2014

Lecture notes on

Electrical
Engineering
Materials

Semiconductor Devices
Magnetic Properties of Materials
Optical Properties of Materials
Dielectric Properties
Introduction to IC Fabrication

Keshav Raj Sigdel

2014-09-17
Kathmandu University
[Pick the date]

Electrical Engineering Materials

Semiconductor Devices
Bipolar Junction Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify the signal. When a third doped element is
added to the crystal diode it becomes a transistor. Transistors are of two types (i) n-p-n transistor
and (ii) p-n-p transistor.
A transistor transfers a signal from low resistance to a high resistance. The prefix trans means
the signal transfer property of the device while istor classifies it as a solid state element (i.e.
resistor).
So transfer of resistor is a transistor.
Transfer + resistor =transistor
P

Forward

Forward

Reverse

Fig (i) PNP

Reverse

Fig (ii) NPN

C

There are three regions and two junctions in a transistor.

(i) Emitter: The left side of transistor which supplies the charge carrier (i.e. electrons or
holes) is called emitter. It is highly doped and moderate in size. The emitter is always
forward bias with respect to base. In first p-n-p transistor hole to base and the second
n-p-n transistor it transfer electron to base.

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(iii)Collector: The section in the right side which collects the charge is called collector. It is
moderately doped and larger in size. The collector is always reverse biased. In p-n-p
it receives hole that flow in the output circuit. In n-p-n transistor it receives electron.

(ii) Base: The middle section of the transistor which is lightly doped and very thin in size.
The base emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for emitter
circuit. The base collector junction is reversed biased and provides high resistance in
the collector circuit.

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The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) operates by the injection and collection of minority
carriers. Since the action of both electrons and holes is important in this device, it is called a
bipolar transistor.
The two operations of a transistor are amplification and switching.
Current amplification factor
The ratio of change in output current to the change in input current of a transistor is called
current amplification factor.
Common Base

Common Emitter

I C
I E

Common Collector

I C
I B

I E
I B

Also, I E I C I B and I C I B I CEO

Where I CEO 1 ICBO is the leakage current (Collector emitter current with open
base).
Note: p-n-p (pointed in) & n-p-n (not pointed in)
IC

Load line
Saturation region
IC

IB=20A

VCC
RC

IB

VCE
No signal

RC

A
IB=15A
Load line

Active region

IB=10A
IB=5A
IB=0A

IE

Cot off region

+ -

- +

VBB

VCC

B
0

VCC

VCE

Fig (i)
Fig (ii)

Consider a common emitter n-p-n transistor circuit where no signal is applied only dc source are
present. The output characteristics are shown by figure.
VCC VCE IC RC

As VCC and RC are fixed values therefore it is first degree equation and can be represented by a
straight line on output characteristics. This is known as dc load line.

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VCE VCC I C RC

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From this

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When

IC = 0 Maximum VCE = VCC

When

VCE = 0 Maximum IC = VCC/RC. By joining these two points load line is obtained.

Cutoff region: The region below IB=0 is called cutoff region. In this region both junctions are
reverse bias.
Saturation region: The region left to the curve is saturation region. In this region both junctions
are forward bias.
Active region: The region where the parallel curves are drawn is called active region. In this
region emitter base junction is forward bias and emitter collector junction is reverse bias. The
transistor will function normally in this region.
The zero signal value of IC and VCE are known as the operating point. The point where the load
line and characteristics curve intersect and satisfy the zero signal value of IC and VCE .(i.e. Qpoint.) It is also called operating point because the variation of IC and VCE take place about this
point when signal is applied. It is also called quiescent (silent) point or Q-point.
Minority carrier distribution and terminal current
Assumptions
(i) Holes diffuse from emitter to collector; drift is negligible in the base region.
(ii) Emitter injection efficiency is 1.
(iii) Collector saturation is negligible.
(iv) Active part of base and two junctions have same cross section.
(v) All currents and voltages are steady state.

IB

IE

IC

pE

Wb

pC

-VCB+

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+VEB -

xn
Fig: Simplified p-n-p transistor geometry

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Since injected holes are assumed to flow emitter to collector by diffusion. Neglecting
recombination in the two depletion regions, the hole current entering the base at emitter junction
is IE and hole current leaving the base at collector is IC. The base width between two depletion
regions is wb and uniform cross section area is A.
The excess hole concentration at the edge of the emitter depletion region is

qVEB

pE pn e kT 1

(1)

And the excess hole concentration at the collector side of the base is

qVCB

pC pn e kT 1

(2)

kT
and collector junction is strongly
q

Since the emitter base junction is forward bias VEB

reversed bias VCB 0 . Then
pE pn e

qVEB

kT

(3)

pC pn

(4)

Also from continuity equation

d 2 p xn
dxn

p xn
Lp 2

(5)

The solution of this equation is

xn

p xn C1e

Lp

xn

Lp

C2 e

(6)

Where Lp is the diffusion length of holes in the base region. To solve this equation we use
boundary condition to found constants C1 and C2.

p xn 0 pE C1 C2
Wb

P xn Wb pC C1e

Lp

(7)
Wb

C2 e

Lp

(8)

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Solving equations (7) and (8) we get

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Wb

C1

pC pE e
Wb

Wb

Lp

Wb

C2

&

pE e
Wb

Lp

Lp

Lp

(9)
Lp

pC
Wb

(10)

Lp

By putting these values of C1 and C2 in equation (6) and pC 0 for strongly reversed bias
junction
Wb

p xn pE

Lp

xn

e
Wb

Lp

Lp

Wb

e
Wb

Lp

xn

Lp

Lp

i.e. excess hole distribution

xn

p xn M 1pE e
Wb

M1

Where

e
Wb

Lp

Lp

xn

M 2 p E e

Wb

Lp
Wb

Lp

&

M1

Lp

e
Wb

Lp

Lp
Wb

Lp

p xn
M 1pE

xn

M 1pE e

Lp

xn

M 2 pE

M 2 p E e

Lp

Straight line approximation

p
Wb

xn

Fig: Distribution of injected carrier in active region

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Here, the excess electron concentration in the p+ emitter is shown to decay exponentially to zero
corresponding to a long diode. This is due to the minority carrier electron diffusion length is
often shorter than the thin emitter region at high emitter doping level. Othrewise, the narrow
diode expressions must be used in the emitter region.

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Evaluation of terminal current

We have solution of excess hole distribution in the base region
xn

p xn C1e

Lp

xn

C2 e

Lp

(1)

The emitter and collector current are obtained from the gradient of hole concentration at each
depletion region edge.
I p xn qAD p

We have

d p xn

(2)

dxn

At xn 0 hole component of emitter current is

I EP I p xn 0 qA

Dp

C2 C1

Lp

(3)

Similarly collector reverse saturation current IC is made up of entirely of holes entering the
collector depletion region from the base is

I C I p xn Wb qA

Wb
Wb
Dp
Lp
Lp
C
e

C
e
2

1
Lp

(4)

Substituting the value of C1 and C2 we get

If

I EP qA

Dp
D
Wb
W
pC csch b & I C qA p
pE ctnh
L p
Lp
Lp
Lp

I E I EP

for

amplification

factor 1 ,

Dp
W
W
pE pC ctn h b csch b
Lp
Lp
Lp

D
W
qA p pE pC tanh b
L p
2 Lp

I B I E I C qA

Wb
W
pC ctnh b
pE csch
Lp
L p

then

the

base

current

is

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I EP

Wb

Wb Lp
Lp
e
pE e
2pC
Dp

qA
Wb
Wb

Lp
L
Lp

e p e

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Field Effect Transistor

A field effect transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the output current is
controlled by the applied electric field. The current in a FET is carried only by one type of
majority charge carriers electrons or holes. It is also called unipolar transistor. The current in the
device from source to drain can be controlled by the application of an electric potential (for
transverse electric field) introduced by gate, the device is known as field effect transistor (FET).
Drain (D)
D

G
Depletion

n
p

Gate (G)

Fig: Symbol of n-channel

D

c
Chanel
G

S
Source (S)

Fig: Symbol of p-channel

Fig: n-channel

The field effect transistors are of two types:

(i)

Junction field effect transistor (JFET)

(ii)

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

Drain (D)

Drain (D)

n
Gate (G)

Source (S)

Source (S)

Gate (G)

Fig: n-channel JFET

Fig: p-channel JFET

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Construction

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A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two p-n junctions as shown in
figure. The bar forms the conducting channel for the charge carriers. If the bar is of n-type, it is
called n-channel JFET and if the bar is of p-type it is called p-channel JFET. The two p-n
junctions forming diodes are connected internally and a common terminal called gate. Other
terminals are source and drain taken out from the bar. Thus the FET consists of essentially three
terminals.
(i) Source (S): It is the terminal through which majority carriers inter the bar. Since carriers
come from it is called source.
(ii) Drain (D): It is the terminal through which majority carriers (electrons) leave the bar. The
drain to source voltage VDS drives the drain current ID.
(iii)Gate (G): There are two internally connected heavily doped regions which form two p-n
junctions. The gate source voltage VGS reverse biases the gate.
(iv) Channel (C): It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass from
source to drain when VDS is applied.
Working principle of JFET
D

ID

n
VDS

VDD

VGG
VGS

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It consists of n-type silicon bar the upper contact is known as drain (D) and lower contact as the
source (S). A current is established in the bar by an applied voltage 0-30 volts with negative
terminal to the source electrode. The electrons which are majority carriers in n-type bar leave the
bar through the drain electrode. The conventional current ID enters the bar at D.

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Two small regions of polarity opposite to that of crystal are created near the center at opposite
side of a bar. These two leads are called gate. The region between the gates is called channel.
If p-n junction is reversed biased, width of depletion zone (region) is increased and greater the
reverse bias voltage. Thus by applying the reverse bias the depletion layer becomes wider and
cross sectional area of channel is decreased. This will increase the resistivity and decrease the
flow of current. If the varying reverse biased voltage is applied to FET. The current flowing in
source drain circuit is varied in inverse proportion. The biasing voltage is considered as electric
field. Hence strength of resistivity can be determined by electric field. From this concept we use
the name junction field effect transistor.
Characteristics of JFET

ID

C
Pinch off
Ohmic region

VDS

VGG

(Saturation region

Break down region

B

R
A

VGS
VDD

VP

VDS=VDGO

VDS

The external batteries VDD and VGG are connected in drain and gate respectively such that the
gate source junction is reversed biased. The characteristics may be obtained by investigating how
the current is flowing between the drain and source. The drain current varies with the drain to
source voltage for fix value of VGS.
Let VGS be initially fixed to zero at the initial position 0, V DS is zero. The thickness of the
depletion region around p-n junction is uniform. If VDS is positive the depletion region are thin at
low VDS values, the drain current increases with the voltage as shown by the curve OA. In this
case the depletion layer is thicker towards the drain side as the voltage VDS is further increased,
the p-n junction at the gate becomes more reversed biased. The current is now force to flow in a
channel which increases lightly.

At this stage, the increasing current due to channel is narrowing and the curve practically
horizontal AB. The drain voltage at which the cross sectional area of the channel becomes
minimum is called the pinch-off voltage. The FET is said to be in pinch-off region AB. When
VDD is further increased current ID increases rapidly due to avalanche multiplication of electron
caused by breaking of covalent bond of Si atom in the depletion region between gate and drain.
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The voltage at which break down occurs is denoted by VDGO.

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Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor is an important semiconductor device and is
widely used in many circuit applications. The input impedance of a MOSFET is much more than
that of JFET because of very small gate leakage current. The MOSFET can be used in any of the
circuits covered for the JFET.

Construction

Drain (D)

D
Oxide layer

Gate (G)

Substrate

Substrate
G

S
Fig: Symbol

Source (S)
Fig: n-channel MOSFET

It is similar to JFET except with the following modifications

(i) There is only a single p-region. This region is called substrate.
(ii) A thin layer of silicon oxide is deposited over the left side of the channel. A metallic gate
is deposited over oxide layer. As silicon dioxide is an insulator, therefore gate is
insulated from the channel. From this reason MOSFET is sometimes called insulated
gate FET.

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10

(iii)Like JFET, a MOSFET has three terminals viz. source, gate and drain.

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ID

Working principle of MOSFET

D

n
+

p
VGG

VDS

Instead of gate diode as in JFET, here gate is formed as a small capacitor. One plate of this
capacitor is the gate and the other plate is the channel with metal oxide as the dielectric. When
negative voltage is applied to the gate, electrons accumulate on it. Those electrons repeal the
conduction band electrons in the n-channel. Therefore, lesser number of conduction electrons is
made available for current conduction through the channel. The greater is the negative voltage on
the gate, the lesser the current conduction from source to drain. If the gate is given positive
voltage, more electrons are made available in the n-channel. Consequently, the current from
source to drain is increases.
Phototransistor
The phototransistor is a more sensitive semiconductor device than the p-n photo diode. The
phototransistor is usually connected a common emitter configuration with open base and
radiation is concentrated on the region near the collector junction JC as shown in figure. The
operation of this device can be understood if we recognize that the junction J E is slightly forward
biased and the junction JC is reversed biased (i.e. the transistor is biased in the active region).
Assume first, that there is excitation of radiation. Under these circumstances minority carriers are
generated thermally and the electrons crossing from the base to the collector as well as the holes
crossing from the collector to the base, constitute the reverse saturation current ICO.
The collector current is given by

11

I B 0

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I C 1 I CO

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IC

IC (mA)

VCE
JC

Radiation

p
JE

n
0

VCE
Fig: Output characteristics of the

MRD 450 n-p-n transistor

Fig: Phototransistor

If the light is now turned on, additional minority carriers are photo generated, and these
contribute to the reverse saturation current in exactly the same manner as do the thermally
generated minority charges. If the component of the reverse saturation current due to the light is
designated IL, the total collector current is
I C 1 I CO I L

We note that, due to transistor action the current caused by the radiation is multiplied by the
large factor 1 .

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12

Typical volt-ampere characteristics are shown in graph for an n-p-n planar phototransistor for
different values of illumination intensities. Note the similarity between this family of curves and
these for the CE transistor output characteristics with base current as a parameter. The current I C
is then increased by the term I B .

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Magnetic Properties of Materials

Introduction
Magnetism was observed as early at 800B.C. in a naturally occurring material called load stone.
In the modern concept, all materials, viz., metals, semiconductors and insulators are said to
exhibit magnetism though of different nature. Materials in which a state of magnetism can be
induced are called magnetic materials. The magnetic properties of solids originate in the motion
of electrons and in the permanent magnetic moments of the atoms and electrons. The ability of
certain metals like iron, cobalt and nickel and some of their alloys and compounds to acquire
large permanent magnetic moments is of prime importance.
Intensity of Magnetization (I)
Magnetic moment ( M )
Volume (V )
m 2l m

a 2l a

Where m pole strength

2l effective length of magnet
a cross section area
Hence the intensity of magnetization is also defined as the magnetic pole strength per unit area of
cross section.
Magnetic Susceptibility m

Intensity of Magnetisation I
Maetic field H

It is pure number, since I and H have the same units. Its value for vacuum is zero, because there
is no magnetization in vacuum.
We can classify the materials in terms of m .
If m is negative, the material is diamagnetic and the magnetic induction is weakened by the

If m is small positive, the material is paramagnetic and the magnetic induction is strengthened

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by the presence of material.

13

presence of material.

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If m is large positive, the material is ferromagnetic. However in ferromagnetic materials I is not

accurately proportional to H and so m is not constant.
Magnetic Permeability
Let us consider a relation

B 0 H I

From the definition of susceptibility

I m H

B 0 H m H

0 1 m H

If we write 0 1 m then we have B H

The constant is called the magnetic permeability of the material. It may be defined as the ratio
of magnetic induction B to the magnetizing field H.

For vacuum m 0 and 0 . Hence magnetic induction in vacuum is B0 0 H

The ratio
is called relative permeability ( r ). Obviously; r 1 m .
B0 0

We may also clarify magnetic materials in terms of relative permeability r .

r 1
r 1
r 1

Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic

Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic Materials

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Diamagnetic materials have small negative susceptibility; relative permeability is less than unity.

14

Those substances which when placed in magnetizing field are magnetized feebly in the opposite
direction of applied field. This property is found in the substance whose outermost orbit has an
even number of electrons. Since the electrons have spins opposite to each other, the net magnetic
moment of each atom is zero. If these materials are brought close to the pole of a powerful
electromagnet they are repelled away from a magnet.

For example: Bismuth, Antimony, gold, water, alcohol, quartz, hydrogen etc.
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Paramagnetic Materials
Those substances which when placed in magnetizing field are magnetized feebly in the direction
of magnetizing field are called paramagnetic substances. This property is found in the substance
whose outermost orbit has an odd number of electrons. If these substances are brought close to
the pole of a powerful electromagnet they get attracted towards the magnet.
Paramagnetic materials have small positive susceptibility; relative permeability is little greater
than unity.
For example: Platinum, aluminum, chromium, manganese, copper sulphate, liquid oxygen,
solutions of salt of irons and nickel.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Those substances which when placed in magnetizing field are strongly magnetized in the
directions of magnetizing field are called ferromagnetic substances. This property is found in the
substances which are generally like paramagnetic materials. If these substances are brought close
to the pole of a powerful electromagnet they are strongly attracted towards the magnet.
Ferromagnetic materials have large positive susceptibility; relative permeability is much greater
than unity (few thousands).
For example: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, gadolinium, and their alloys.
Anti-ferromagnetic Materials
Anti-ferromagnetic materials are crystalline materials. In these materials, the dipole moments of
neighboring dipoles are equal and opposite in orientation so that the net magnetization vanishes.
If they are placed in the magnetic field, they are feebly magnetized in the direction of field. Such
materials are called anti-ferromagnetic materials.
Susceptibility of those materials varies with temperature. It increases in temperature and reaches
a maximum at a particular temperature called Neel temperature (TN). Above this temperature
these materials behave like paramagnetic materials.
For example: MnO, FeO, CaO, NiO, MnO4, MnS etc.
Ferri Magnetic Materials

15

If the spin of the atoms are such that there is a net magnetic moment in one direction, the
materials are called ferri magnetic materials.

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For example: ferrites i.e. Fe2O3

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Classification of magnetic materials based on atomic dipoles

Those atoms which have permanent magnetic dipole moment is absent is called diamagnetic.
These atoms which have permanent magnetic dipole exists even in the absence of any external
field may be paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic depending on
the interaction between the individual dipole.
Thus if the interaction between the atomic permanent dipole moments is zero or negligible then
the material will be paramagnetic.
Fig: Schematic illustration
arrangement of spin.

of

paramagnetic

If a dipole interacts in such a manner that they tend to line up in parallel, the material will be
ferromagnetic.
Fig: Schematic illustration
arrangement of spin.

of

ferromagnetic

If the neighboring dipoles tends to line up so that they are anti-parallel, the material is antiferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic depending on magnitudes of dipoles on the two sub-lattices as
indicated schematically for a one dimensional mode.
Fig: Schematic illustration of anti-ferromagnetic
arrangement of spin.

of

ferrimagnetic

Permanent dipoles

Interactions between neighboring dipoles

Diamagnetic

No

-----

Paramagnetic

Yes

negligible

Ferromagnetic

Yes

Parallel orientation

Anti-ferromagnetic

Yes

Anti-parallel orientation of equal moment

Ferrimagnetic

Yes

Anti-parallel orientation of unequal moment

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Classification

16

Fig: Schematic illustration

arrangement of spin.

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Atomic Magnetic Moment

An electron revolving in an orbit about the nucleus of an atom is a minute current loop and
produces a magnetic field. Thus it behaves like a magnetic dipole.
Let us consider an electron of mass m and charge e moving with speed v in a circular Bohr orbit
of radius r as shown in figure.

L
It constitute a current of magnitude

v
e
I
T
e

where T is the orbital period of electron.

Now

2 2 r

And so

ev
2 r

From electromagnetic theory, the magnitude of orbital magnetic

dipole moment l for a current I in a loop of area A is

l IA
and its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit as shown. Substituting the value of I
from above and taking A r 2 . We get

ev
evr
r2
2 r
2

(1)

Because the electron has negative charge, its magnetic dipole moment l is opposite in direction

to its orbital angular momentum L whose magnitude is given by

L mvr

(2)

Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get

17

(3)

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l
e

L 2m

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Thus the ratio of the magnitude l of the orbital magnetic dipole moment to the magnitude L of
the orbital angular momentum for the electron is constant, independent of the details of the orbit.
This constant is called the gyromagnetic ratio for the electron.
We can write equation (3) in vector form

e
l
L
2m

The minus sign means that l is in opposite direction of L . The unit of electromagnetic moment
is ampere-m2 or joule/Tesla.

Bohr Magneton

From wave mechanics, the permitted scalar values of L are given by

L l l 1

h
2

where l is the orbital quantum number. Therefore the magnitude of the orbital magnetic moment
of the electron is

l l l 1

eh
4 m

eh
forms a natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic dipole moments,
4 m
and is called the Bohr magneton, denoted by B .

The quantity

Thus,

l l l 1 B

where

1.6 1019 C 6.6 10 34 Js

eh
B

4 m
4 3.14 9.11031 Kg

Amper m

18

9.28 10

24

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Electron spin and magnetic moment

An electron not only revolves on a circular orbit around the positive nucleus but also rotates
around an axis of its own. The magnetic moment associated with spinning of electron is called
spin magnetic moment s .
If we consider the simple case of an electronic charge being spread over a spherical volume, then
the electron spin would cause different charge elements of this sphere to form closed currents.
This will result a net spin magnetic moment. This net magnetic moment, obviously, would
depend upon the detailed structure of the electron and its charge distribution. It can be shown
that s is connected with spin angular momentum S as

s e

2m

Where the coefficient is known as the spin gyromagnetic ratio and depends on the structure of
the spinning particles and its charge distribution. The experimental value of for an electron is
-2.0024. Here the negative sign indicates that s is in a direction opposite to that of S.
Since S

h
for an electron,
2

s e

h
2m 4

1.6 10
2.0024

19

C 6.6 10 34 Js

8 3.14 9.110

31

Kg

9.4 1024 Amper m 2

Thus the magnetic moments due to the spin and the orbital motions of an electron are of the same
order of magnitude. It should be noted that spin and s are intrinsic properties of an electron and
exist even for a stationary electron (L=0).

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19

Since the magnitude of the spin magnetic moment is always same, the external field can only
change its direction. If the electron spin moments are free to orient themselves, they will orient
themselves in the direction of the applied field B. Thus, paramagnetic is the result of spin
magnetic moments.

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Magnetic moment due to nuclear spin

In addition to electronic contribution, nuclear spin also contributes to magnetic moment of
atoms. By analogy with Bohr magneton, the nuclear magneton arises due to spin of the nucleus.
It is given by

eh
4 m p

where m p represents the mass of the proton. By putting the known values, we get

n 5.05 1027 Amper m 2

Obviously, the nuclear magnetic moments are smaller than those associated with electron.
Thus the permanent dipoles originate: (i) the orbital motion of the electron, (ii) electron spin, and
(iii) the nuclear spin.

Curie-Weiss law
The temperature dependence of many paramagnetic materials is governed by the experimentally
found Curie law, which states that the susceptibility m is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature T.

Where C

1
T

C
T

n B 2
is called Curie constant.
3k B

For many other substance, a more general relationship is observed, which is known as CurieWeiss law.

C
T

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20

where is another constant that has the same unit as the temperature and may have positive as
well as negative values.

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1
m
(C)Anti-ferro
(a)Para
(b)Ferro

T
(d)Dia

Fig: Schematic representation of (a) the Curie law, (b) and (c) the Curie-Weiss law and (d) the
diamagnetic behavior is also shown for comparison.
Anti-ferromagnetic materials are paramagnet above Neel temperature TN. i.e. they obey there a
1
linear T f

law. Below TN however the inverse susceptibility may rise with decreasing

1
0 yields a negative . Thus the

Curie-Weiss law needs to be modified for anti-ferromagnetic as

temperature. The extrapolation of paramagnetic line to

C
C

T T

The Neel temperature is often below room temperature. Most anti-ferromagnetic are found
among ionic compounds. They are insulators or semiconductors. No practical application for
anti-ferromagnetic is known at this time. 1
Curie-Weiss

TN

Paramagnetic

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Fig: Schematic representation of the temperature dependence of a poly crystalline antiferromagnetic material law.

21

Anti-ferro

Electrical Engineering Materials

Hysteresis loss in magnetic materials

When a magnetic material is subjected to a gradually increasing magnetizing field, the intensity
of magnetization I increase with the increase in strength of magnetizing field H along the path
OA. This curve is known as virgin or initial magnetization curve.
At H=H0 the intensity of magnetization assumes a steady value Imax. The magnetic material
cannot be magnetized more strongly than this and at this stage the material is said to have
reached the magnetic saturation limit.
Now if the magnetizing field H is gradually decreased the intensity of magnetization I will not
decrease the same path OA, but will decrease along the path AB such that when H becomes zero
I will not become zero but has a definite value I=OB.
The value of intensity of magnetization of the magnetic material even when the magnetizing
field is reduced to zero is called its retentivity or remanence or residual magnetism.

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When the magnetizing field is further increased in reverse direction, the intensity of
magnetization increases along the path CD and acquires the magnetic saturation limit at point D.
If the magnetizing field H is now reduced to zero, the intensity of magnetization I follow the path
DE. Finally if H is increased in the original direction I follow the path EFA and a closed curve
ABCDEFA is obtained. This closed curve is known as hysteresis loop. On repeating the process
the same closed curve is obtained again and again but never the portion OA. It is seen that I
always lags behind H. This lagging of I behind H is called hysteresis.

22

Now if the direction of magnetizing field is reversed the intensity of magnetization takes along
the path BC till it become zero at C. Thus to reduce the residual magnetism to zero, a
magnetizing field is equal to the value OC has to be applied in reverse direction. The value of
reverse magnetizing field require to reduce the residual magnetism to zero is called the coercive
force or coercivity.

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The shape of this loop varies from one material to another. Some ferrites have an almost
rectangular hysteresis loop. These ferrites are used in digital computers as magnetic information
storage device. The area of the loop represents energy loss (hysteresis loss) per unit volume
during one cycle of the periodic magnetization of the ferromagnetic materials. This energy loss is
in the form of heat. Therefore it is desirable that materials used in electronic generators, motors
and transformers should have a tall but narrow hysteresis loop for maximum losses.
Permanent magnets (hard magnetic materials) are device which retain their magnetic field
indefinitely i.e. coercivity and area of hysteresis loop are large.
Eddy current loss in magnetic materials
A

Ie

Fig: Solid transformer core with eddy current Ie in a cross sectional area A.
The core loss is the energy which is dissipated in the form of heat with in the core of
electromagnetic devices when the core is subjected to an alternating magnetic field. Several
types of losses such as hysteresis and eddy current loss also happen.
Consider a transformer whose primary and secondary coils are wounded around the lags of a
rectangular iron yoke as shown in figure. An alternating electric current in the primary coil
causes an alternating magnetic flux in the core. This in turn induces the secondary coil an
d
alternating emf e proportional to
dt
e

dt

e A

dB
dt

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Concurrently, an alternating emf is induced within the core itself as shown in figure. This emf
gives rise to the eddy current Ie. The eddy current is larger, then larger the permeability , the
larger the conductivity of the iron core material, the higher the applied frequency and the
larger the cross-sectional area A of the core.

23

i.e.

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In order to decrease the eddy current, first core can be made of an insulator in order to
decrease . Ferrites are thus effective but also expensive materials to build magnetic cores.
There are indeed used for high frequency applications. Secondly, the core can be manufactured
from iron powder where by each particle is covered by an insulating coating. However the
decrease in , in this case is at the expense in large decrease in . Thirdly, the most widely
applied method to reduce eddy currents is the utilization of cores made out of thin sheets which
are electrically insulated from each other. This way the cross-sectional area A is reduced which
in turn reduce emf. These losses are however less than 1% of the total energy transferred.
Application Of magnetic materials
Electrical devices like power transformers, motors, generators, electromagnets etc use soft
magnetic materials. Electrical steels are use as core materials in them. For retaining magnetic
fields of permanent magnets, hard magnetic materials are used in fabrications.
Magnetic materials find significant use in the storage information. Credit cards are properly used
which also have magnetic strips. To store large quantities of information of low cost, computers
are usually backed up with magnetic disks. The recording head consisting of laminated
electromagnet is made soft ferric having 0.3m wide air gap. Here the data written by the
electrical signal generates a magnetic field across the gap with in the coil. Finally the stored
information is read using the same head, and an alternating emf is induced in the coil of the head
by moving tap or disk in the read or play back mode. This emf is amplified, filtered and fed to a
suitable output device (loudspeaker).
N

Magnetic layer
Substrate

Tape motion

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Magnetic material is also used for making medical devices such as thin motors in implantable
pumps and valves.

24

Fig: Schematic arrangement of recording (playback) head and magnetic tape. The gap width is
exaggerated (Recording mode). The plastic substrate is about 25m thick.

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****Notes****
Eddy Current- An induced electric current formed with in the body of a conductor in a varying
magnetic field. An eddy current is a current that is induced in the iron core (iron being a
conductor as well as having a high permeability). The current flows back and forth in the iron
core as the alternating current in the windings changes directions. Eddy current does not useful
work. They cause the core to heat up. So the energy in these induced eddy currents is lost as heat.
But induced current is useful energy. It can be used to run a motor, computer etc. The eddy
current causes random motion of atoms in the iron core so we cant get at that energy as easily in
order to do useful work.
Optical Properties of Materials
Introduction
The interaction of light with the valance electrons of a material is responsible for optical
properties. The optical measurements that give the fullest information on the electronic system
are measurements of the reflectivity of light at normal incidence on single crystal.
Most recently, a number of optical devices such as lasers, photo detectors, waveguides, etc. have
gained considerable technological importance. They are used in communication, fiber optics,
medical diagnostics, night viewing, solar applications, optical computing or for other
optoelectronic purposes.
Refractive index or n
In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of a substance (optical medium) is a
dimensionless number that describes how light, or any other radiation, propagates through that
medium. It is defined as
n

c
v

Where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the substance. For example,
the refractive index of water is 1.33, means that light travels 1.33 times as fast in vacuum as it
does in water.

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Refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength. This is called dispersion; it causes the
splitting of white light in prisms and rainbows, and chromatic aberration in lenses. In opaque

25

The historically first occurrence of the refractive index was in Snells law of refraction, n1sin1=
n2sin2, where 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence of a ray crossing the interface between two
media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

Electrical Engineering Materials

media, the refractive index is a complex number: while the real part describes refraction, the
imaginary part accounts for absorption.
The concept of refractive index is widely used within the full electromagnetic spectrum, from xrays to radio waves. It can also be used with wave phenomena other than light (e.g., sound). In
this case the speed of sound is used instead of that of light and a reference medium other than
vacuum must be chosen.
Penetration depth (W)
Penetration depth is a measure of how deep light or any electromagnetic radiation can penetrate
into a material. It is defined as the depth at which the intensity of the radiation inside the material
falls to 1/e (about 37%) of its original value at (or more properly, just beneath) the surface.
When electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface of a material, it may be (partly)
reflected from that surface and there will be a field containing energy transmitted into the
material. This electromagnetic field interacts with the atoms and electrons inside the material.
Depending on the nature of the material, the electromagnetic field might travel very far into the
material, or may die out very quickly. For a given material, penetration depth will generally be a
function of wavelength.
The intensity of light sensitive device (such as photo detector) I equals to the square of the field
strength .

2 wk
I 2 I 0 exp
c

z where k is damping constant.

We define characteristics penetration depth (W) is that distance at which the intensity of light
wave travels through a material.
When

I 1
e 1 This definition yields
I0 e

c
c

2 wk 4 fk 4 k

The inverse of W is called the exponential or attenuation or absorbance.

4 k 2 wk

It is measured in cm-1.

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Reflection is the process by which electromagnetic radiation is returned either at the boundary
between two media (surface reflection) or at the interior of a medium (volume reflection),
whereas transmission is the passage of electromagnetic radiation through a medium. Both
processes can be accompanied by diffusion (also called scattering), which is the process of
deflecting a unidirectional beam into many directions. In this case, we speak about diffuse

26

Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption

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reflection and diffuse transmission. When no diffusion occurs, reflection or transmission of a

unidirectional beam results in a unidirectional beam according to the laws of geometrical optics.
In this case, we speak about regular reflection and regular transmission (or direct transmission).
Reflection, transmission and scattering leave the frequency of the radiation unchanged.
Absorption is the transformation of radiant power to another type of energy, usually heat, by
interaction with matter.
Reflectivity R
When light radiation passes from one medium into another having a different index of refraction,
some of the light is scattered at the interface between the two media even if both are transparent.
The reflectivity R represents the fraction of the incident light that is reflected at the interface, or

IR
I0

where I0 and IR are the intensities of the incident and reflected beams respectively. If the light is
normal (or perpendicular) to the interface, then

n n
R 2 1
n2 n1

where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media. If the incident light is normal if
the incident light is not normal to the interface, R will depend on the angle of incidence. When
light is transmitted from a vacuum or air into a solid, then

n 1
R 2
n2 1

Since the index of refraction of air is very nearly unity. Thus higher the index of refraction of the
solid greater is the reflectivity. For typical silicate glasses the reflectivity is approximately 0.05.
Just as the index of refraction of a solid depends on the wavelength of incident light and hence
reflectivity vary with wavelength.
Transmissivity T
Transmissivity is the ratio between the transmitted intensity IT and impinging light intensity I0.
I
4n1n2
Then
T T
I 0 n1 n2 2

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For instance, when light passes from air n1 1 into glass n2 1.5 then R 0.04 and T 0.96 .

27

Notice that R T 1 as conservation of energy.

i.e. most of the light is transmitted.

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Dielectric Properties
Introduction
A dielectric is an insulating material in which all the electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of
the atoms and there are no free electrons available for the conduction of current. Therefore the
electrical conductivity of a dielectric is very low. The conductivity of an ideal dielectric is zero.
On the basis of band theory, the forbidden gap Eg is very large in dielectrics. Materials such as
glass, polymers, mica, oil and paper are examples of dielectrics. They prevent flow of current
through them. Therefore they can be used for insulating purpose.
Dielectric Constant
It is found experimentally that the capacitance of a capacitor is increased if the space between its
plates is filled with a dielectric material. To understand this fact, Faraday took two identical
capacitors, one who was evacuated and the other was filled with dielectric material as shown in
the figure.

Vacuum

Dielectric Material

Then these two capacitors were charged with a battery of some potential difference. He found
that the charge on capacitor filled with a dielectric is larger than that of filled with air. If C0 be
the capacitance in vacuum and C the capacitance when the space is filled with a dielectric
material then dielectric constant of the material

C
C0

Thus the dielectric constant of a material is the ratio of the capacitance of a given capacitor
completely filled with that material to the capacitance of the same capacitor in vacuum. In other
words, the ratio of permittivity of medium to the vacuum is also known as dielectric constant.

This is also known as relative permittivity. It is found to be independent of the shape and size
and dimension of the capacitor.
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r
0
Page

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Non Polar Dielectric

A non polar molecule is the one in which the center of gravity of the positive charge (protons)
and negative charge (electrons) coincide. So such molecules do not have any permanent dipole
moment. For example O2, N2 and H2
Polar Dielectric

A polar molecule is the one in which the centre of gravity of positive charges is separated by
finite distance from that of negative charges. Unbalanced electric charges, using valance
electrons of such molecules result in dipole moment and orientation. Therefore those molecules
possess permanent electric dipole. For example N2O, H2O and HCL

E0
Polarization of Dielectrics
Dielectric slab
qi

qi

Ep

Vacuum
E0

E0

Fig (a)

Fig (b)

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When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, it exerts a force on each charged particle
and charges is displaced in its orientation while the negative charges is displaced in opposite
direction as shown in figure (a). Consequently the center of positive and negative charges of each
atom displaced from their equilibrium positions. Such a molecule (or atoms) is then called as
induced electric dipole and this process is known as dielectric polarization.

29

Fig (c)

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We consider a parallel plate capacitor which has vacuum initially between its plates. When it is
charged with a battery, the electric field of strength E0 is set up between the plates of capacitor as
shown in figure (b). If and are the surface charge densities of the two plates of the
capacitor, then the electric field developed between the plate is given by

E0

If now a slab of dielectric material is placed between the two plates of capacitor as shown in
figure (c), then it becomes electrical polarized. Hence its molecule becomes electric dipole
orientation in the direction of field. Because of this the center of positive and negative charges
gets displaced from each other. Therefore in the interior of dielectric as marked by dotted lines
these charges cancel. However the polarization charges on the opposite faces of dielectric slab
are not cancelled. These charges produce their own electric field Ep, which opposes the external
applied field E0. Under this situation, the net electric field in the dielectric is given by

E E0 E p
Polarization Density
d

q q
i

qi q

Dielectric slab





AreaA
Area A

The induced dipole moment developed

per unit volume in a dielectric slab on placing it inside an

electric field is known as polarization density. It is denoted by the symbol P . If p is induced

dipole moment of individual atom and N is the number of atoms in a unit volume, the
polarization density as

P Np

30

The induced dipole moment of an individual atom is found to be proportional to the applied

electric field E and is given by

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p 0 E

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Where is the proportionality constant also known as atomic polarizability.

P N 0 E

Then

Suppose A is the area of each plate of the capacitor, d is the separation between them. Then
volume of dielectric slab is Ad. Since qi and +qi are the induced charges developed on the two
faces of the dielectric slab, the total dipole moment of the slab will be equal to qid. From the
definition of polarization density

totaldipolemoment qi d qi
P

p
volumeofslab
Ad A
On placing the dielectric material between the plates of the capacitor, the reduced value of
electric field may be evaluated as

p p P
E

E0
0
0 0
0

Or

0E p P

0E P

The quantity 0 E P is of special significance and is known as electric displacement vector D

given by D 0 E P
Relation between Dielectric constant and electric susceptibility

The polarization density of a dielectric is proportional to the effective value of electric field E
and is given by

P 0 E

Where is constant of proportionality and is known as susceptibility of dielectric material.

31
Page

We have

P 0 E

E E0 E0
E0 E
0
0

E0 E 1

E0
1
E
K 1

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Types of Polarization
Electronic Polarization

Applied electric field

No field applied

Under the action of an external field, the electron clouds of atoms are displaced with respect to
heavy fixed nuclei to a distance less than the dimension of atom. This is called electronic
polarization, which does not depend on temperature. The electronic polarization, is represented
as below

Pe N e E

Ionic Polarization

Absence of field

Presence of field

This type of polarization occurs in ionic crystals for example in sodium chloride crystal. In the
presence of an external electric field, the positive and negative ions are displaced in opposite
directions until ionic bonding forces stop the process. This way the dipoles get induced. The
ionic polarization does not depend upon temperature.

Absence of field

Presence of field

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Absence of field

32

Orientation Polarization

Presence of field

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This type of polarization is applicable in polar dielectrics. In the absence of an external electric
field, the permanent dipoles are oriented randomly such that they cancel the effects of each other.
When an electric field is applied, these dipoles tend to rotate and align in the direction of applied
field. This is known as orientation polarization which depends upon temperature.
In view all the polarizations; the total polarization is sum of electronic, ionic, and orientation
polarizations. This is given by

P Pe Pi P0

Dielectric Losses
When a dielectric material is placed in an alternating electric field, a part of energy is wasted,
which is known as dielectric loss i.e. the absorption of electrical energy by a dielectric material is
called dielectric losses.
Let us consider an alternating electric field is applied to a dielectric material given by

E E0 cos t

where is the applied frequency.

Then there will be two cases

(i) For the electric displacement vector is in the phase with applied field

D D0 cos t

Then the electric displacement current is

J
D0 sin t
t

(1)

The energy loss in time period T. i.e. average energy loss is

T

J Edt
W

dt

J Edt

D sin t E
0

cos tdt

33

0
shows that the energy loss is zero when displacement vector is in phase with the applied field.
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(ii) When electric displacement vector is out of phase with applied field.

If E E0 cos t then D D0 cos t

Where is the possible phase difference between E and D . So average energy

loss

J
Edt
T

But J
D0 sin t
t

dt
0

D sin t E
0

cos tdt

D0 E0 sin t cos cos t sin cos tdt

D0 E0 sin cos 2 tdt

2
0
2

1 2

D0 E0 sin
2
2

1
D0 E0 sin
2

(2)
If we consider electric field and electric displacement vector is complex the dielectric constant is
also complex.
i t

D D0e D0e i
it
E
E0 e
E0

D
0 cos i sin
E0

(3)

34

So

D0
i cos i sin
E0

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Where and are the real and imaginary part of dielectric constant.
So from equation (3) equating the real and imaginary part we get
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D0
cos and
E0

So

D0
sin
E0

tan (angle form)

This tan is known as the loss tangent. Since and are frequency dependent so is also
frequency dependent.

D0 sin E0

So equation (2) becomes

1
W E0 E0
2

1
W E0 2
2

W 0 rE0 2
2

Thus the absorption of energy is proportional to the imaginary part of complex dielectric
constant. Whenever there is energy dissipated in the medium called dielectric losses.
Ferroelectric material
For the dielectric materials, the polarization is a linear function of applied field. The polarization
in these materials is not a unique function of the field strength. In particular these materials
exhibits hysteresis effects similar to those obtained in ferromagnetic material, they are therefore
ferroelectric material.
Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials in response of
mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure.

Page

35

The piezoelectric effect is the linear electromagnetically interaction between the mechanical and
electrical state in crystalline materials. It is found in useful applications such as the production
and detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generator etc.

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Introduction to Integrated Circuit Fabrication

Introduction
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or
a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent
components. An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such as transistors, diodes,
resistors, capacitors etc are automatically part of semiconductor chip.
In the early 1960s, a new field of microelectronics was born primarily to meet the requirements
of the Military which wanted to reduce the size of electronic equipment to approximately onetenth of its then existing volume. This device for extreme reduction in the size of electronic
circuits has led to the development of microelectronic circuits called integrated circuits (ICs)
which are small that their actual construction is done by technicians using microscopes.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have revolutionized
the world of electrons. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home appliances are now
inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of
producing integrated circuits.
ICs can be made very compact, having up to several billion transistors and other electronic
components in an area the size of a fingernail. The width of each conducting line in a circuit can
be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances; in 2008 it dropped below 100
nanometers and in future it is expected to be in the tens of nanometers and even more.
Advantages
1. Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections.
2. Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various circuit elements in a single ship of
semiconductor materials.
3. Lesser weight
4. Low power required.
5. Reduced cost
6. Suitability for small-signal operation
7. Easy replacement

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1. If any component of ICs goes out of order, the whole IC has to be replaced by a new one.
2. In an IC fabrication, it is neither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitance
exceeding 30pF.
3. It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers.
4. It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater than 10W).

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Disadvantages

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Types
Four basic types of constructions are employed in the manufacture of integrated circuits namely,
1. Monolithic

2. Thin-film

3. Thick-film 4. Hybrid

Since it combines both active (eg- diodes, transistors) and passive elements (eg- resistors,
capacitors) in a monolithic structure, the complete unit is called integrated circuits.
IC Terminology
1. Bonding- attachment of wires to an IC.
2. Chip- an extremely small part of silicon wafer on which IC is fabricated. One silicon
wafer of 2cm diameter may contain up to 1000IC chips.
3. Circuit probing- to check the proper electrical performance of each IC with the help of
probes.
4. Die- same as chip.
5. Diffusion- introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the crystal
structure for modifying its electrical characteristics.
6. Diffusion mask- it is a glass plate with the circuit pattern drawn on it. Impurities can
diffuse through its light areas but not through its dark ones.
7. Encapsulation- putting a cap over the IC and sealing it in an inert atmosphere.
8. Epitaxy- physical placement of materials on a given surface.
9. Etching- removal of surface material from a chip by chemical means.
10. Metallization- providing ohmic contacts and inter connections by evaporating aluminum
over the chip.
11. Photoresist- a photo-sensitive emulsion which hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light.
12. Scribing- incising or cutting with a sharp point.

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37

13. Wafer- a thin slice of a semiconductor material either circular or rectangular in shape in
which a number of ICs are fabricated simultaneously.

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Making monolithic IC
A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and their interconnections are found on a
single thin wafer called the substrate.
The basic production processes for monolithic ICs are as follows
Step-1: P-substrate (Crystal growth)
This is the first step in making of an IC. A cylindrical p-type silicon crystal is grown having
typical dimensions 25cm long and 2.5cm diameter shown in figure (i).
25cm
2.5cm
2.5cm
P-Substrate

200m

(i) P-type Silicon crystal

(ii) P-type Silicon crystal

The crystal is then cut by a diamond saw into many thin wafers like figure (ii), the typical
thickness of the wafer being 200m. One side of wafer is polished to get rid of surface
imperfections. This wafer is called the substrate. The ICs are produced in this wafer.
Epitaxial layer

Step-2: Epitaxial growth of n-layer

P-Substrate

10m

200m

The next step is to put the wafer in a diffusion furnace. A gas mixture of silicon atoms and
pentavalent atoms is passed over the wafers. This forms a thin layer of n-type semiconductor on
the heated surface of the substrate as shown figure. This layer is called the epitaxial layer and is
about 10m thick. It is in thin layer that the whole integrated circuit is formed.
Step-3: Oxidation
SiO2 layer

1m

38

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P-Substrate

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In order to prevent the contamination of epitaxial layer, a thin SiO2 layer about 1m thick is
deposited over the entire surface as shown in figure. This is achieved by passing pure oxygen
over the epitaxial layer. The oxygen atom combines with silicon atoms to form a layer of SiO2.
UV radiations

Step-4: Photolithography
Photoresist

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

Selective removal of oxide is done by the process of photolithography. We cover the entire
surface of oxidized silicon with a photosensitive material called photoresist. Now portion of
photoresist is remove away by subjecting ultraviolet radiation.
After removal of photoresist the oxide is etched. HCl solution etches the SiO2 layer.
SiO2
n

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

After this we remove the remaining photoresist from the rest of the portion.
Step-5: Diffusion
To dope through the window we usually do diffusion.
n+

P-Substrate

n+

P-Substrate

Step-5: Contact Metallization

Metallization needs selective deposition of metals over the p and n type i.e. contact outside.
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After diffusion we remove rest of oxide.

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Fabrication of components on monolithic IC

The notable feature of an IC is that it comprises a number of circuits elements inseparably
associated in a single small package to perform a complete electronic function. This differs from
discreet assembly where separately manufactured components are joined by wires. Some of the
circuit elements (e.g. diode, transistor, resistor, capacitor etc.) can be constructed in the IC form.

Diodes
Exposed

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Window

n
n

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

P-Substrate

40

(viii)

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(vii)

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Figure above shows how a diode is formed on a portion of substrate of monolithic IC. Part of
SiO2 layer is etched off, exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in figure (i). The wafer is then put
into a furnace and trivalent atoms are diffused into the epitaxial layer. The trivalent atoms change
the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type material under SiO2 layer as shown in figure (ii).
Next pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to from a complete SiO2 layer as shown in figure (iii).
A hole is then etched at the center of this layer; thus exposing the n-epitaxial layer as shown in
figure (iv). This hole in SiO2 layer is called window. Now we pass trivalent atoms through the
window. The trivalent atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an island of p-type material
as shown in figure (v). The SiO2 layer is again formed on a wafer by blowing pure oxygen over
the wafer as shown in figure (vi). Thus a p-n junction diode is formed on a substrate.
The last step is to attach the terminals. For this purpose, we etch the SiO2 layer at the desired
locations as shown in figure (vii). By depositing metal at these locations, we make electrical
contact with the anode and cathode of the integrated diode. Figure (viii) shows the electrical
circuit of the diode.
Transistors
Figure below shows how a transistor is formed on a portion of substrate of monolithic IC. Part of
SiO2 layer is etched off, exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in figure (i). The wafer is then put
into a furnace and trivalent atoms are diffused into the epitaxial layer. The trivalent atoms change
the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type material under SiO2 layer as shown in figure (ii).
Next pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to from a complete SiO2 layer as shown in figure (iii).
A hole is then etched at the center of this layer; thus exposing the n-epitaxial layer as shown in
figure (iv). This hole in SiO2 layer is called window. Now we pass trivalent atoms through the
window. The trivalent atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an island of p-type material
as shown in figure (v). The SiO2 layer is again formed on a wafer by blowing pure oxygen over
the wafer as shown in figure (vi).

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41

A window is now formed at the center of SiO2 layer, thus exposing the p-epitaxial layer as
shown in figure (vii). Then we pass pentavalent atoms through the window. The pentavalent
atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an island of n-type material as shown in figure
(viii). The SiO2 layer is reformed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen as shown in figure (ix).
The terminals are processed by etching the SiO2 layer at appropriate locations and depositing the
metal as these locations as shown in figure (x). In this way, we get the integrated transistor.
Figure (xi) shows the electrical circuit of a transistor.

EEEG 207

Electrical Engineering Materials

Exposed

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

Window

Window

B C

C
n
p

(xi)

Page

(x)

42

P-Substrate

EEEG 207

Electrical Engineering Materials

Resistors
Exposed

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

Window

p
1

n
P-Substrate

(viii)

(vii)

EEEG 207

Page

A window is now formed at the center of SiO2 layer, thus exposing the n-epitaxial layer as
shown in figure (iv). Then we diffuse a p-type material into the n-type area as shown in figure

43

Figure above shows how a resistor is formed on a portion of substrate of monolithic IC. Part of
SiO2 layer is etched off, exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in figure (i). The wafer is then put
into a furnace and trivalent atoms are diffused into the epitaxial layer. The trivalent atoms change
the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type material under SiO2 layer as shown in figure (ii).Next
pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to from a complete SiO2 layer as shown in figure (iii).

Electrical Engineering Materials

(v). The SiO2 layer is re-formed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen as shown in figure (vi).
The terminals are processed by etching SiO2 layer at the two points above the p island and
depositing the metal at these locations as shown in figure (vii). In this way, we get an integrated
resistor. Figure (vii) shows the electrical circuit of a resistor.
The value of resistor is determined by the material, its length and area of cross section. The high
resistance resistors are long and narrow while low-resistance resistors are short and greater the
cross section.
Capacitors
Exposed

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

P-Substrate

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

n
(v)
P-Substrate

Page

Figure above shows the process of fabricating a capacitor in the monolithic IC. The first step is
to diffuse an n-type material into the substrate which forms one plate of the capacitor as shown
in figure (i). Then SiO2 layer is reformed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen as shown in
figure (ii).The SiO2 layer formed acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched
and terminal 1 is added as shown in figure (iii). Next a large (compared to the electrode at
terminal 1) metallic electrode is deposited on the SiO2 layer and forms the second plate of the
capacitor. The oxide layer is etched and terminal 2 is added. This gives an integrated capacitor.
The value of capacitor formed depends upon the dielectric constant of SiO2 layer, thickness of
SiO2 layer and the area of cross section of the smaller of the two electrodes.

44

(iv)

[The end]
EEEG 207