(actually genes)
"heterozygote": the cell formed by the union of two
gametes, one recessive and one dominant
"homozygote":cells formed by similar gametes
In Bateson's inaugural address to the Third Conference on
Hybridization and Plant Breeding on July 31, 1906, he
suggested "...for the consideration of the Congress the
term 'genetics,' which sufficiently indicates that our
labours are devoted to the elucidation of the phenomena
of heredity and variation..
lists some 26 different cases of established
allelomorphism in wheat, maize, peas, snapdragon,
Datura, Oenothera, mouse, cattle, fowl, and man
07/02
14
1905
"diploid", "haploid"
Eduard Strasburger
(German botanist; 1844-1912)
Diploid
cells and organisms containing two homologous
chromosome sets (one paternal, one maternal) with
the exception of sex chromosomes.
Haploid
single set of chromosomes
07/02
15
1906
Male Is XY, Female Is XX
Edmund Beecher Wilson (US zoologist; 1856-1939)

Nettie Maria Stevens (US zoologist; 1861-1912)
Independently described that XX chromosomes determine

female; XY determine male
Nettie Stevens correlated the presence of two specific X

chromosomes in 92 species of female insects while males
have only one X
07/02
16
1906
Drosophila As Experimental Animal
William Ernest Castle (US biologist; 1867-1962)

Woodworth
introduced Drosophila as new experimental animal for

genetic studies.
07/02
17
1907
sex is a Mendelian trait
Carl Erich Correns

(German botanist, geneticist;
1864-1933)
Independently rediscovered the laws of heredity

developed by Mendel
Demonstrated that sex is a simple Mendelian trait
07/02
18
1909 "gene", "genotypes",

"phenotypes", "allele"
Wilhelm Johannsen
(Danish biologist; 1857-1927)
demonstrated that
natural selection cannot act on
genetically pure lines but can
only isolate existing genotypes.
natural selection can only
influence evolutionary
change if there is a source
of genetic variability
Johanssen left, Bateson right
Coined the terms

'gene' - carrier of heredity
'genotype' - genetic constitution of an organism
'phenotype' - caused by genotype and environmental
factors
allele - alternate form of a gene at the same
chromosome locus
Genetics: science studying transmission of traits

Embryology: science of the expression of those traits
07/02
19
1909
chromosome chiasmata
F. A. Janssens (1863 - 1924)
suggested that the chiasmata observed between synaptic

chromosomes could be taken as observational evidence
for the phenomenon of crossing over among linked genes,
although he could not prove it
07/02
20
1910/11
Drosophila Genetics, Recombination
Thomas Hunt Morgan (US geneticist; 1866-1945)

Nobel Prize 1933
Alfred Harry Sturtevant (US geneticist; 1891-1970)
Calvin Blackman Bridges (US geneticist; 1889-1938)
Hermann Joseph Muller (US geneticist; 1890-1967)
breeding experiments
cytological analyses
chromosomes behave very similarly to the ways in which

Mendel believed genes segregate and become randomly
assorted
genes for many character traits are arranged in a linear
fashion on each chromosome and created linear
chromosome maps in which each gene is assigned to a
specific position
07/02
21
1910/11
Drosophila Genetics, Recombination
different linkage groups

alleles (pairs of genes affecting the same trait)
interchange, or cross over, in the same linkage group
separation of certain inherited characteristics that are

usually linked are caused by the breaking of
chromosomes sometimes during the process of cell
division
existence of sex-linked genes (eye color, body color,

wing shape, sex)
07/02
22
1911
heterosis in maize, rice
G. H. Shull
"hybrid vigor"
heterozygous genotypes
are superior
heterosis, superiority or fitness has been measured

in different ways
increased total lifespan
increased rate of growth
greater average height or size at maturity
viability
reproductive fertility or fecundity
total yield
07/02
23
07/02
24
1912
polyploidy
A. M. Lutz
gigas mutation in the evening primrose contains twice the

usual chromosome number.
This led to the analysis and artificial production of
polyploidy.
REFERENCES: Lutz, AM Triploid mutants in Oenothera. Biologisches Centralblatt

32: 385 (1912)
07/02
25
1913
enzyme kinetics
Leonard Michaelis (American chemist, 1875-1949)

Maud Leonora Menten (Canadian chemist, 1879-1960)
postulated the existence of an intermediate enzymesubstrate complex to explain the mechanism of enzyme
action
Michaelis is also the father of the home permanent, by

virtue of his discovery of the solubility of keratin in
thioglycolic acid)
07/02
26
1913
first genetic map
Alfred Harry Sturtevant

constructed the first gene map by analyzing mating results

for fruit flies with six different mutant factors each known
to be recessive and X-linked
traced each mutation and its normal alternate in relation to
each of the other mutants, and thus calculated the exact
percentage of crossing-over between the genes
REFERENCES: Sturtevant AH and Morgan TH The

linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in
Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association.
Journal of Experimental Zoology 14, 43-59.
07/02
27
1920
genome
Hans Winkler (German botanist; 1877-1945)
Introduces the term to describe the haploid chromosome

set of an organism, i. e. the sum total of its genes
07/02
28
1923
point mutations
Calvin Blackman Bridges

A mutation which can recombine with any of a large

number of mutants (as opposed to deletions)
precise definition of a "point" depends on the number of
mutants crossed and on the smallest distance in the
genetic map. Today point mutation is a mutation in one
base pair
07/02
29
1924
Feulgen stain
Robert Joachim Feulgen

(German physician; 1884-1955)
Developed a staining method for nucleic acids and its

microscopic detection
acidic Fuchsin solution; also called Acid magenta, Acid

rubin, Acid roseine, acid violet 19
07/02
30
1927
first localization of mammalian gene
Theophilus Shickel Painter

American zoologist
(1889-1969)
Found a chromosome deficiency in mice which, along

with genetic evidence, provided the first case of localizing
a specific gene to a particular chromosome in mammals
Counted 48 human chromosomes

(number corrected in 1956 by Albert Levan and Joe-Hin
Tjio who perfected methods of preparing white blood
cells for chromosome analysis)
07/02
31
1927
artificial transmutation of genes
Hermann Joseph Mller

Nobel Prize 1946
Lewis J. Stadler
Mller discovered that X-rays induces genetic mutations

in fruit flies 1,500 times more quickly than under normal
circumstances
Stadler found that UV light induces mutations
07/02
32
1928
Pneumococci transformation
Frederick Griffith
(British microbiologist; 1877-1941)
Proposed that some

unknown "principle" had
transformed the harmless
R strain of Diplococcus
to the virulent S strain
07/02
33
1931
crossing-over in maize
Harriet B. Creighton
Barbara McClintock (US geneticist 1902-92) Nobel
Prize 1983
demonstrated a cytological proof for crossing over in

maize. A similar demonstration was made by Curt Stern
in Drosophila
07/02
34
1934
nucleus governs phenotype
Joachim Hmmerling
Acetabularia
single-celled algae
(2 cm)
grafting experiment
of parts containing
the nucleus show that
the control center of
development that
governs the phenotype
is located in the nucleus
07/02
35
1933
eugenics laws in Germany
Germany established eugenics laws

individuals sterilized as "hereditary defectives"
New eugenics and political

economy of the body
07/02
36
1936
genes on giant chromosomes
Milisav Demerec (1895-1966)

Margaret E. Hoover
pointed out the correspondence between giant salivary

gland chromosome bands and gene maps.
07/02
37
1938
Hans Adolf Krebs

(1900-1981)
Nobel Prize 1953
discovers the TCA cycle
07/02
38
1941
one gene - one protein
Edward Lawrie Tatum (US geneticist; 1909-1975)

Nobel Prize 1958
George Wells Beadle (US geneticist; 1903 - 1989) Nobel
Prize 1958
investigated the transmission of hereditary characteristics

in bread mold genes
proved that particular genes are responsible for particular
enzymes and that therefore all biochemical processes are
regulated by genes
07/02
39
1943 genes have a physical reality

and jump
Barbara McClintock
(US geneticist 1902-92)
Nobel Prize 1983
noticed that certain genetic elements which did not have

fixed chromosomal location seemed to move about the
maize genome and inhibit the expression of other maize
genes with which they came into contact
developed the hypothesis of transposable elements to
explain color variations in corn
chromosome rearrangements correlate with redistribution
of specific genetic traits
07/02
40
1944
DNA and genetic information
Oswald Avery (Canadian physician 1877-1955)

Colin Munro MacLeod (1909-1972)
MacLyn McCarty (1911-)
Isolation of Griffith' transforming principle and proof that

nucleic acids encode genetic information
REFERENCES: Avery, O.T., McLeod, C.M. & McCarthy M. Studies on

the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of
pneumococcal types. Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic
acid fraction isolated from Pneumococcus Type III Journal of
Experimental Medicine 79, 137-158 (1944)
07/02
41
1946
ENIAC
first digital vacuum tube computer in the world
07/02
42
1946
chemical mutagenesis
Charlotte Auerbach (German-Scottish geneticist; 18991994)
demonstrates that nitrogen mustards can caus mutations in

cells.
07/02
43
1946
gene transfer in E coli
Joshua Lederberg
(US geneticist; 1925-)
Nobel Prize 1958
07/02
44
1949
molecular disease
Linus Carl Pauling (US biochemist; 1901-1994); Nobel

Prize 1954; 1962
Defining sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease

showed that sickle cell hemoglobin showed different
electrophoretic properties than normal hemoglobin. This
demonstrated that genetic mutations lead to specific
chemical changes in protein molecules
07/02
45
1949-1950
protein sequencing
Frederick Sanger
(1918-)
Nobel Prize 1958, 1980
Pehr Victor Edman

(1916-1977)
Sanger developed the 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzine method
Edman developed the phenylisothiocyanate procedure for

identification of the N-terminal residues of peptides.
07/02
46
1950
Chargaff rules
Erwin Chargaff
Austrian biochemist
(1905-2002)
in DNA amounts of A = T, G = C
"Chargaff's Rules" served as a key principle for Watson

and Crick in assessing various models for the structure of
DNA
07/02
47

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From Darwin to Dolly

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From

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg

crosses with garden peas

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Hugo Marie de Vries

independently rediscovered the laws of heredity

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Hermann Henking (German zoologist; 1858-1942)

Henking reported "a particular chromatin element"

H. Henking, Z. Wiss. Zool., 5l (1890), quoted in C. E . McClung, 'The

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

first to apply Mendelian thinking to several inherited

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Demonstrated for the first time that Mendel's rules also

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Lucien Cunot (French zoologist; 1866-1951)

Confirmed that Mendel's rules also apply to crosses with

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Thomas Harrison Montgomery

noticed the homologous pairing of maternal and paternal

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Walter Stanborough Sutton

Pointed out the interrelationships between cytology and

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Sutton observed chromosomal movements during

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

William Ernest Castle

Studies albinism in blacks

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

first used the term

To say that a man is made up of

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Walter Stanborough Sutton

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

demonstrates that some characteristics are not inherited

coins a number of terms:

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Edmund Beecher Wilson (US zoologist; 1856-1939)

Independently described that XX chromosomes determine

Nettie Stevens correlated the presence of two specific X

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

William Ernest Castle (US biologist; 1867-1962)

introduced Drosophila as new experimental animal for

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Carl Erich Correns

Independently rediscovered the laws of heredity

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

1909 "gene", "genotypes",

Johanssen left, Bateson right

Coined the terms

Genetics: science studying transmission of traits

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

F. A. Janssens (1863 - 1924)

suggested that the chiasmata observed between synaptic

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

Thomas Hunt Morgan (US geneticist; 1866-1945)

chromosomes behave very similarly to the ways in which

Ibelgaufts From Darwin to Dolly and Beyond

different linkage groups

separation of certain inherited characteristics that are

existence of sex-linked genes (eye color, body color,