Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Geology
Third Draft
November 2006
CHAPTER
2 Investigating Geologic
Questions
OUR WORLD IS FULL OF GEOLOGIC MYSTERIES. Investigating these mysteries requires knowing what
to observe, how to interpret what we see, and how to analyze the problem from different viewpoints. The
investigation of geologic questions leads to new ideas and theories about Earth. This chapter explores
ways to investigate geologic questions, beginning with a mystery about the Mediterranean Sea.
This image of the Mediterranean region shows the seaoor colored
in shades of blue according to depth, with darker blue representing
deeper water. On land, satellite data show rock and sand in shades of
brown or tan and areas with forests and grasslands in shades of green.
Trace with your nger the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Where
does the Mediterranean Sea connect with the rest of the oceans?
EUROPE
Atlantic Ocean
Strait of
Gibraltar
Mediterranean Sea
Atlantic
Ocean
The Mediterranean Sea loses more water to evaporation than it receives from
the rivers of Europe and Africa. To keep the sea full, water from the shallow
levels of the Atlantic Ocean ows through the Strait of Gibraltar. Astronauts
photographed this ow () as huge subsurface currents funneled through
the Strait and spread out into the
Mediterranean (toward the right). At even
greater depths, some water also ows from
the Mediterranean out to the Atlantic.
Strait of Gibraltar
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
2.7
2.1
2.8
2.2
2.4
2.11
2.12
2.13
ASIA
Black Sea
Mediterranean Sea
AFRICA
2.10
2.0
Nile
River
MIDDLE
EAST
2.1
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
2.1
2.2
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
A geologic feature is
younger than any rock or
feature it crosscuts. For
example, the fault shown
must be younger than
rock layers it crosses and
offsets. This fault is also
younger than formation
of the land surface.
Figure It Out!
2.2
2.3
2. Compasses and
other scientic instruments are checked and calibrated to make sure that they function properly and ensure
that the measurements become valid and trustworthy data. All measurements are recorded in a eld notebook or in a portable computer and then analyzed and archived.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
What Is an Explanation?
When geologists examine various data associated with a system, several interpretations may t together into
a coherent story or explanation. The table below summarizes the data-interpretation pairs from Part B. The
last item in the table is a new piece of data obtained from other studies. These data and interpretations combine to form a possible explanation, or hypothesis, for how the belt of smooth topography formed.
Data
Interpretation
The linear belt is parallel with the movement of the continent relative to a source
of magma in the underlying mantle.
A Possible Explanation
For the last 15 million years, the North American continent and its lithosphere have been
moving southwest over a deep thermal disturbance, or hot spot, that is causing melting at
depth and volcanism on the surface. As North
America moves over the hot spot, new volcanoes erupt and then become inactive once that
area moves past the hot spot. If North America
continues to move southwest, the hot spot may
cause new volcanism northeast of Yellowstone.
2.3
2.4
Steps in the
Investigation
Observations
Questions
Derived from
Observations
One explanation is
that the buried tank
is the source of
contamination.
Conclusions
Proposed
Explanations
and Predictions from
Each
Explanation
Results of
Investigations
The rst step in an investigation is to make observations, recognize a problem, and state the problem
clearly and succinctly in terms of the data. Stating
the problem in this way simplies it into a more
manageable form and helps scientists focus on the
most important aspects of the problem.
Another explanation is
that the buried tank is
not the source of the
contamination.
No holes were observed
in the tank.
No gasoline spillage was
found around the tank.
Records show that the
tank held unleaded gasoline.
Gasoline in the groundwater is leaded.
T H E N AT U R E O F G E O L O G Y
a time, all meteor sightings and meteorites were considered to be the result of
lightning that had fused dust with other
particles in the air. This explanation was
rejected when chemists noted that some
meteorites had iron-nickel alloys that
were not found in any Earth rocks. Also,
some meteorites fell in plain view when
there were no lightning storms. Stones
2.4
2.5
Madagascar
Africa
South
America
The t of the continents and other supporting evidence preserved in rocks and fossils inspired Wegener and others to suggest that the continents, including most of India, were once
joined together but then drifted apart.
India
Antarctica
Oth
er P
of C ieces
rust
This cut-and-paste t of the continents is intriguing and leads to predictions for testing the
hypothesis of continental drift. Parts of continents that were supposedly joined should
have similar rocks and geologic structures.
Geologists nd such similarities when
lia
they compare the rocks and structures
a
r
st
u
in southern Australia with the rocks and
A
structures exposed around the edges of
ice sheets on Antarctica.
Africa
India
South
America
Antarctica
lia
tra
s
Au
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
Ice Cap
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
Africa
South
America
2.5
2.6
How Do Maps and Satellite Images Help People Study Earths Surface?
Satellite images and various types of maps are the primary ways we portray the land surface and the geology exposed at the surface. Maps of SP Crater in northern Arizona provide a particularly clear example of the
relationship between geologic features and the land surface.
A shaded relief map emphasizes the shape of the land by simulating light and shadows on
the hills and valleys. The unusual hills on this map are small volcanoes called cinder cones.
Much of the area is dissected by straight and curving stream valleys. The simulated light
comes from the left of the image.
A topographic map shows the elevation above sea level of the land surface with a series
of lines called contours. Each contour line follows the same elevation on the surface.
Adjacent contour lines are widely spaced where the land surface is fairly at (has a gentle slope).
Topographic Map
Contour lines are more closely spaced where the land surface
is steep, such as on the slopes of the cinder cones.
A satellite image is produced by measuring different wave-
Satellite
Geologic Map
This photograph,
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
Block Diagram
1. A block diagram portrays in three dimensions the shape of the land surface
and the subsurface distributions of rock units and geologic features such as
faults and folds (if present).
Stratigraphic Section
Cross Section
3. A stratigraphic section
with appropriate relative
thicknesses shows the
rock units stacked on top
of one another.
2. A cross
section shows
the geology
as a two-dimensional
slice through
the land. This
example is
equivalent to
the front-left
side of the
block diagram.
Evolutionary Diagrams
Sketching Geology
2.6
2.7
Quantitative data are numbers that represent measurements. They are collected
with scientic instruments, such as the
thermal camera above, or with simple
measuring devices like a compass. Geologists collect such data in the eld and lab.
SPECTRA: The way that light is reected off the surface of the rock tells us
about the composition and the surface
texture or roughness.
WATER FLOW AND QUALITY: Measurements can record the velocity and volumes
of water owing in rivers and in groundwater,
while chemical analyses measure what the
water contains. Below, the USGS measures
ow in the Rappahannock River of Virginia.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
A line drawn through the data shows the average relationship between X and Y. In some cases, the line can
be used to predict the value of X for any value of Y.
Each of the graphs below provides an answer to a question a geologist might ask.
Is there
calcite
in this
specimen?
Are
these
rock
samples
the
same
age?
How
much
water
can we
pump
from
this
well?
At what
depth
should
we stop
mining for
gold?
2.7
In the case of the Indian Ocean tsunami, which originated in about 5,000 meters of
water, scientists estimate that the top wave velocity was 748 kilometers per hour (468
miles per hour)! If you lived along the Indian Ocean within 100 kilometers of the origin
of the tsunami, you may have had less than 10 minutes to reach safety.
2.8
Meters
A centimeter (1/100 of
a meter) is equivalent
to half the diameter of
a U.S. nickle. One inch
equals 2.54 centimeters.
A millimeter
(1/1000 of a
meter) is approximately
equivalent to
the thickness
of a U.S. dime.
For longer distances, we use the kilometer, which is 1,000 meters or a little less
than 11 football elds (one km =
1,093 yds). One kilometer
is 0.6 miles, and
one mile is
1.6 kilometers.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
Area
Calculation of Area
Volume
Calculation of Volume
Weight
The weight of an object is how much downward
force it exerts under the pull of gravity. It depends
on how much mass the object contains and where
we measure it. A person weighing 180 pounds on
Earth will weigh only 30 pounds on the Moon.
2.8
Mass is typically measured in grams or kilograms, and volumes are measured in cubic
centimeters, cubic meters, or liters. Densities are written in units such as gm/cm3.
Water has a density of 1 gm/cm3.
2.9
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
Animals having hard shells arrived at about 542 Ma. On our calendar, this is
the middle of November. This event is used to dene the beginning of the
Paleozoic Era, the second of Earths main chapters. The long time before
the Paleozoic Era is called the Precambrian Era (shown in brown).
Earths nal two chapters began in December. The Paleozoic Era ended and the Mesozoic Era started at 251 Ma in
mid-December. The Mesozoic Era ended and the Cenozoic Era began at 65 Ma equivalent to December 26.
2.9
2.10
1. Deposition on a
sandy beach forms
layers of sandstone.
2. The sandstone is
eroded, which produces clasts that are
transported away.
3. The sandstone
clasts are deposited
as part of another
sediment.
5. The
sedimentary rock
is buried,
heated,
and converted into a metamorphic rock. With the rock in this
condition, it might be difcult to
reconstruct the entire history.
Landslides can also be viewed at a broader scale, as in this map of landslide hazards
for the United States. Areas shown in red, yellow, and green have signicant risk for landslides, with red areas showing the highest risk. This map required the efforts of hundreds
of geologists, each mapping and studying individual landslides. Viewing landslides at
this scale is useful for allocating funds in anticipation of future landslide disasters.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
only in its fractures. Both wells encountered water at the same depth, but the
well drilled into granite went dry when
pumped because there was so little water in the fractures. Although from the
surface and the initial water levels the
two wells seemed comparable, the well
in granite was later abandoned another victim of incomplete data. For this
situation, we would need to know the
geometry of the rocks in the subsurface
Successful well
Poor well
2.10
2.11
studies, geologists
observe various aspect of the natural
environment, record these observations, and propose
explanations for
what they discover.
A common goal is
to understand the
areas geologic processes and history.
Sometimes, just
getting to the eld
site is an outdoor
adventure. [Antarctica]
Some eld geologists study volcanoes, earthquakes, landslides, oods, or other natural hazards. To help us avoid these
hazards, geologists study the processes that are operating,
determine how often hazardous events occur, and map areas
that are most likely to be affected. This geologist is extracting
samples of lava on the big island of Hawaii.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
An exciting eld of
geology is exploring
other planets and
their moons, principally by sending
spacecraft that orbit
a planet or land on
its surface. From
such observations,
planetary geologists
try to understand
what processes are
reshaping the surface
of the moon or planet and whether there is a possibility of water
and life. This recent image shows channels on Mars that are interpreted to have been carved by water owing on the surface.
Most oil, gas, and coal reside within sedimentary rocks, so exploration for these resources focuses on understanding the sequence
and geometry of rock layers and the environmental conditions in
which each layer was deposited. This computer-generated cross
section of subsurface rock layers, called a seismic prole, was produced by sending powerful vibrations into the ground and recording their arrivals back on the surface. This seismic line shows folded
sedimentary layers along the southern coast of the United States.
2.11
2.12
rim of broken rocks. Some dramatic geologic event must have occurred here. What could it be? We explore this mystery to see how competing explanations for the origin of a geologic feature are evaluated.
What Are Some Ways to Show the Geologic Setting of this Crater?
This geologic block diagram shows the
geometry of rock layers through the crater. A geologist constructed this cross
section on the front side
by observing the
rocks exposed in
the crater and in the
surrounding plains, by
examining results from
drilling in the oor of the
crater, and by extrapolating
these observations into the
subsurface.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
What Are Some Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Crater?
Since the crater was discovered, geologists have proposed and tested several explanations for its origin.
Among these explanations are a volcanic explosion, warping by a rising mass of salt, and excavation by a
meteorite impact.
Volcanic Explosion
Warping by a Rising
Mass of Salt
Meteorite Impact
Predictions from
Each Explanation
Results of Testing
Each Explanation
Possible
Explanation
2.12
2.13
The rocks shown in this image are all sedimentary and of Mesozoic age. The rock layers
away from the dome are nearly horizontal and
form various benches and at-topped mesas.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G E O L O G I C Q U E S T I O N S
What Sequence of Geologic Events Formed the Rocks and the Dome?
Shown below are (1) a stratigraphic section with the sequence of rock layers and (2) a geologic cross section
across the dome. Using these two gures and the strategies in Section 2.2, determine the order in which the
layers were formed, and write your answers on the worksheet.
Stratigraphic Section
Unit A: upper sandstone
Unit B: mudstone with
thin sandstone layers
Cross Section
The letters AG mark the units shown in the stratigraphic section to the left. The
letters are assigned in order from top to bottom, not in the order in which the
units formed. Some units, such as B and D, contain a series of related sedimentary rock layers rather than just a single type of rock.
N
Unit D: mudstone with
pebble-rich layers
E
F and G
D
E
It is uncertain
what types of
rocks lie at depth
below the dome
(i.e., below units F
and G).
How Would You Test Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Dome?
The origin of Upheaval Dome is controversial, and three competing explanations currently are being debated.
1. The rock layers were warped upward by a rising mass of salt. A thick salt layer is known to be present beneath much of the
Canyonlands region, and the salt would have risen upward because it is less dense than the surrounding rocks.
2. The dome formed as a result of rising magma. Igneous rocks formed from such magmas are common elsewhere in the region,
where they have bowed up and baked the surrounding rock layers.
3. The dome is part of a larger, circular crater formed by a meteorite impact. Many of the larger meteorite-impact craters on the
Moon and elsewhere have a central peak, or dome, which is interpreted to form by converging shock waves.
The age of the dome is poorly constrained. The dome is younger than all of the rock layers in the vicinity. When the dome formed,
the presently exposed rocks were buried several kilometers deep beneath overlying rock layers that have since been eroded away.
This erosion, therefore, removed some key evidence for the origin of the dome.
Procedures
1. For each of the three explanations, draw a simple sketch in the worksheet illustrating which types of rocks you predict to nd at
depth.
3. List which types of information you would like to know about this location to further constrain the origin of the dome.
2.13
2. List a prediction that follows from each explanation. Then, explain how that prediction could be tested.