A Seminar report

On
Quantum Cryptography
Submitted to the Department of

Computer Science & Engineering

In partial fulfillment of degree
Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science

SUBMITTED TO:

SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. K.P.Gangwar

SOMYA SAXENA
Roll No-1347610006
BATCH(2013-2017)

Future Institute Of Engineering & Technology, Bareilly

Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam University, Lucknow

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank respected Mr K.P. Gangwar for giving me such a wonderful opportunity to expand my
knowledge and giving me guidelines to present a seminar report. It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for.
Further I am grateful to Mr. Keshav Verma for his precious guidance and support in preparation of this seminar
report.
Thirdly, I would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me to make my work more organized and wellstacked till the end.

Thank you

Abstract
Quantum cryptography uses quantum mechanics to guarantee secure communication. It enables two parties to
produce a shared random bit string known only to them, which can be used as a key to encrypt and decrypt
messages. An important and unique property of quantum cryptography is the ability of the two communicating
users to detect the presence of any third party trying to gain knowledge of the key. This results from a
fundamental part of quantum mechanics: the process of measuring a quantum system in general disturbs the
system. A third party trying to eavesdrop on the key must in some way measure it, thus introducing detectable
anomalies. By using quantum superpositions or quantum entanglement and transmitting information in quantum
states, a communication system can be implemented which detects eavesdropping. If the level of eavesdropping is
below a certain threshold a key can be produced which is guaranteed as secure, otherwise no secure key is
possible and communication is aborted. The security of quantum cryptography relies on the foundations of
quantum mechanics, in contrast to traditional public key cryptography which relies on the computational
difficulty of certain mathematical functions, and cannot provide any indication of eavesdropping or guarantee of
key security. Quantum cryptography is only used to produce and distribute a key, not to transmit any message
data. This key can then be used with any chosen encryption algorithm to encrypt and decrypt a message, which
can then be transmitted over a standard communication channel. The algorithm most commonly associated with
QKD is the one-time pad, as it is provably secure when used with a secret, random key.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Introduction
Quantum Cryptography
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Polarisation of light
Public key Cryptography
Advantages and disadvantages
Contributions
Current challenges
Conclusion

Page No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8,9
10

TABLE OF FIGURES

S.NO.

Figures Name

Page no.

Figure 1 - Process block diagram

2.

Figure 2 - Polarisation of light

INTRODUCTION

Cryptography is the science of keeping private information from unauthorized access, of ensuring data integrity
and authentication, and other tasks. In this survey, we will focus on quantum-cryptographic key distribution and
bit commitment protocols and we in particular will discuss their security. Before turning to quantum
cryptography, let me give a brief review of classical cryptography, its current challenges and its historical
development. Two parties, Alice and Bob, wish to exchange messages via some insecure channel in a way that
protects their messages from eavesdropping. An algorithm, which is called a cipher in this context, scrambles
Alices message via some rule such that restoring the original message is hardif not impossiblewithout
knowledge of the secret key. This scrambled message is called the ciphertext. On the other hand, Bob (who
possesses the secret key) can easily decipher Alices ciphertext and obtains her original plaintext. Figure 1 in this
section presents this basic cryptographic scenario.
Cryptography is the science of codes and ciphers.
Art of encoding and decoding messages of secure communications.
Broadcast, network communications, Internet,e-mail etc.

FIG-1

Quantum Cryptography

Stephen Wiesner wrote Conjugate Coding in the late sixties. Charles H. Bennett and Gilles Brassard revived the
field in 1982 by combining quantum process with public key cryptography.
Quantum Cryptography is an effort to allow two users of a common communication channel to create a body of
shared and secret information. This information, which generally takes the form of a random string of bits, can
then be used as a conventional secret key for secure communication.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and quantum entanglement can be exploited in as system of secure
communication often referred to as quantum Cryptography.
Quantum Cryptography, or Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), uses quantum mechanics to guarantee secure
communication. It enables two parties to produce a shared random bit string known only to them, which can be
used as a key to encrypt and decrypt messages. An important and unique property of quantum cryptography is the
ability of the two communicating users to detect the presence of any third party trying to gain knowledge of the
key. This results from a fundamental part of quantum mechanics: the process of measuring a quantum system in
general disturbs the system. A third party trying to eavesdrop on the key must in some way measure it, thus
introducing detectable anomalies. By using quantum superpositions or quantum entanglement and transmitting
information in quantum states, a communication system can be implemented which detects eavesdropping. If the
level of eavesdropping is below a certain threshold a key can be produced which is guaranteed as secure (i.e. the
eavesdropper has no information about), otherwise no secure key is possible and communication is aborted.
The security of quantum cryptography relies on the foundations of quantum mechanics, in contrast to traditional
public key cryptography which relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical functions, and
cannot provide any indication of eavesdropping or guarantee of key security. Quantum cryptography is only used
to produce and distribute a key, not to transmit any message data. This key can then be used with any chosen
encryption algorithm to encrypt (and decrypt) a message, which can then be transmitted over a standard
communication channel. The algorithm most commonly associated with QKD is the one-time pad, as it is
provably secure when used with a secret, random key.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Unlike in classical physics, the act of measurement is an integral part of quantum mechanics. So it is possible to
encode information into quantum properties of a photon in such a way that any effort to monitor them disturbs
them in some detectable way. The effect arises because in quantum theory, certain pairs of physical properties are
complementary in the sense that measuring one property necessarily disturbs the other. This statement is known as
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The two complementary properties that are often used in quantum
cryptography, are two types of photon's polarization, e.g. rectilinear (vertical and horizontal) and diagonal (at 45
and 135).
Entanglement:
It is a state of two or more quantum particles, e.g. photons, in which many of their physical properties are
strongly correlated. The entangled particles cannot be described by specifying the states of individual particles
and they may together share information in a form which cannot be accessed in any experiment performed on
either of the particles alone. This happens no matter how far apart the particles may be at the time.

Polarisation of light
Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane.The process of
transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.
Symbols:Horizontal polarizations
Vertical polarization -
45 polarization -
135 polarization -

Fig 2

Public key Cryptography

Public-key cryptography, also known as asymmetric cryptography which requires two separate key, one of which
is secret (or private) and one of which is public..It has better speed and less complicated then RSA and one time
pad .But still there is a problem that is, it can also be hacked.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:
The biggest advantage of public key cryptography is the secure nature of the private key. In fact, it never needs to
be transmitted or revealed to anyone.It enables the use of digital certificates and digital timestamps, which is a
very secure technique of signature authorization.
Disadvantages:
Transmission time for documents encrypted using

public key cryptography are significantly slower then

symmetric cryptography. In fact, transmission of very large doc is prohibitive. The key sizes must be significantly
larger than symmetric cryptography to achieve the same level of protection. Public key cryptography is
susceptible to impersonation attacks.

Contributions of Quantum Cryptography

It solved the key distribution problem.

Unconditionally secure key distribution method proposed by:

Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard in 1984.

The method is called BB84.

Once key is securely received it can be used to encrypt messages transmitted by conventional channels

Current Challenges
Like everything in the world of information security, quantum cryptography is not panacea. The main drawbacks
of quantum cryptography are due to the following two reasons:
Man in the middle attack:
Quantum cryptography is vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack when used without authentication to the same
extent as any classical protocol, since no principle of quantum mechanics can distinguish friend from foe. As in
the classical case, Alice and Bob cannot authenticate each other and establish a secure connection without some
means of verifying each other's identities (such as an initial shared secret). If Alice and Bob have an initial shared
secret then they can use an unconditionally secure authentication scheme (such as Carter-Wegman,) along with
quantum key distribution to exponentially expand this key, using a small amount of the new key to authenticate
the next session. Several methods to create this initial shared secret have been proposed, for example using a 3rd
party or chaos theory.
Photon number splitting attack :
In the BB84 protocol Alice sends quantum states to Bob using single photons. In practice many implementations
use laser pulses attenuated to a very low level to send the quantum states. These laser pulses contain a very small
amount of photons, for example 0.2 photons per pulse, which are distributed according to a Poissonian
distribution. This means most pulses actually contain no photons (no pulse is sent), some pulses contain 1 photon
(which is desired) and a few pulses contain 2 or more photons. If the pulse contains more than one photon, then
Eve can split of the extra photons and transmit the remaining single photon to Bob. This is the basis of the photon
number splitting attack, where Eve stores these extra photons in a quantum memory until Bob detects the
remaining single photon and Alice reveals the encoding basis. Eve can then measure her photons in the correct
basis and obtain information on the key without introducing detectable errors. There are several solutions to this
problem. The most obvious is to use a true single photon source instead of an attenuated laser. While such sources
are still at a developmental stage QKD has been carried out successfully with them. However as current sources
operate at a low efficiency and frequency key rates and transmission distances are limited. Another solution is to
modify the BB84 protocol, as is done for example in the SARG04 protocol, in which the secure key rate scales as
t3 / 2.

The most promising solution is the decoy state idea, in which Alice randomly sends some of her laser pulses with
a lower average photon number. These decoy states can be used to detect a PNS attack, as Eve has no way to tell
which pulses are signal and which decoy. Using this idea the secure key rate scales as t, the same as for a single
photon source. This idea has been implemented successfully in several QKD experiments, allowing for high key
rates secure against all known attacks.

Conclusion
Quantum cryptography is a major achievement in security engineering.As it gets implemented, it will allow
perfectly secure bank transactions, secret discussions for government officials, and well-guarded trade secrets for
industry.
Quantum cryptography promises to revolutionize secure communication by providing security based on the
fundamental laws of physics, instead of the current state of mathematical algorithms or computing technology.
The devices for implementing such methods exist and the performance of demonstration systems is being
continuously improved. Within the next few years, if not months, such systems could start encrypting some of the
most valuable secrets of government and industry. Future developments will focus on faster photon detectors, a
major factor limiting the development of practical systems for widespread commercial use. Chip Elliott, BBN's
principal engineer, says the company is working with the University of Rochester and NIST's Boulder
Laboratories in Colorado to develop practical superconducting photon detectors based on niobium nitride, which
would operate at 4 K and 10 GHz. The ultimate goal is to make QKD more reliable, integrate it with today's
telecommunications infrastructure, and increase the transmission distance and rate of key generation. Thus the
Long-term goals of quantum key distribution are the realistic implementation via fibers, for example, for different
buildings of a bank or company , and free space key exchange via satellites. Quantum cryptography already
provides the most advanced technology of quantum information science, and is on the way to achieve the
(quantum) jump from university laboratories to the real world.

References

SANTHIMOL A. K.(pdf)
Computer networks-Forouzon
Information systems and technology-A.A Rajput