A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

SKYSCRAPERS

Submitted By

SHAIKH ANAS RABBANI

Under The Guidance of

Prof. SONAVANE P.B.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JAIHIND POLYTECHNIC, KURAN,
TAL JUNNAR , DISTPUNE, (M.S)
INDIA-410504.
(2015-2016)

Jaihind Comprehensive Education Institutes

JAIHIND POLYTECHNIC, KURAN,
Department of Civil Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that,

Shaikh Anas Rabbani

has satisfactorily completed the Seminar work entitled,

Skyscrapers
This work is being submitted in the partial fulfillment of prescribed syllabus of
Third Year Civil Engineering, M.S.B.T.E.
For the academic year 2015-2016.

Prof. Wakchaure A.V.

Prof. Sonawne P.B .

CO-ORDINATOR

GUIDE

Prof. Benke V.G

Prof. Gunjal Y. S.

HEAD OF DEPT.

PRINCIPAL

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I have great pleasure in presenting this seminar report entitled SKYSCRAPERS

for partial fulfillment of the Diploma in civil Engineering.
I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude towards my guide
Prof.P.B.Sonawne, and seminar coordinator Prof. A.V.Wakchaure for his well-formulated
and indispensable guidance in the completion of this report, without which this would not
have been possible.
I am also thankful to Head Of The Dept., Prof. V. G. Benke, for kind cooperation
during this course.
I extend my sincere thanks to Prof. Y. S. Gunjal principal for extending all kinds of
cooperation during the course.
I express my sincere thanks to supporting staff of Civil Engg. Department and
Library faculty.
Lastly I am thankful to all those who have helped me directly or indirectly to
complete this seminar work.

SHAIKH ANAS R.
S.Y. (Civil)

INDEX
SR.NO
1
2
3

CHAPTERS
Introduction
Literature review
Methodology
3.1

Structure, Material

PAGE NO.
1
2
3
3

and Building
3.2

Technique
Structure of the
Main Skeleton,

Design and
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8

Material
System
Building material
Wind loads
Seismic loading
Vibration control
Construction

3.9

techniques
Earthquake
resistant

6
8
9
10
12
13

construction,
reinforced masonry
3.10

structures
Reinforced

3.11

concrete structures
Prestressed

3.12

structures
Steel structures

3.13

Prefabrication

15

16

17

4
5
6

Discussion
Advantages and Disadvantages
Conclusion

ABSTRACT
4

18
19
20
23
25

Skyscrapers are known to be super tall building either residential, work place
or of mix use. They are now tends to coincide with major downturns in the economy.
Today the number of skyscrapers that are being built all around the world are
increasing where the land is highly expensive (as in big / metropolitan cities) as they
provide high ratio of floor space to be used to per unit area of available land. They are
not built just for the economy of space, they are considered to be symbol of citys
economic power.
They do not only define the skyline but also defines the citys identity. In
many places exceptionally tall skyscrapers have been built not just because of
necessity of space but to define the citys identity and presence of power as a city. The
first skyscrapers would have been typically an office building of more than 10 storeys.
The concept was undoubtedly originated in the USA, in Chicago and in New York,
where space was limited and where the best option was to increase the height of the
buildings. The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete,
water pumps, and elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were
rare. So many flights of stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure
was usually insufficient to supply running water above about 15 metres (50 feet).
The weight-bearing components of skyscrapers differ substantially from those
of other buildings. Buildings up to about four stories can be supported by their walls,
while skyscrapers are larger buildings that must be supported by a skeletal frame.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:
A skyscraper is a very tall, building. The minimum height requirement
currently to be accepted as skyscraper is 800 feet (244 meters). The word skyscraper
was first known to such buildings in the late 19th century, which reflects public
amazement at the tall buildings that are being built in New York City. The structural
definition of the word skyscraper was later refined by architectural, historians, based
on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multistory buildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton as opposed to
constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with
Chicago's Monadnock Building. The steel frame developed in stages of increasing
self-sufficiency, with several buildings in New York and Chicago advancing the
technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today,
however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built more or less entirely with
reinforced concrete. In the United States today, it is a loose convention to draw the
lower limit on what is a skyscraper at 153 metres (500 feet). Thus, calling a building a
skyscraper will usually, but not always, imply pride and achievement. Though never
made famous, the Incans made a feeble attempt to build the first skyscraper. This
skyscraper, was to be called "UtzaInti" which can be translated to "road to the sun god
Inti." In 1440 the Incan emperor Bhutilishus II commissioned 2,000 slaves from the
nearby province of Uhrhythrah to begin a 1000 foot tower. The tower was to have one
room called a LintzaTianu. Construction began in approximately 1442 under the royal
architect, whom priests called Tahmihpohn Puhpuhsi or, "builder of our empire."
Construction on the building occurred for three years until an earthquake destroyed
the base of the structure. All efforts to rebuild the tower were ignored. A skyscraper
taller than 305 metres (1,000 feet) may sometimes be referred to as a supertall. The
crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps,
and elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many
flights of stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually
insufficient to supply running water above about 15 metres (50 feet).

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Development of Modern Skyscrapers:
In the late 19th century, the first skyscrapers would have been typically an
office building of more than 10 storeys. The concept was undoubtedly originated in
the USA, in Chicago and in New York, where space was limited and where the best
option was to increase the height of the buildings. The Home Insurance Building in
Chicago was perhaps the first skyscraper in the world. Built in 1884-1885 its height
was 42 m/10 storeys. Designed by Major William Le Baron Jenney, a graduate of
lEcoleCentrale des Arts et Manufactures de Paris, the structural skeleton was a bolted
steel frame without bracing supporting the loads coming from the walls and the slabs,
founded on a raft. This led to what is known as the Chicago Skeleton.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 STRUCTURE, MATERIAL AND BUILDING TECHNIQUE:
3.1.1 Foundations and the Excavation Pit:
Skyscraper foundations are considerably more complex than those for normal
buildings. The complexity brought is just because of their height and weight and can
be further depend on the certain specific factors such as nature of soil, exposure to
wind , earthquake and their location in relation to surrounding property. Depending on
the nature of the structure, the type of foundation and the characteristics of the
ground, the value of the foundation / excavation can be as much as the 7.5% of the
total project value. The foundation is the supporting layer of a structure. The main
purpose of the foundation is to transfer the various loads (wind, seismic, dead and
live) from the structure into the ground. Different factors can influence the type and
dimension of the foundations; soil type and stiffness, water content, void ratio, bulk
density, angle of repose, cohesion, porosity to name but a few. Characteristics of the
ground can also experience change due to the geological history or previous
construction activities.
There are many different types of retaining walls:
Interlocking sheet piles; these can be temporary or permanent
Contiguous, secant piled walls, the latter more likely to be used in soft/wet soils
Diaphragm walls; particularly used in soft ground with high groundwater and/or
adjacent to other structures
Crosswalls; often used in addition to one of the above where is a particularly high
exposure to adjacent properties
Typically in the case of coverage for skyscrapers clauses should be considered
which address the following specific areas:
Piling

 Dewatering
Vibration, weakening or removal of support

3.2 STRUCTURE OF THE MAIN SKELETON, DESIGN AND

MATERIAL:
Of the 100 tallest buildings the number using steel has reduced by at least
15% each decade since 1970, and in 2010 only 22% of the tallest building is steel.
The key issues with high performance concrete (high performance concrete is
reinforced concrete with a compressive strength at 28 days in excess of 50 MPa)
relate to the quality of the material and the expertise of the contractors. Only a few of
whom are familiar with these concretes. The controls on site must be quite strict and
without compromise. The columns of The Coeur Defense towers in the business
district of Paris have a diameter of 1,10m and used a high performance concrete of 80
MPa. When it comes to steel, the quality of the material is with the suppliers. On site
the main concern will be on the various assemblies. This is like giant meccano,
however as often these projects take place in a confined urban environment, logistics
and third party exposures are an important consideration.
In respect of structural systems, it is possible to define 6 categories:
1. The framed tube: system of rigid frames (flatiron building in 1903)
2. The bundled tube: combination of framed tubes (Sears towers, 1974)
3. Tube in tube: central and peripheral tubes (World Trade Centre in NY, 1972)
4. Diagonalised: stressed tubes, diagrids/braced frames (Alcoa bld. in Chicago)
5. Core plus outrigger: central lateral system linked to the perimeter system through
outriggers (PETRONAS Tower, 1999 Taipei 101, 2003 )
It is however important for a construction underwriter to look at the problems
emerging from these loads (earthquake or wind) during the various construction
stages. The wind analysis is very often conducted with a view to understanding how
the building will behave when it is completed. However for example the cladding of
the building may require further tests to make sure that during the construction stages,
the wind load distribution will not generate unexpected problems

3.3 SYSTEM:
The cladding systems comprise the external building envelope or the outer
finish. These have evolved over time to reflect the ambitions of the developers and the
creative and innovative talents of the modern architects.
Key factors which will affect the characteristics of the cladding systems
include; climatic conditions, support and anchorage systems, owners taste,
maintenance services, ventilation or air-circulation system. The dimensions of the
individual external wall elements, forming part of the external building envelope, are
designed to fit between two respective structural floors, the main objectives being:
Water-tightness, Aesthetics, Wind, Privacy
Thermal protection (including control of sunlight entry)
Reduction in noise-level, and Strength / durability.
There are four different groups and their sub-groups of Faade systems /
Cladding systems existing. They are (though not an exhaustive list):
Traditional
- Brick faade (e.g. Empire State building, Chrysler building, etc.)
- Marble panel system
Ventilated Faade
- Aluminum, stone, ceramics, fibre reinforced concrete
(Non-load bearing) Curtain wall
Glass
Material Weights Flat glass used for window panels
the weight depends on the glass thickness:
of an inch thick glass weighs about 3lbs/ft
of an inch thick glass weighs about 6.4lbs/ft.
6

Adding coatings to the glass in order to protect it and tint, would also increase the
weight of the glass panel.

3.4 BUILDING MATERIAL

Aluminum
has become the material-of-choice for the outer frames.
Window Panes
made of high-grade glass filled with noble gases and a surface coating in order to
reflect infrared light.
Laminated Glass
Sandwich Panels
one of the primary materials used in faade systems of a building are so called
sandwich panels or also known as composite panels. - Sandwich or Composite
panels are thermal insulating material. These panels consist of two thin metal
facings/sheets (i.e. outer skin), usually steel or aluminum, bonded to an inner core
of thermal insulating material of varying thickness. This system includes joints and
supports. The combustible panels include:Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), Extruded
Polystyrene (XPS), Polyurethane (PUR), Polyisocyanurate (PIR), Phenolic Foam (PF)
- The non-combustible panels include: Mineral Wool, Rock Fibre (MWRF), Glass
fibre (MWGF), Foamed Glass (Cellular Glass)
There is great interest in the combustible-type panels because they are the most
widely used in buildings like apartment/residential, hotels, office/commercial,
hospitals.
The combustible panels are widely used / installed in countries situated in the
Middle East and the Arabian Gulf peninsula due to the harsh climatic conditions,
characterized by high temperature all year-long especially between June and
September. The most widely used panels are the polystyrene and the polyurethane
panels for many reasons, to name a few (a) low installation cost, (b) easy in handling
and installation, and (c) strength/durability

3.5 WIND LOADS:

Wind engineering analyzes effects of wind in the natural and the built
environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may
result from wind. In the field of structural engineering it includes strong winds, which
may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or
heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. In the fields of wind energy
and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to
electricity production resp. dispersion of contaminants. Wind engineering draws upon
meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems and a
number of specialist engineering disciplines including aerodynamics, and structural
dynamics.
Wind engineering involves, among other topics:
Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers).
Wind comfort near buildings.
Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building.
Wind climate for wind energy.
Air pollution near buildings. Wind engineering may be considered by structural
engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and explosion protection.

3.6 SEISMIC LOADING:

Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which
means application of an earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at
contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, or with adjacent structures, or
with gravity waves from tsunami.
Seismic loading depends, primarily, on:
Anticipated earthquake's parameters at the site - known as seismic hazard
Geotechnical parameters of the site
Structure's parameters
Characteristics of the anticipated gravity waves from tsunami (if applicable).
Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a or completely. Due to their mutual
astructure are intimately related.Earthquake or seismic performance such as its safety
and serviceability normally, considered safe if it does not endanger the lives and well
by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered fulfill its
operational functions for which it was designed.
Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the ma that a
building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant
damage but without globally collapsing frequent, but less severe seismic events.
Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a structure to resist it without being
broken, partially Due to their mutual interaction; seismic loading and seismic
performance are intimately related.seismic performance defines a structure's ability to
sustain its main functions, serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake exposure.
A structure is, if it does not endanger the lives and well-being of those in or around it
by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable fulfill
its operational functions for which it was designed. Basic concepts of the earthquake
engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume that a building should
survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage but without
globally collapsing. On the other hand, it should remain operational for more
frequent, but less severe seismic events.To resist it without being broken, partially
seismic performance of defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions, a
10

particular earthquake exposure. A structure is, eing of those in or around it serviceable

if it is able to jor building codes, assume that a building should survive a rare, very
severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage On the other hand, it should
remain operational for more

11

3.7 VIBRATION CONTROL:

In earthquake engineering, vibration control is a set of technical means aimed
to mitigate seismic impacts in building and non-building structures. All seismic
vibration control devices may be classified as passive, active or hybrid where:
Passive control devices have no feedback capability between them, structural
elements and the ground;
Hybrid control devices have combined features of active and passive control
systems. When ground seismic waves reach up and start to penetrate a base of a
building, their energy flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually,
up to 90%.
To dissipate the wave energy inside a superstructure with properly engineered
dampers;
To disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies;
To absorb the resonant portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of
socalled mass dampers.
Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned
(passive), as AMD for the active, and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers, have
been studied and installed in highrise buildings, predominantly in Japan, for a quarter
of a century.
In refineries or plants snubbers are often used for vibration control. Snubbers
come in two different variations: hydraulic snubber and a mechanical snubber.
Hydraulic snubbers are used on piping systems when restrained thermal movement
is allowed.
Mechanical snubbers operate on the standards of restricting acceleration of any pipe
movements to a threshold of 0.2 g's, which is the maximum acceleration that the
snubber will permit the piping.

12

3.8 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:

The weight of a skyscraper mainly consists of dead load, the load exerted by
the building itself. Any extra weight from people, furniture, vehicles, etc. is known as
live load. In addition, wind and other unexpected sources can be load providers. The
design of a skyscraper is mainly dictated by how the total load is to be distributed.
Skyscraper designs are categorized as steel frames, shear walls, concrete core, or tube
designs.
3.8.1 Shear walls:
In a shear wall design, the weight of the structure is distributed through the
walls. These structures are often made of steel reinforced brick or cinder block
materials with high compressive strength. The shear wall design is primarily used in
small projects such as urban brownstones or suburban housing. As the load exerted on
the building increases, shear walls must increase in bulk, meaning skyscrapers would
need considerably large walls. Because of this, for tall buildings, this system is only
used in conjunction with other supporting systems.

3.8.2 Steel Frame:

When one thinks of low-rise skyscrapers, the steel frame design comes to
mind. This design is characterized by a large steel box, containing smaller steel boxes
inside. This 3D grid is simple and efficient for most low-rises, but has its drawbacks
for high-rise structures. As the buildings height increases, the space between steel
beams must decrease to compensate for the extra weight, resulting in less office space
and the need for more material.

3.8.3 Tube Frame:

The tube design is a recent innovation used to maximize floor space and
increase resistance to lateral force in any direction. The buildings skin (outside)
consists of closely aligned supporting columns. This design only leaves about onehalf of the buildings exterior left for windows. Depending on the designers outlook,
this can be an advantage or disadvantage. The decreased window space helps those
13

who suffer acrophobia (a fear of heights) comfortably occupy the space; however, it
decreases the visibility and openness offered by other designs.
The tube frame design was made popular by the World Trade Centers, whose
ultimate failure; some believe was due to the tube frame design.

3.8.4 Concrete Core:

This is the most common design for modern skyscrapers as it is fast to build
and provides a strong center. All the utilities, elevators, and stairwells are centralized
in this design, making it easier for building modifications and repair. This design can
be dangerous. If a part of the core is damaged, everything above that section will be
cut off from ground access. This happened in the World Trade Center towers during
the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, making it impossible for many people to
escape the burning towers.

14

3.9 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION REINFORCED

MASONRY STRUCTURES:
A construction system where steel reinforcement is embedded in the mortar
joints of masonry or placed in holes and after filled with concrete or grout is called
reinforced masonry. The devastating 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed that
masonry construction should be improved immediately. Then, the California State
Code made the reinforced masonry mandatory. To achieve a ductile behavior of
masonry, it is necessary that the shear strength of the wall is greater than the flexural
strength.

15

3.10 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES:

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars (rebars) or
fibers have been incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be brittle.
It can be used to produce beams, columns, floors or bridges.
Prestressed concrete is a kind of reinforced concrete used for overcoming
concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be applied to beams, floors or bridges
with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing
tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping
load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the
concrete compression member would, otherwise, experience due to a bending load.

16

3.11 PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES:

Prestressed structure is the one whose overall integrity, stability and security
depend, primarily, on prestressing. Prestressing means the intentional creation of
permanent stresses in a structure for the purpose of improving its performance under
various service conditions.
There are the following basic types of prestressing:
Pre-compression (mostly, with the own weight of a structure)
Pretensioning with high-strength embedded tendons
Post-tensioning with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons
Today, the concept of prestressed structure is widely engaged in design of
buildings, underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and
offshore facilities, nuclear reactor vessels, and numerous kinds of bridge systems.

17

3.12 STEEL STRUCTURES:

Steel structures are considered mostly earthquake resistant but this isn't always
the case. A great number of welded Steel Moment Resisting Frame buildings, which
looked earthquake-proof, surprisingly experienced brittle behavior and were
hazardously damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. After that, the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) initiated development of repair techniques
and new design approaches to minimize damage to steel moment frame buildings in
future earthquakes. For structural steel seismic design based on Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) approach, it is very important to assess ability of a structure to
develop and maintain its bearing resistance in the inelastic range. A measure of this
ability is ductility, which may be observed in a material itself, in a structural element,
or to a whole structure.

18

3.13 PREFABRICATION:
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a
factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or subassemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. The term is
used to distinguish this process from the more conventional construction practice of
transporting the basic materials to the construction site where all assembly is carried
out.
The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than
structures at a fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a
machine or any movable structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to
another location, and the section is supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not
generally used to refer to electrical or electronic components of a machine, or
mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and compressors which are usually
supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of the machine which in the
past were fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts of the body of the
machine may be called 'sub-assemblies' to distinguish them from the other
components.

19

CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION
4.0.1 BurjKhalifa Dubai (2010) 829 m
Key Facts: Constructed in 6 years.
Worlds tallest building.
163 Storeys.
45,000 square meters of concrete weighing 110,000 tonnes
12,000 workers.

Cost USD $1.5billion.

Tallest service elevator.
Tallest free standing structure
31,400 metric tonne of steel used.
Construction started in 2004
20

 58 number of elevators
Top elevator speed 10m/s
900 number of apartments
Previously known as Burj Dubai.
Highest outdoor observation Deck (440m)
Peak Electricity demand of tower is 5 MVA
946,000 litres of water used every day.
The towers architect and engineer is Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (Chicago).

4.0.2 The Imperial II (Mumbai) 2010 254m:

Key Facts: Tallest building in India
Tallest Residential Building in India.
Also called as SD Towers orTardeo Twin Towers.
60 floors. Construction started in 2005
189 tallest in World
17 Elevators.
Top elevator speed 6m/s.
A private observation deck is present at the top of each building by the cone spires.
Use of M50 grade cement which is usually used in building dams and bridges.
228 luxury homes.
Fe 500 iron used instead of regular Fe 450 to give the slabs added tensile strength
allowing longer spans in between the beams.
21

 Clear ceiling height of 10.8 and 11.8 feet.

A grand triple height lobby

22

CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
5.1 ADVANTAGES OF SKYSCRAPERS:
Throughout the world, the population of the major cities are increasing at a
fast rate and where land for building is not available; there is a pressure to build
upward rather than sideways.
The main advantage of building higher building is that they can take pressure
of the need to build just outside large cities, thus preventing the spread outwards and
the destruction of the countryside. In smaller countries, land is very expensive and so
it makes a sense to build upwards. In London for example property prices are rising
rapidly and will continue to do so for years to come unless more homes are built.
Options, building in the greenbelt area around the city and constructing skyscrapers
are controversial, but tall buildings are the less damaging alternative. Here are few
more advantages of Skyscrapers.
Skyscrapers are known as modern answer for lack of space.
Each Skyscraper has their own unique architectural feature.
These features often made the skyscrapers the icon of their city.
These skyscrapers attract millions of tourist each year, and bring profit to local
business.
Radio, television and cell phones require signal receivers from broadcasters.
By placing an antenna at a highest point in the city broadcasters can send a power
full signal for many miles.
Skyscrapers provide excellent site for antenna and other equipment.

23

5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF SKYSCRAPERS:

People have been building towers for as long as there have been cities. From
the watchtowers and temple spires of ancient cities to the skyscrapers and radio
towers that form the most modern skylines, towers represent the on-going evolution
of architectural and engineering techniques. The structures offer some major
advantages but also pose serious challenges to designers and builders.
High cost of investment, construction, maintenance, and operation.
Negative effect on indoor and outdoor environment.
Destruction of natural environment.
Noise pollution.
Poor Ventilation.
Rely on Elevators.
Fireproofing Problem.
Evacuation difficulty when fire broke out.
Poor Fire resistance of Steel Structure System.
Land Subsidence.
The development of high rise buildings destroyed the harmony of the local cultural
landscape.
The last reason is economy; the skyscrapers cant be cleaned or repaired by normal
people

24

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION:
Why were these buildings suddenly getting bigger and who was actually
occupying them? The answer is that there was this huge social change in the office
world in the early twentieth century. The need for office workers was expanding at a
spectacular rate as businesses like banking, insurance, and law firms hired more
people, not only the partners at these firms but huge numbers of office workers too.
Both men and women were being hired and so they needed more space. In addition to
the large businesses, there were many smaller support businesses that rented small
offices in these speculative office buildings. But the number of these businesses
expanded enormously. If business had not been expanding, this skyscraper
development would never have occurred because these are money generators. The
builders of these skyscrapers wanted to make a profit and they had to know that there
was an office market out there to rent the space, because if there was no office market,
what was the point of investing money in constructing such a large building if it was
just going to remain vacant? So it was the expansion of the office market that went
hand in hand with the expansion of the skyscraper.

25

REFRENCES
http://www.burjkhalifa.ae/en/TheTower/FactsFigures.aspx
http://history1900s.about.com/od/1930s/a/empirefacts.html
http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/culture/skyscraper_design
http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/mumbai/the-imperial-ii/

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