Redline Ashrae 41.1 2013-1986R2006

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.
1-2013
(Supersedes ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.1-1986 [RA 2006])
Standard Method for

Temperature
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Approved by the ASHRAE Standards Committee on January 26, 2013; by the ASHRAE Board of Directors on January 29, 2013;
and by the American National Standards Institute on January 30, 2013.
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ASHRAE Standards are scheduled to be updated on a five-year cycle; the date following the standard number is the year of
ASHRAE Board of Directors approval. The latest edition of an ASHRAE Standard may be purchased on the ASHRAE website
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2013 ASHRAE
ISSN 1041-2336
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ASHRAE Standing Standard Project Committee 41

Cognizant TC: TC 1.2, Instruments and Measurements
SPLS Liaison: Douglass S Abramson
ASHRAE STANDARDS COMMITTEE 20122013
DISCLAIMER
ASHRAE uses its best efforts to promulgate Standards and Guidelines for the benefit of the public in light of available information and
accepted industry practices. However, ASHRAE does not guarantee, certify, or assure the safety or performance of any products, components,
or systems tested, installed, or operated in accordance with ASHRAEs Standards or Guidelines or that any tests conducted under its
Standards or Guidelines will be nonhazardous or free from risk.
ASHRAE INDUSTRIAL ADVERTISING POLICY ON STANDARDS

ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines are established to assist industry and the public by offering a uniform method of testing for rating
purposes, by suggesting safe practices in designing and installing equipment, by providing proper definitions of this equipment, and by providing
other information that may serve to guide the industry. The creation of ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines is determined by the need for them,
and conformance to them is completely voluntary.
In referring to this Standard or Guideline and in marking of equipment and in advertising, no claim shall be made, either stated or implied,
that the product has been approved by ASHRAE.
SPECIAL NOTE
This American National Standard (ANS) is a national voluntary consensus standard developed under the auspices of ASHRAE.
Consensus is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), of which ASHRAE is a member and which has approved this
standard as an ANS, as substantial agreement reached by directly and materially affected interest categories. This signifies the concurrence
of more than a simple majority, but not necessarily unanimity. Consensus requires that all views and objections be considered, and that an
effort be made toward their resolution. Compliance with this standard is voluntary until and unless a legal jurisdiction makes compliance
mandatory through legislation.
ASHRAE obtains consensus through participation of its national and international members, associated societies, and public review.
ASHRAE Standards are prepared by a Project Committee appointed specifically for the purpose of writing the Standard. The Project
Committee Chair and Vice-Chair must be members of ASHRAE; while other committee members may or may not be ASHRAE members, all
must be technically qualified in the subject area of the Standard. Every effort is made to balance the concerned interests on all Project
Committees.
The Manager of Standards of ASHRAE should be contacted for:
a. interpretation of the contents of this Standard,
b. participation in the next review of the Standard,
c. offering constructive criticism for improving the Standard, or
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CONTENTS
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.1-2013,
Standard Method for Temperature Measurement
SECTION
PAGE
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................. 2
3 Definitions....................................................................................................................................................... 2
4 Classifications................................................................................................................................................. 3
5 Requirements ................................................................................................................................................. 3
6 Instruments..................................................................................................................................................... 5
7 Temperature Test Methods (Informative) ....................................................................................................... 6
8 Uncertainty Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 9
9 Test Report..................................................................................................................................................... 9
10 References ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Informative Annex ABibliography ...................................................................................................................... 9
Informative Annex CExample of an Uncertainty Estimate for a

Temperature Measurement with a Thermocouple .......................................................................... 11
NOTE
Approved addenda, errata, or interpretations for this standard can be downloaded free of charge from the ASHRAE
Web site at www.ashrae.org/technology.
Informative Annex BExample of an Uncertainty Estimate for a

Temperature Measurement with an RTD ........................................................................................ 10

Temperature Measurement
1. PURPOSE
The purpose of this standard is to prescribe methods set forth recommended practices for
measuring temperature measurements and provide adequate and consistent measurement procedures
for reference in other standards.
2. SCOPE
The temperature measurement methods procedures described herein are intended for use in
testing heating, refrigerating, and air-conditioning equipment and components. The media in which
under both steady-state and transient temperature conditions between -40F and 400F (-40C and
204C).
3. DEFINITIONS
accuracy: the ability of an instrument to indicate or record the true value of a measured quantity. The
error of indication, which is the difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
measured quantity, expresses the accuracy of an instrument.
temperature measurements are made include air, water, brine, and volatile or nonvolatile refrigerants,
Standard Method for
errors in experimental data are classified as one of two types: systematic (fixed) errors or random
(precision) errors. The terms accuracy and precision are often used to distinguish between systematic
and random errors. A measurement with small systematic errors is said to be unbiased. A measurement
with small random errors is said to have high precision. A measurement that is unbiased and precise is
said to be accurate.
fixed error: same as systematic error.
precision: closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the same physical quantity by the
same method under the same conditions and with the same instrument. (An instrument may be
precise but not accurate.)
saturation deficiency: the amount that the humidity ratio of an air sample is below the saturated
humidity ratio of air at the same temperature and pressure.
Precision error: same as random error.
random error is quantified based on how well an instrument reproduces subsequent readings for an
unchanging input. Random errors cannot be corrected through calibration.
sensitivity: the relationship between an observed change in the position of an instrument pen, pointer,
or indicator and the magnitude of change in the measured quantity required to produce that
reaction of the indicator. It is can be expressed as a numerical ratio if the units of measurement of the
two quantities are stated. An increase in sensitivity means a corresponding increase in the ability of an
instrument to react to extremely small changes in the measured quantity.
shall: where "shall" or "shall not" is used for a provision, that provision is mandatory if compliance
with the standard is claimed.
random error: an error which causes readings to take random values on either side of a mean value. A
error: the difference between the true value of the quantity measured and the observed value. All
desirable as good practice.
steady-state conditions: an operating state of a system, including its surroundings, in which the extent
of change over with time of all the significant parameters is so small as to have no important effect on
the performance being observed or measured. (Compare to transient condition.)
systematic error: an error that persists and is not due entirely to chance. Systematic error is corrected
through calibration.
temperature, adiabatic saturation: the temperature at which liquid or solid water, by evaporating
into air, brings the air to saturation adiabatically (i.e., without heat transfer).
temperature, dry-bulb: the temperature of a gas or mixture of gases indicated by an accurate

thermometer after correction for radiation.
temperature, wet-bulb: the temperature at which liquid or solid water, by evaporating into air, can
qualification) is the temperature indicated by a wet-bulb psychrometer constructed and used

according to specifications.
transducer: a device that changes one form of physical quantity into another. In the measurement
field, transducers are generally used to sense a variety of measurands, such as line voltage, current,
power, pressure, and temperature, and to convert these to a common output signal for use with a
controlling or recording instrument.
transient condition: state the state in which the system undergoes a normal change in operation, such
as thermostat cycling or actuation of a defrost control. (Compare to steady-state condition.)
bring the air to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature. Wet-bulb temperature (without
should: "should" or "shouldnot" is used to indicate provisions that are not mandatory but that are
systematic and random error. Because only random errors are treated by statistical methods, and
only systematic errors are corrected through calibration, uncertainty computed using this standard
result from random errors.
4. CLASSIFICATIONS INSTRUMENTS
4.1 Temperature measurements shall be made with an instrument or instrument system,
including read-out devices, meeting the accuracy and precision requirements in the test plan.
Temperature-sensing methods that are within the scope of this standard include, but are not limited
to, the methods listed below, which are briefly described in Section 7: Table 1. The following are in
common use for this purpose but are not all-inclusive
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
b.
Thermocouples
c.
Resistance temperature devices (RTDs)
d. Thermistors
e.
Infrared pyrometers
c.
Electric resistance thermometers, including thermistors
4.2 The response time for liquid-in-glass thermometers is too long large to be used in transient
testing. The rate of heat flow to or from a moving fluid under steady-state conditions is
determined by the product of the enthalpy change and the mass flow rate for the fluid. The
measurement of heat flow involves two situations that allow different levels of accuracy in
temperature measurement to produce equivalent levels of accuracy in the heat flow measurement.
a.
uncertainty: an estimated value for the bound on the error in a measurement resulting from both
are predominantly due to sensible heat changes. These are associated with comparatively large mass
flow rates. The small magnitude of the enthalpy change requires the determination of temperature
and, in turn, temperature differences with considerable accuracy.
b. For the case of flow of a volatile refrigerant, a change of state is involved and relatively large
changes in enthalpy are associated with comparatively small mass flow rates. Less accuracy in
temperature measurement is required to obtain a desired level of accuracy in heat flow rate
measurement.
Note: In two-phase measurements, temperature and mass flow rate alone are not sufficient to
determine heat flow.
4.3 For transient testing, in addition to those requirements listed in Table 1, the instrumentation used
shall have the following capabilities:
a. Continuously recording the data used in the calculation. For this standard, continuous recording for
For steady-state tests 1 minute
For the rate of temperature change 1.0F/s (0.5C/s) or greater5 seconds 0.5F/s to 1.0F/s
(0.25 to 0.50C/s)10 seconds less than 0.5F/s (0.25C/s)20 seconds
b. Continuously recording the data used for room control. For this standard, continuous recording
for sampling systems used for this purpose shall have the following maximum intervals of
sampling:
For steady-state testing1 minute
sampling systems used for this purpose shall have the following maximum intervals of sampling:
a. For the case of flow of air, water, or nonvolatile refrigerant, relatively small changes in enthalpy
c.
Achieving a total system accuracy within 0.3F (0.17C) of individual values.
d. Achieving a total system response time of 2.5 seconds or less. The response time for this standard
is defined as the time required for the system to obtain 63% of the final steady-state value when
the transducer is subjected to a step change in temperature of 15F (8C) or more The test for
system response time shall be made in the same fluid and at the same velocity as observed at the
location where the temperature will be measured.
When using temperature transducers in series or parallel (such as thermocouple grids or

thermopiles) to obtain the average temperature or average temperature differences in a duct with
nonuniform velocities, the overall response time can be much larger than the response time measured
at the average velocity. For this standard, the response time for such measurements is defined as
the overall response time measured at the velocity conditions of the actual tests.
For transient testing20 seconds
Recommended
Test
Item Measured
Instrument
Instrument
Operating
Accuracy
Precision
Tolerance (Total
See Section 4.6)
See Section 4.6)
Observed
Range)
(Note 1)
Recommended
Test Condition
Tolerance
Measurements
(Variation of
are
Average from
Usually within
Specified Test
Range
Condition)
(Note 2)
0.2F
0.1F
1.0F
0.5F
20 to 140F
temperature*
0.1C
0.05C
0.5C
0.3C
29 to 60C
Air wet-bulb
0.2F
0.1F
0.6
0.3F
0 to 90F
temperature*
0.1C
0.05C
0.3C
0.2C
18 to 32C
nonvolatile
0.2F
0.1F
0.5F
0.2F
30 to 110F
refrigerant
0.1C
0.05C
0.3C
0.1C
1 to 43C
nonvolatile
0.2F
0.1F
0.3F
refrigerant
0.1C
0.05C
0.2C
Volatile
1.0
0.5F
refrigerant***
0.6C
0.3C
Water or
temperature*
Water or
5 to 25F
3 to 14C
temperature**
30 to 250F
34 to 121C
Air dry-bulb
TABLE 1 Instrument and Test Tolerances for Temperature Measurement
Test
Item Measured
Instrument
Instrument
Operating
Accuracy
Precision
Tolerance (Total
See Section 4.6) See Section 4.6)
Observed
Range)
Recommended
Test Condition
Tolerance
Measurements
(Variation of
are
Average from
Usually within
Specified Test
Range
(Note 1)
Condition)
(Note 2)
Other
temperatures
required for other
0 to 300F
18 to 149C
purposes****
*
Items are used to determine fluid temperature change and, in conuunction with flow rate, the cooling or heating flow rates.
**
Applicable where the temperature difference is measured with a single instrument.
***
Includes refrigerant tube temperatures where acceptable in lieu of immersion of instrument within refrigerant stream.
****
Other temperatures not required by ASHRAE standards but frequently taken for other purposes: for example, refrigerant system
component temperatures, motor winding temperatures, or electrical component temperatures.
to be averaged over the duration of the test. Greater tolerances may be specified in specific
standards for circumstances such as frosting and defrosting.
Note 2Test conditions are recommended to average within the tolerance shown. Exceptions may be
specified for special situations such as frosting and defrosting (see note1).
4.3
In no case shall the smallest scale division of the instrument exceed twice the specified precision.
For example, if the specified precision is 0.05"C (0.10F), the smallest scale division shall not
exceed 0.10C (0.20F).
Note 1This is the recommended tolerance to be specified on individual readings in a series of readings
Recommended
by comparison with a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) calibrated primary or
secondary (transfer) standard or shall itself be similarly calibrated. The indicated corrections shall
be applied to obtain the required accuracy. In this range of mercury-in-glass or accuracy, platinum
resistance thermometers or individually calibrated thermocouples or thermistors shall be used. are
recommended
4.5 Whenever two possible, temperature-measuring instruments are the change in temperature of a
liquid or a gas should be arranged so that they can readily be interchanged between inlet and outlet
positions after every reading. This will improve the accuracy of used to measure a temperature
difference measurement.Whenever two instruments are used to measure a small temperature
difference, of less than 5"C (9F), the investigator shall recognize the effect of individual instrument
accuracies on the accuracy of the calculated temperature difference Obtaining system accuracies
comparable to those in Table 1 will require careful calibration.
4.6 Whenever possible, temperature measurements downstream of a potential heat source or sink
should be compared with upstream measurements under conditions of steady temperature with fluid
test setup.
5. REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Test Plan. A test plan is a document or other form of communication that specifies the tests to
be performed and the required measurement accuracy for each test. Sources of the test plan include,
but are not limited to, (a) the person or the organization that authorized the tests to be performed,
(b) a method-of-test standard, (c) a rating standard, or (d) a regulation or code.
flow but with no heating flow.This calibration may identify problems with the instrumentation or the
4.4 Where an accuracy better than 0.30C (0.50F) is specified, the instrument shall be calibrated
5.2.1 Temperature, "C (F)
5.2.2 The uncertainty in each temperature measurement, C(F), shall be estimated using the
methods in Section 8.
5. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUESGENERAL
5.1 The measurement of the flow of heat usually involves the measurement of flow of a fluid and
determination of its entering and leaving enthalpy. The enthalpy depends on pressure and
temperature. For air, the barometric pressure and dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures are involved.
For a refrig erant, the absolute pressure and temperature are required.
5.2 For steady-state conditions, it is recommended that heat flow be measured by two independent
recommended that standards for steady-state testing of equipment specify that two independent
methods of test give results that agree within a certain percentage in order to constitute a valid test.
Equipment testing standards should specify whether the accepted heat flow rate is to be taken as the
average of the two independent test results or is to be taken as the primary test result.
5.3 For transient conditions, the total energy transferred to or from a moving fluid over a given time
must be considered. In general, this means that the product of the instantaneous enthalpy difference
and the instantaneous mass flow rate shall be integrated over the specified time.
5.4 In general, obtaining an energy balance for transient conditions is more difficult than steadystate conditions and two or more independent methods would be preferable. At the present time,
there is only one method that has been fully tested that gives sufficiently accurate results.
methods. This permits establishing the acceptability of the tests by obtaining a heat balance. It is
5.2 Values to be Determined
instantaneous difference between entering and leaving enthalpy of dry air and the instantaneous mass
flow rate and integrating their product over a specified time. This test places four additional
restrictions on the testing and measuring equipment:
1.
The dry-bulb and dew-point temperature of the entering air must be low enough so that no moisture
will be condensed between the measuring points.
2. If the fluid properties are weak functions of temperature and pressure, either the velocity or the
temperature shall be constant across the cross-sectional area of each measurement location and a
good average of the other shall be obtained. It is better to have both temperature and pressure
constant at each measurement location.
The instrumentation must be capable of doing the integration to the desired accuracy.
4. The space providing the environmental conditioning forthe equipment being tested must be capable
of dealing with the time-varying load produced by the transient conditions of the equipment being
5.5 No heat balance will be perfect because of one or more of the reasons listed below. In order to
obtain a heat balance within a prescribed tolerance, some or all of the following causes of error
shall be considered:
1.
Losses or gains of heat from enclosures, pipes, wires, and connections shall be accounted for by either
a calibration or calculation procedure.
2.
Uniform velocity and temperature distribution at measuring location (see Section 5).
3.
The effect of thermal storage in such devices as duct wall, flow mixers, and straighteners during
transient conditions must be made negligibly small or accounted for by calibration procedures,
calculation procedures, or by measuring their effects.
tested.
This method consists of measuring the instantaneous entering and leaving or the
Simplifications introduced as prescribed calculation procedures, such as use of constant coefficients in

equations and use of typical or average values of physical properties of fluids.
5.
Unavoidable fluctuations, with respect to time or space, of temperatures or pressure of the fluid
being measured.
6.
The effects of the action and interaction of the following:
a. Performance oscillations of instruments, especially of the self-balancing or remote reading

type.
b. Performance oscillations of the apparatus producing the test environment.
C. Performance oscillations of the equipment being used.
7. Small deviations in the accuracy, precision, and sensitivity of the test instruments.
From the foregoing, it can be seen that some difficulties in obtaining acceptable heat balances
cannot be overcome by merely specifying a high degree of instrument accuracy.
5.7 Usually it is important to measure a temperature level to establish within certain limits the
specified temperature environment for operating the test. It is then, in addition, necessary to
measure temperature changes. It is the latter that affect the accuracy of heat-flow determinations.
Temperature differences can be obtained with improved accuracy by properly calibrating the
several instruments that may be used against each other in a common environment even though this
procedure does not establish absolute accuracy. This procedure is especially useful for remote reading
instruments, where many factors affecting accuracy have the same numerical effect at two
moderately different temperature levels, so errors due to these effects cancel out when determining
the temperature difference. The following sections include suggestions for improving the accuracy
of test measurements.
5.6
4.
5.3.1 Determination of Average Temperatures. The following precautions shall be taken when
measuring the average: The determination of the average temperature of an airstream requires
suitable precautions to deal with the following:
a. Nonuniformity of temperature across the airstream.
b. Nonuniformity of air velocity.
c. Thermal radiation to or from the instrument sensing elements if exposed to surrounding

surfaces at temperatures other than that of the surrounding air.
d. Heat conduction through stem or lead wires to or from an instrument sensing element if the
stem or lead wires are exposed to temperatures other than that of the sensing element.
e.
Nonuniformity of the humidity ratio of the air in the event humidification or
f.
(Informative) For the special requirements of obtaining wet-bulb temperature measurements.
6.2 Measurements in Connection with Heat Flow Rate Determination
When temperature measurements, see ASHRAE Standard 41.6.l are required in connection with
the determination of heat flow rates, suitable precautions should be taken between air inlet and outlet
measurement points to minimize acceptably the effect of:
a.
Heat gains or losses to test apparatus ductwork, both steady state and transient.
b. Heat gains or losses due to air leakage from or into the test apparatus.
dehumidification is taking place.
5.3 Airstream Temperature Measurements
The creation or suppression of recirculation or other abnormal airstream patterns caused by

the existence of the test apparatus that upset the normal thermal environment of the equipment
being tested.
d. Oscillation of temperature with time.
e.
Unsuitable instrument response time, resulting in unreliable readings, especially if the air
temperature oscillations have not been adequately damped.
5.3.2 Nonuniformity in Temperature, Humidity, and Velocity. Nonuniformity in temperature,

humidity, and velocity are minimized by suitable mixing and sampling devices. Typical mixing and
sampling devices are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. In general, Round or rectangular mixers shall be
used consisting consisting of two sets of louvers or deflection plates that produce a combination of
shearing action and relative displacement on adjacent areas of airflow through the mixers are the
most satisfactory. Sampling devices shall not be used for transient measurements.
Figure 1 Mixing device.
c.
Figure 2 Sampling device.
5.3.3 Orifice-and
Blade-Type
Propeller
Fan.
Mixing
Devices.
Mixing
is
sometimes
accomplished by an orifice plate or drag of a propeller fan blade inserted in the air duct and driven by
When propeller fan blades are used as air mixers, the fan blade(s) shall Such a fan should not be
power operated unless suitable adjustments are made for the power input to the fan. A stationary
propeller fan can also be used as an air mixer. These mixers are not as satisfactory as the shearing
action-displacement type of mixers such as those shown in Figures 3 and 4.
6.3 Mixing Devices. The use of mixing devices is very desirable in principle and may be
required to meet limits of nonuniformity for specified test conditions. Where temperature or
velocity traverse measurements indicate nonuniformity may be the cause of failure to obtain heat
balance, mixers should be used. Good mixers are bulky and must be sized for the required range of
airflow. At low airflows, their bulk introduces errors due to heat gain or loss through their enclosures
and additionally can delay attainment of steady-state conditions due to heat storage effects of their
materials of construction. At high airflows, the previous effects are relatively small but the fan power
required may become excessive.
the airstream. All orifice- and blade-type mixers shall be sized for the required range of airflow.
are not suitable alternatives for mixers in cases where nonuniform velocity patterns exist. Where
Velocities are substantially uniform, sampling devices are may be used to measure an average
temperature and require less space and fan power than mixers in the main airstream. A smaller
blower is may be used to induce airflow over the temperature instruments. This blower shall be
downstream of the temperature instruments transducer to prevent avoid having the heat input to the
blower from influencing the temperature reading. When the air sample is taken at a point between the
equipment being tested and the airflow-measuring apparatus, it is necessary to return the air sample
to the main airstream to prevent avoid diverting an unknown quantity of air from the airflowmeasuring device.
5.3.5 Centers of Segments Grids. When the airstream has reasonably uniform velocity,
temperature measurements are and velocity, temperatures may be taken within the air duct at the
centers of segments of equal cross-sectional area. Not less than four such segments shall be used. In
should be employed, and it is better practice in rectangular ducts to employ, nine or more
segments obtained by dividing the cross section in three parts horizontally and in three parts
vertically shall be used. This procedure is used feasible when only dry-bulb temperatures alone
5.3.6 Centers of Segments with Nonuniform Velocity. Averaging the temperatures as measured
at the centers of equal cross-sectional areas gives the correct average air temperature only if the air
velocity is the same for each area. Non-uniformity in velocity introduces errors. Both a velocity
traverse and a temperature traverse shall be made across the section of the air duct to determine if an
establish whether a simple arithmetic average of the temperature leadings readings is correct.
acceptable
are required and are to be obtained by thermocouples connected in parallel or in series.
5.3.4 Sampling Devices ( to be used in Not for Transient Measurements). Sampling devices
where in heat flow rates are measured by two or more completely independent sets of
measurements. While this serves as a check on the measurement of temperature difference, it does
not ensure that the temperature readings are correct. It is always desirable to monitor the air
temperatures at one or more points by independent temperature measurements, for example, by
thermocouples and by thermometer.
5.3.7 Radiation Errors. Temperature measurements in the airstream are subject to error due to
thermal radiation when the sensing elements are exposed in direct line of sight to surfaces that are
different in temperature from the air stream. In such cases, the sensing elements are can be shielded
from direct exposure by radiation shields. in any suitable manner A shield made with low emissivity,
a tube-shaped piece ofpolished metal aluminum foil with a dull blackinside surfaces is effective and
convenient. Two concentric tube-type shields are more effective than one.The shield length shall
be at least two tube diameters beyond the sensing element. For temperature measurements within the
scope of this standard, radiation effects may be negligible They may be important, for example, when
the sensing elements are exposed to large surfaces of a hot refrigerant condenser. It is good practice
to Check temperatures with both shielded and unshielded sensing elements to determine establish
Improve the sensing element's response to convective heat using transfer by minimizing the size of
sensing smallest possible sensing element to reduce radiation errors. In addition to radiation errors,
errors due to thermal conduction to and from the sensing element may exist.
Both radiation and thermal conduction errors tend to become more significant as air velocity
decreases (see Section 10).
the necessity for shielding in case of doubt as to whether the sensing elements require shielding.
6.9 Heat Balance. It is the usual practice to check heat flow measurements by making heat balances
means of wet- and dry-bulb temperature measurements, it is important that the instruments be
matched. That is, they should indicate the same temperature when both are dry and in the same
ambient, or a correction should be applied. This ensures more accurate determination of the wet-bulb
depression. The two sensing elements should be close together in the airstream so as to measure
the same sample of air, but the dry-bulb element should always be upstream or to one side of the
wet-bulb element so that the dry-bulb measurement will not be influenced by evaporation of moisture
from the wet-bulb. Inadvertent accumulation of moisture from any source on the dry-bulb
temperature-sensing element will cause an error. This is more likely to occur during tests at high
humidity, both below and above freezing temperatures, especially when fog conditions exist.
6.12 Wet-Bulb Velocity. Wet-bulb temperature measurement must be made under conditions that
provide proper air velocity over the wet-bulb and then only after sufficient time has been allowed for
evaporative equilibrium to be attained. The air velocity must be within the range for which the
instrument is calibrated. For mercury-in-glass thermometers and other sensing devices of similar
diameter, an air velocity of 700 to 2000 ft/min (3.5 to 10 m/s), preferably near 1,000 ft/ min (5 m/s), is
required to ensure accurate results. Instruments of smaller diameter, such as thermistor or
calibration. (See Section 6.14 as an example.) Wet-bulb measurements require additional techniques
and precautions as indicated below.
6.13 Wet-Bulb Wick. A suitable material for the wick is cotton tubing of a fairly soft, fine mesh
weave. Before use, the wick should be thoroughly cleaned by washing or boiling in distilled water. A
snug fit on the sensing element is necessary. In order to prevent excessive conduction of heat from the
stem of a mercury-in-glass thermometer, the wicks should cover approximately one inch (25 mm)
of the stem as well as the bulb (see Figure 5). With continued use, wicks become encrusted with
impurities that interfere with the proper action. It is, therefore, highly important that wicks be
frequently cleaned or replaced.
thermocouple psychrometers, require proportionately lower air velocities and require suitable
6.11 Matched Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Instruments. When air humidity is to be established by
Figure 5 Wet-bulb elements.
Figure 5A Psychrometer box.
(Old)
(Old)
Figure 6
The effec t of airstream velocity on the wet bulb psychrometer
reservoir of water, it is important to have that portion of the wick exposed to air movement extend from
the thermometer bulb a distance of approximately one-half inch (13 mm) to the water container. This
distance is sufficient to let the water attain wet-bulb temperature before reaching the bulb and is not
great enough to permit the wick to dry out before adequately wetting the bulb. The use of the
continuously wetted wick technique should be discouraged since physical relationships between bulb
immersion length, wick length, water level from airstream, velocity, etc., affect the performance of this
measurement. If this technique is used, provisions must be made so that the reservoir can be removed
or emptied and a check made on the measurement with a shorter wick and conventional "hand
wetting." Another technique that can be used to eliminate the removal of the temperature sensor
from the psychrometric device each time it requires wetting is a special psychrometric box (see Figure
5-A) that allows wetting by hand and/or continuous wetting. Plastic tubing fitted to the box and
strung to a convenient area for the test operator carries water for the psychrometer.
Only distilled water should be used on the wick. When the water is continuously supplied by a
(Old)
glass thermometers with a larger wick than for thermocouples that employ a smaller diameter wick.
In the case of the glass thermometer, more warm water (compared with the temperature of water at
the wick) is drawn to the mercury bulb per unit time than in the case of the thermocouple with a thin
wick. There is evidence to show that, provided there is sufficient lead immersion in the airstream
and sufficient radiation shielding is provided, an air velocity of 350 fpm (1.8 m/s) is sufficient for
properly designed thermocouple psychrometers. Figure 5 shows a thermocouple psychrometer that
has given good performance.
6.15 Thermo dynamic Wet-Bulb. In practice, the wet-bulb thermometer does not always read the
true thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature and under certain conditions may deviate considerably
from it. The relative rates of diffusion of moisture from the wetted surface, as compared to the
diffusion of heat from the surrounding air to the wetted surface, tend to make the measured wetbulb temperature lower than the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature Heat received by
conduction and by radiation from surrounding objects at dry-bulb temperature tends to make the
wet-bulb thermome ter read high. Fortunately, these two effects tend to balance each other, with the
result that the wet-bulb thermometer may correspond to the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature
of these effects were present without the other.
6.16 Wet-Bulb Depression Errors for Conventional Size Thermometer Bulbs. Figure 6 shows
the error in the wet-bulb depression for various air velocities. It should be noted that for
temperatures in the comfort air-conditioning range, a velocity of approximately 1,000 ft/min (5
m/s) is desirable for minimum error. At lower temperatures, a considerably lower velocity is indicated.
This curve shall be used to correct the reading of wet-bulb thermometers where it is impractical to
maintain a suitably high velocity.
at certain air velocities and will generally deviate from the the oretical values less than if either one
6.14 Thermocouple Psychrometers. Temperature of the water in the reservoir is more important for
size (slightly under 1/ 4 in. [6 mm] diameter). The air velocity for zero correction decreases with
smaller sensor sizes. Instruments such as thermocouples and thermistors typically have
comparatively small sizes of temperature-sensing elements. In such cases, the correct velocity
should be established by calibrating the equipment so as to match data obtained by simultaneous use
of liquid-in-glass wet-bulb thermometers.
6.18 Wet-Bulb Radiation Errors. If the wet-bulb thermometer is located close to cooling or heating
surfaces, an error may result due to radiation from such surfaces. In order to avoid this error, a shield
constructed from polished metal should be placed between the thermometer and the radiating
surface. (See Section 6.10 for methods of correction.)
6.19 Wet-Bulb Radiation Shields. Wet-bulb thermometers located in air ducts should not be shielded
from the duct wall if the wall is at or near dry-bulb temperature If necessary, the outside of the duct
should be insulated to avoid a large differ ence between the duct wall and the inside dry-bulb
temperatures.
taking psychrometric readings if suitable equipment is available and proper precautions are taken in
its use. The wet- and dry-bulb thermocouples may be connected in series to give a direct reading of the
depression, and, when measured on a potentiometer of suitable precision, such a series couple forms
one of the most reliable methods of obtaining psychrometric data.
6.21 Wet-Bulb Readings at Near Freezing Tempera tures. The remarks of Sections 6.12 through
6.20 apply to wet-bulb measurements at temperatures above freezing. At temperatures at or below
freezing, errors in measurement can arise, as true wet-bulb temperature exists only when the
thermometer is coated with ice or, if a wick is in place, when the external surface of the wick is coated
with ice. Water covering the thermometer may not be frozen but instead may be super cooled. The
equilibrium temperature between moist air and supercooled water is different from that between
moist air and ice. To avoid having to establish what type of equilibrium exists, it is recommended
that a sample of air be heated above freezing before measuring its moisture content
6.20 Use of Thermocouples for Psychrometric Readings. Thermocouples are entirely satisfactory for
6.17 Stem Diameter. Note that the curves in Figure 6 apply to a thermometer bulb of conventional
necessary to measure wet-bulb temperature at or near freezing in a moving airstream, the
problem of ice can be avoided by continuously withdrawing a sample of air. The dry-bulb
temperature of this air is first determined. Then this air sample is heated electrically to a convenient
temperature above freezing. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the heated sample are then
measured. From these data, the humidity ratio, i.e., the mass of water vaporper unit mass of dry
air, is established. This humidity ratio, together with the lower dry-bulb temperature and the
psychrometric properties of moist air, is then used to determine the wet-bulb temperature
prevailing at the lower dry-bulb temperature.
6.23 Wet-Bulb Readings at Temperatures Below Freezing. Where it is feasible and preferable to
directly measure wet-bulb temperatures at temperatures below freezing, a ther mometer with an icecoated bulb, without a wick, is preferable. The wick covering for the wet-bulb thermometer at
temperatures below freezing no longer serves the usual pur pose, for ice, unlike water, does not
respond to capillary forces. True wet-bulb readings are obtained only when the surface of the wick
is completely covered with a layer of ice. The ice held within the wick is useless.
pressure at low temperatures, a longer time is necessary to reach equilibrium than at higher
temperatures. This condition is offset, however, by the ice remaining on the bulb for a much longer
period of time. Readings of the wet-bulb thermometer must be continued over a sufficiently longer
period to ensure that equilibrium has been reached.
6.25 Freezing Water Directly on Bulb. Careful tests indicate that reliable results are obtained by
discarding the wick and freezing a layer of ice directly on the thermometer bulb. An ice film 0.02 in.
(0.5 mm) thick has been found to have a life of roughly one hour when exposed to an air velocity of
900 fpm (4.6 m/s) with a saturation deficiency of about 0.0002 pounds (1.4 grains) of moisture per
pound (0.0002 kg/ kg) of dry air The ice film is best formed by dipping the chilled thermometer
into distilled water at approximately 32F (0C). The thermometer is then removed from the water
and the film allowed to freeze. The process may be repeated several times if necessary to build up a
suitable film thickness.
6.24 Ensuring Equilibrium at Temperatures Below Freezing. As a result of the reduced vapor
6.22 Wet-Bulb Readings at Near Freezing Temperatures in a Moving Airstream. When it is
stresses in certain types of thermometers to cause an error. One method of over coming this condition
is to build a tube the same size as the thermometer bulb, freeze a coating of ice over it, thaw it with
warm water inside the tube, and place the cup of ice over the thermometer.
6.27 Control of Conduction. In order to prevent excessive conduction of heat along the glass stem of
the thermometer to the bulb, it is important that the ice film cover about one inch (25 mm) of the stem
as well as the bulb.
6.28 Use of Supercooled Water. The tendency of water to resist freezing at temperatures below
freezing is well known. This condition of supercooled water can and does exist on the wick of the wetbulb thermometer and may give rise to con siderable error. While it is possible by the aid of a special
psychrometric chart to obtain correct readings of psychrometric properties with the wick wetted
with supercooled water, it is generally more desirable to coat the bulb with ice.
6.29 Alternate Methods of Measurement of Wet-Bulb Temperature. Other methods for
measuring wet-bulb temperature may be found in ASHRAE Standard 41.6-1982, Stan dard Method for
Measurement of Moist Air Properties.
7.
WATER,
BRINE,
AND
NONVOLATILE
REFRIGERANT
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
5.4.1 Liquid, water, brine, and nonvolatile (under conditions of use) refrigerant temperature
measurements are require a minimum of precautions in a smuch as measurements may be
conveniently made by insertion of the sensing element into within the fluid stream, downstream
of an elbow or tee connection or other mixer (see Figure 5). The temperature- sensing element shall be
inserted directly into within the fluid or into within a well inserted into the conduit. The depth of
immersion shall not be less than 10 diameters of the well or bulb. Glass thermometers shall not be
inserted directly into the fluid unless calibration corrections to com pen sate for pressure effects are
made.
5.4 Liquid Temperature Measurements
6.26 Ice Stress. There is evidence that the mechanical expansion of the ice in freezing might set up
filling the well with a thermally conductive light oil or grease or , unless it is feasible to ensure
better contact as, for example, by the attachment of a thermocouple with solder to the inside of the
well. To ensure rapid temperature response, the well shall not be larger than necessary to allow
insertion of acceptthe sensing element. When Some thermometers are intended for use with a
specific depth of immersion this depth shall. This should be determined considered when
establishing the depth of the well. Suitable stem corrections are required when used other than as
recommended.
5.4.3 Methods to measure temperature differences of less than 5C (9F) include calibrated
thermocouple pairs and differential temperature transmitters using precision RTDs.
5.4.4
When two or more temperature instruments are inserted into the flow stream, and the
average is used to indicate the stream temperature, and the difference between any two sensors at the
same measurement point is greater than the precision requirements of the test plan, upstream mixing
shall be used.
instruments of sufficiently high precision that read temperature difference directly, such as calibrated
thermocouples.
7.2 Whenever possible, small temperature difference measurements should be made with
5.4.2 When a sensing element is inserted into a well, good thermal contact shall be obtained by
8. VOLATILE REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

5.5.1 The measurement of refrigerant vapor temperature shall The determination of temperature
of vapors should be made by inserting the temperature-sensing element directly within into the
refrigerant or in a well inserted into the stream. When a sensing element is inserted into a well, good
thermal contact shall be obtained by filling the well with a thermally conductive light oil or grease, or,
unless it is feasible to ensure better contact as, for example, by the attachment of a thermocouple with
solder to the inside of a well. Use a small diameter well to minimize fluid pressure loss. The element
or well shall be inserted The well should be as small in diameter as feasible It is good practice to insert
the well in a tee in the conduit with the refrigerant making a 90 turn in the tee. When thermometers
are intended for use with a specific depth of immersion, this depth shall be determined and used when
establishing the depth of the well.
Figure 5 Methods for ensuring thorough mixing in liquids.
(New)
5.5 Refrigerant Temperature Measurements
sensing elements The determination of liquid and vapor temperature by measuring the temperature
of the conduit surface rather than by insertion into within the conduit is used where insertion will
Conduit surface temperature measurement in general not recommended but is some times desirable
for noncritical measurements where it is not feasible to disturb factory-assembled components.
Precautions given under measurement techniques should be observed (see Section 10.11). Tube
surface temperature mea surement for the purpose of reestablishing a temperature condition to be
duplicated in a succeeding test is an example of the an acceptable use of surface temperature. It is
essential to apply a layer of insulating material extending to at least 150 mm (6 in.) on each side
of a surfacetemperature-measuring element.
8.2 The determination of temperature in a liquid may be made the same as for vapors except that
the measurement of conduit surface temperature may be an acceptable measure of the liquid
temperature.
5.5.3 Refrigerant temperature measurements shall be checked against the saturation temperature
corresponding to the measured refrigerant pressure at locations where the refrigerant is can be
5.5.3 Simultaneous pressure and temperature readings are also frequently taken to establish
whether the refrigerant is in a saturated condition or is superheated or sub cooled.
5.5.4 To ensure accurate use of thermodynamic proper ties of the refrigerant, it is necessary
appropriate to assume that the refrigerant is not wholly a vapor is superheated unless a prescribed
minimum amount of superheat is indicated by temperature and refrigerant liquid is subcooled by a
prescribed amount. pressure measure ments. Likewise, it is appropriate to assume that the refriger
ant is not wholly liquid unless a prescribed minimum amount of subcooling is shown by temperature
and pressure measure ments. It is not within the scope of this standard to specify such minimum
values of superheating and subcooling. but the necessity for prescribing such values in connection
with the establishment of test procedures should be recognized
expected to be in a saturated condition.
5.5.2 The depth of the well should take into consideration the proper depth of immersion of
6.1 Derived Measurements. Measurements are categorized as either primary measurements or

derived measurements. A primary measurement is one that is obtained directly from the
measurement sensor(e.g., liquid-in-glass thermometer). A derived measurement is one that is
calculated or determined using one or more instruments or devices. This calculation occurs at the
sensor level (e.g., a temperature transducer), by a data logger or recording device, or during data
processing. Derived measurements can use both primary and other derived measurements.
6.2 Calibration
6.2.1 Instruments, transducers, recorders, indicators, and data acquisition systems shall be
selected to meet the error limits specified in the paragraphs below.
6.2.2 All instrument and device calibrations shall be trace able to primary or secondary standards
calibrated by NIST. Instruments shall be recalibrated on a regular schedule appropriate for each
instrument, and calibration records shall be maintained. All instruments shall be applied in a
6.3 Electrical Measurements. Electrical measurement (resistance, voltage, and current)

errors shall be less than 0.1% when used to derive a temperature measurement. When not
defined by the test plan or method of test standard, the portion of the total uncertainty in the
temperature measurement resulting from the electrical measurement devices shall be less than
25%.
6.4 Pressure Measurements. Pressure measurement errors shall be less than 1.0%. If absolute
pressure sensors are not used, ensure that the pressure measurement uncertainty calculations
include the barometric pressure correction to obtain absolute pressure values.
6.5 Time Measurements. Time measurements shall be within 0.5% of the elapsed time
measured. This accuracy shall include any uncertainty errors associated with starting and
stopping the measurement.
manner that ensures compliance with the specified error limits.
6. INSTRUMENTS
flowmeters to determine whether adequate subcooling exists.
7. TEMPERATURE TEST METHODS (INFORMATIVE)
7.1
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
9.MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUESMERCURY-IN-GLASS
THERMOMETERS
7.1.1 The liquidmercury-in-glass thermometer is a direct temperature instrument. reading and
can be obtained with adequate calibration accuracy, 0.05F (0.03C) for total immersion, 0.5F (0.3C)
for partial immer sion.It holds its calibration well. It shall be so placed that its indication measures
the temperature at the location intended, while at the same time it shall be accessible for reading
division.
7.1.2 Precautions are necessary to ensure that heat from the body of the reader, an electric lamp, or
from other extraneous sources does not affect the reading.
7.1.3 Glass thermometers shall not be inserted directly into a conduit conveying fluid unless
calibration corrections are applied to compensate for pressure effects. For such measurements,
the thermometer preferablyshall be inserted into a thermometer well inserted built into the
conduit. circuit
7.1.4 Glass thermometers may require correction for depth of immersion and for the
temperature of the ambient around the stem. This is the emergent stem correction
Typical accuracy for liquid-in-glass thermometers is equal to one half of the smallest scale
8.7 Temperature and other measurements shall be taken downstream of volatile refrigerant
thermometer inserted upside down in an air duct may reads high by as much as 0.05C
(0.10F).
7.1.6 Glass thermometers are comparatively simple easy to interchange between two positions
for alternate readings in order to obtain an average temperature difference reading that is
unaffected by the calibration of the thermometers, which dif ference is small.
7.2
Thermocouples
6 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES-THERMOCOUPLES
7.2.1 Thermocouples offer great flexibility in application, are remote reading, fast
responding, and with electronic suitable instruments, are readily adapted to the measurement
of temperatures at multiple several points in rapid succession.
7.2.2 10.2 Thermocouples shall be properly made and correctly connected to measuring
device, such as a potentiometer or digital voltmeter, shall be used to measure the volt age
generated by the thermocouple, which includes a reference junction (sometimes called the or
cold junction). The accuracy of temperature measurement is subject to errors in each of the
components of the thermocouple circuit, including thermo couple junctions, switches, and
extension wire. Commercial thermocouples and extension wires are subject to tolerances that, under
conditions of use, may or may not fall within the desired tolerance range (see Table 2). Individual
thermocouple calibrations may be needed to provide the required accuracy.
7.2.2.1 Use of dissimilar metals in switching circuits shall not be used avoided unless means
are taken to eliminate extraneous thermocouple effects. Isothermal conversion junctions are
used to eliminate thermocouple junctions in switch wiring. Temperature measurement is
additionally subject to errors in measurement of electrical potential by the volt age-measuring
device. For maximum accuracy, there shall be no splices in the thermocouple wires.
instruments directly or by use of thermocouple extension wires. A suitable voltage-measuring
7.1.5 Glass thermometers may require correction for orientation. For example, a glass
Thermocouples,
Temperature Ranges
Typical Materialc
C (F)
E Nickel10%
Chromium Constantan
J Iron
Constantan
K Nickel10%
Limits of Errord
Special
200C to 0C
1.7C ( 3.0F)
1.0C ( 1.8F)
(328F to 32F
1.0%
0.5%
0C to 900C
1.7C ( 3.0F)
1.0C ( 1.8F)
(32F to 1652F)
0.5%
0.4%
0C to 750C
2.2C ( 4.0F)
1.1C ( 2.0F)
32F to 1382F)
0.75%
0.38%
200C to 0C
2.2C ( 4.0F)
(328F to 32F)
2.0%
0C to 1250C
2.2C ( 4.0F)
1.1C ( 2.0F)
(32F to 2282F)
0.75%
0.38%
0C to 1450C
1.5C ( 2.7F)
0.6C ( 1.0F)
(32F to 2642F)
0.25%
0.1%
0C to 1450C
1.5C ( 2.7F)
0.6C ( 1.0F)
(32F to 2642F)
0.25%
0.1%
0.6C ( 1.0F)
1.0C ( 1.8F)
0.5C ( 0.9F)
0.1%
1.5%
0.75%
0C to 350C
1.0C ( 1.8F)
0.5C ( 0.9F)
(32F to 662F)
0.75%
0.38%
N/A
Chromium Nickel5%
(Aluminum, silicon)
S Platinum10%
( Rhodium platinum
R Platinum13%
(Rhodium platinum)
T Copper
Constantan
Derived from NIST Monograph 175-1993.
b Does
c
d
not include use or installation errors. Percent error is great of, not additive.
The positive material is shown in capitals.

The limits of error of thermocouples are based on a Reference Junction 0C (32F). For the conversion of an error in degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius (centigrade), the ratio 5/9 shall be used.
Std.
TABLE 1 Limits of Error of Thermocouples and Extension Wiresa,b
Alternate Extension Wires for Standard Wire Sizes*

Thermocouples,
Temp.
Limits of
Typical
Range,
Error
Material**
Std.
E NICKEL10%
32
CHROMIUM
to
to
Constantan
600
315
32
J IRON
to
to
Constantan
530
275
CHROMIUM
32
Nickel5%
to
to
Aluminum,
530
275
32
to
to
21/2F
3F
(
2C)
4F
(
2C)
Wire
Types
Special
21/4F
EX
1.25C)
2F
Temp.
Range,
F
18
to
to
400 204
JX
( 1C)
Ext.
Limits of Error
Wire
Types
Temp.
Range,
Std.
Special
3F
2F
Limits
of
Error
***
(2C)
18
2F
to
to
400 204 0.1C)
( 1C)
K NICKEL10%
silicon)
S PLATINUM
10%
RHODIUM
platinum)
R PLATINUM
10%
(RHODIUM
platinum)
4F
(
2C)
1000 538 1.5C)
2F
KX
( 1C)
18
to
to
WX
400 204
75
24
to
to
400 204
SX
75
24
to
to
6F
(3C)
12F
400 204 (6.7C)
Ext.
TABLE 2 Limits of Error of Thermocouples, Extension Wires, and
Temp.
Limits of
Typical
Range,
Error
Material**
75 to 60
T COPPER
200
93
200
93
Constantan
to
to
700
370
Std.
11/2F
(0.8C)
3/4%
Ext.
Wire
Types
Special
Temp.
Range,
F
Ext.
Limits of Error
Wire
Types
Std.
60
to
Temp.
Range,
Special
11/2F
3/4F
93 (0.8C)
(0.4C)
Limits
of
Error
***
3/4F
(0.4C)
3/8%
TX
75
to
200
Derived from Bibliography 4.
Does not include use or installation errors.
**
The positive material is shown in capitals.
The limits of error of thermocouples are based on a Reference Junction temperature of 32F (0C). For the conversion of an
error in degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celcius (centigrade),the ratio 5/9 should be used.
***
The limits of error for alternate types of extension wires listed are applicable for a temperature of 75F (29C) only at the point
where the thermocouples and extension wires are joined.
potential by the voltage-measuring device. For maximum accuracy, there shall be no splices in the
thermocouple wires between the measuring and reference junctions. Substantial Errors are introduced at such splices because of manufacturing tolerances between wires of the same nominal
compositions.
7.2.2.2 Temperature measurement is additionally subject to errors in measurement of electrical
Thermocouples,
establish the accuracy of measurement by checking one or more representative thermocouples

against a known reference temperature, independently
measured.
For
example,
thermocouple may be is placed in a water bath in a thermos bottle whose temperature is

established at a representative level and checked with a platinum RTD mercury-in-glass
thermometer having the accuracy and listed precision in accordance with the test plan. Table 1.
Thermocouples shall be individually calibrated for use where 0.1 C (0.2F) or better accuracy is
specified. In addition, a calibration shall be made check at 0C (32F) using a bath composed of
distilled water and distilled-water ice or an electronic block calibrator. is recommended. An
abundance of ice shall be kept properly stirred to guard against stratification of water at
temperatures above 0C (32F) at the bottom of the bath.
7.2.4 To obtain an accuracy of 0.3C (0.5F) or better, thermocouple wires shall be calibrated
individually against an accurate instrument or standard, such as a resistance thermometer in a
liquid bath or a secondary instrument, such as a glass thermometer with a telescope and a fine
scale division. In the case of copper-constantan (type T), it is usually sufficient to calibrate the
constantan wire at a few points on a spool. However, but both wires shall be homogeneous
low heat*along the length of the leads to be used, one at a time, with both ends connected to a
galvanometer. A deflection on the galvanometer indicates inhomogeneous wire, and it shall be
discarded.
7.2.5 See ASHRAE Standard 41.6 1 for use of thermo couples to measure wet-bulb temperature.
10.3 Thermocouples may be used for air wet-bulb temperature measurements. A suggested
arrangement is shown inFigure 5
* Temperature not to exceed 93C (200F) and not high enough to damage any insulation of wire coating. Too much heat will cause
an inhomogeneity
throughout the length of the lead used. Homogeneity is can be determined by running a source of
7.2.3 In an individual test situation using one or more thermocouples, it is necessary to
after forming the junction. For precise work, calibration after forming is necessary. may be
indicated
7.2.7 Temperature differences are may be measured by means of thermocouples arranged in
multiple-junction,
series
thermopile
fashion.
Other
series,
parallel,
or
series-parallel
arrangements of thermocouples are used can be utilized for various measuring problems (see
Section 7.3.1 for details).
7.2.8 When fabricating the thermocouple, the two must be elements are permanently joined at
one end to form the measuring junction. For the temperature range of concern in this standard, the
junction is may be welded or soldered. For Type T (copper-constantan) thermocouples, the junction is
may be made with soft solder. For Type K (chromel-alumel) or Type J (iron-constantan), the joint is
may be made with silver solder. When the junction is to be attached to a metallic surface, the same
joint alloy shall be used as was used to form the junction. Temperature not to exceed 93C (200F)
and not high enough to damage any insulation of wire coating. Too much heat will cause an
inhomogeneity. same joint alloy should be used as was used to form the junction.
welding, (2)electric arc welding, (3)and resistance welding. Detailed information on welding proce
dures is given in Bibliography
7.2.10 Thermocouples are may be attached to metallic surfaces by soldering. It is important to be

sure that the junction is actually at the surface and not inadvertently formed by a drop of solder
connecting the wires at a point not actually at the surface. It is necessary to be sure that the
thermocouple wires are not in contact with each other so as to cause a short circuit, especially where
insulation is burned off the wire during soldering.
7.2.9 Other common methods of welding thermocouple junctions are: in use, namely: (1)gas
7.2.6 Individual thermocouples may have errors introduced by cold working of the metal
unduly by heat transfer to or from the thermocouple wires, particularly if the wires are exposed to
a moving airstream. Errors greater than on the order of 10% or more of the temperature difference
between surfaces and airstreams result ambi ent are possible due to this cause.
To minimize such errors, the thermocouple wire shall be taped to the metal surface for a
minimum of 1 in. (25 mm) or 2(1 in.) so that the portion of the wire in the vicinity of the junction is kept
at surface temperature.
There shall be no a minimum of thermal insulation between the wires and surface, although it is
necessary to maintain the electrical insulation of the wires.
If thermocouples are electrically grounded at the point of measurement, precautions shall be

taken to eliminate voltage differences between the point of measurement and the measuring
instrument.
Vapor sealed thermal insulation is then be placed over the junction and adjacent wires, if
To establish the necessity for these extra precautions, it is advisable to attach two
thermocouples, one with minimum attention to this effect and one adequately insulated.
Comparison of temperature readings will indicate whether more elaborate precautions are necessary.
7.2.12 Bare thermocouple leads in an airstream with required proper immersion give best
results in a duct because the lead "see" approximately conductors are exposed to same temperature
as the junction of the gas.
necessary, where temperature differences are great and/or ambient velocities are high.
7.2.11 Ensure It is additionally necessary to ensure that the indicated temperature is not biased
7.3.1 A series arrangement of thermocouples is referred to as a thermopile. A thermopile is used to

measure the difference between two temperature levels. One benefit of the thermopile is measuring
very small temperature differences because the electromotive force (EMF) values are amplified by
the number of thermocouple pairs. Special measurement instrumentation, reference junctions, and
calibration are required to determine the measured temperature difference.
7.3.2 A more common and beneficial thermocouple circuit is a parallel arrangement. The parallel
arrangement provides the average temperature level for all couples in the arrangement. A
parallel arrangement is not called a thermopile. Since all high (positive) and low (negative) leads are
connected together, a standard, electronic temperature indicator, monitor, or recorder, with built-in
(or external) cold-junction reference (compensation) is used to directly indicate the average
temperature.
7.3.3 The construction of a thermocouple circuit shall be accomplished using couples, wire, and
extension wire of equal length and from the same manufacturing batch, preferably from the same
7.4 Resistance Temperature Devices

7.4.1 The platinum RTD is used by NIST to define the International Temperature Standard
(ITS-90). Platinum is used in RTDs because of its high melting point, which allows high purity (better
than 99.999%) manufacturing. Platinum has excellent malleability, linearity, corrosion resistance, and
sensitivity, which allows production of accurate and stable temperature elements. Platinum RTD
elements are fabricated as wire-wound and thin film.
7.4.2 Platinum RTDs have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and are standard in two
resistance temperature coefficients: 0.00385 and 0.003925 ohm/ohm C. The "385" coefficient is more
commonly used by manufacturers. Connections to RTD elements include two-wire, three-wire, and
four-wire. Three or four-wire leads shall be used for all temperature measurements where an
accuracy greater than or equal to 0.2C (0.4F) is required.
spool. All thermocouples shall have the same resistance.
7.3 Thermocouple Circuits
standards resistances include 200, 500, and 1000 ohms. Thin film platinum elements are
commonly manufactured for 1000 ohm at 0C (32F) and are used for small-diameter and fastresponse- time applications. The higher-resistance elements are often less accurate and subject to
higher self-heating losses, depending on the instrumentation used to derive the temperature
measurement.
7.4.4 RTD probes include sheath materials of 316 stain less steel and Inconel. Diameters range
from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) and lengths from 25.4 to 500 mm (1 in. to 20 in.).
Response times or time constants define the time required for a 63% change in resistance due to a
sudden temperature change, such as 0C to 100C (32F to 100F) or 25C (77F) to 80C (176F),
with the probe immersed in flowing liquid.
7.4.5 RTDs are not a primary temperature measurement device and require an electronic
instrument, recorder, indicator, meter, or data logger to derive temperature. The instrument shall be
calibrated for the RTD type, configuration, and coefficient, and the error shall be used to determine the
uncertainty of the measurement (see Section 8). Platinum RTD temperature measurement range is -
0.005C to 0.30C (0.01F to 0.55F) depending on manufacturing technique. Best accuracies are
stated at 0C (32F) and vary at lower and higher temperatures. Accuracy of thin-film platinum
RTDs range from 0.05C to 0.55C (0.1Fto 1.0F).
7.5 Thermistors
7.5.1 Thermistors, or thermally sensitive resistors, are manufactured from ceramic oxide
semiconductors. Different from RTDs, thermistors have a negative thermal coefficient (NTC).
Materials for precision thermometry include: metal oxides of manganese, nickel, and cobalt.
Thermistors have significantly higher resistance sensitivities than RTDs, which make them less
sensitive to long copper conductor lead lengths.
200C to 3000C (-328F to 1112F). Accuracy of wire- wound platinum RTDs range from
7.4.3 Platinum RTD elements are typically manufactured for 100 ohms at 0C (32F). Other
mm (0.005 in.) and are not stable until aged for multiple months. The elements are sintered
integrally, with lead wires then encapsulated with various materials, such as glass, PTFE, and
epoxy. This con figuration provides better durability, smaller size, and faster response than RTDs.
7.5.3 The high sensitivity of thermistors limits their temperature span to small ranges of about
55C (100F) over the temperature range of-73C to 290C (-100F to 550F). Low temperature range
resistances are 2000 to 10,000 ohm, with high temperature resistances from 10,000 to 50,000 ohm. The
nonlinearity and absence of internationally recognized standard ranges requires unique temperature
resistance curves for each batch of manufactured thermistors. These curves are commonly of the
following form:
1/T =a + b(ln(R)) + c(ln(R))3
This equation is known as the Steinhart-Hart equation (Stein-hart and Hart) and requires the
coefficients to be used by the temperature-indicating device.
indicating or monitoring devices provide measurement accuracies greater than or equal to

0.002C (0.004F). For interchange ability of identical span and type, accuracies are more
commonly 0.2C (0.4F).
7.6 Infrared Pyrometers
7.6.1 The infrared (IR) pyrometer, or thermometer, is a type of optical total radiation
pyrometer. Materials at temperatures above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation over a
broad spectrum and exhibit a characteristic maximum radiation. The wavelength of this maximum
radiation intensity is inversely proportional to its temperature. This relationship is known as the Wein
displacement law and is the primary basis for optical pyrometry (Steinhart and Hart). The IR
thermometer uses a type of photocell electronic detector to derive temperature.
7.5.4 Manufacturers of narrow-range thermistors with matched and calibrated electronic
7.5.2 Thermistors are fabricated in the form of beads, rods, and disks in sizes as small as 0.13
measurement device for flat surfaces. The IR thermometer, or sensor, is sensitive to the emissivity of
the material surface, the distance between the sensor and surface, and the spot size specification
for the device. The spot size is a ratio of the distance from the material to the diameter of the
measurement spot (S:D). Ratios vary from 3:1 to 60:1. Instruments manufactured with adjust able
emissivity shall be calibrated for the material to be measured. Other instruments are manufactured
based on common material emissivity, commonly 0.95.
7.6.3 The temperature range for IR thermometry is -40C to 3300C (-40F to 6000F), but typical
devices are manufactured and calibrated for smaller ranges (e.g., -15C to 540C; 0F to 1000F) to
provide better accuracy. Handheld units have accuracies from the greater of 1 % of reading up to 3%
of span or 1C to 3C (2F to 5F). Mounted sensors with remote, calibrated, electronic transducers
or indicators have accuracies of 1% of reading or 1C (2F), whichever is greater.
8. UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
the measurement. This is referred to as an error analysis, as outlined in ANSI/ASHRAE

Guideline 2, Engineering Analysis of Experimental Data.
8.2 The random errors in temperature measurements are associated with the ability to resolve a
reading from the instrument. The random error estimate determined in a measurement shall be
compared with the least scale division for reading the instrument. The random error shall not be
taken as less than one half the least scale division.
8.3 The larger estimate of instrument uncertainty as deter mined in Section 8.2 and 8.3 shall be
used in the estimate of the error propagation for any derived temperature measurement.
Alternatively, a more rigorous approach to estimating the random errors is performed using the
statistical methods outlined in ANSI/ASHRAE Guideline 2, Engineering Analysis of Experimental Data.
8.1 Accompanying the measurement of temperature shall be an estimate of the uncertainty of
7.6.2 IR thermometers provided by manufacturers are used as a noncontact temperature
are provided in Informative Annexes B and C.
9. TEST REPORT
9.1 Test Identification
a. Date, place, time, and duration of test
b. Operator's name
9.2 Unit under Test Description
a.
Item description (e.g., model number, serial number)
b.
Fluid type or refrigerant number (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation and Safety Classification
9.3 Instrument Description
a.
Instrument type, model or part number, and serial number
b. Operating range of the instrument
c.
Instrument accuracy (random error) based on specifications or calibration
d. Calibration date and source
of Refrigerants3)
8.4 Calculation examples for estimating the uncertainty for two types of temperature measurements
a.
Ambient temperature, C (F)
b. Barometric pressure, kPa (in. Hg)
9.5 Test Conditions
a. Pressure of fluid (if not ambient), kPa (psig)
b. Description of instrument installation
c.
Description of mixing and sampling devices
9.6 Test Results
a. Temperature, C (F)
10. REFERENCES
1. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.6-1994 (RA2006), Standard Method for Measurement of Moist Air
Properties. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA.
2. ASHRAE Guideline 2-2010, Engineering Analysis of Experimental Data. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA.
3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010, Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants. ASHRAE,

Atlanta, GA.
b. Uncertainty of temperature measurement, C (F)
9.4 Ambient Conditions
11.1 A resistance thermometer measures temperature as a function of electrical resistance of a wire as

it is subjected to various temperatures The resistance thermometer offers advantages of high
accuracy, high speed of response, and nearly linear response to temperature change. There is virtually no limit to the distance between the measurement and the recording or indicating point.
Measurement accuracy is affected very little by ambient temperature changes. Special lead wires are
not required as for thermocouples. The resistance element is relatively expensive compared to a
thermocouple. A complex, expensive instrument is required to determine the resistance.
Resistance thermometers require, calibration before they can be used
11.2 Precision resistance thermometers are used as temperature standards for calibrating other
instruments for use within the temperature range of interest in this standard.
11.3 Thermistors are a special type of resistance ther mometer. They are made of semiconductor
materials that can be made to provide high accuracy, sensitivity, and fast response coupled with
small size. Thermistors measure tem perature as a function of electrical resistance but have a much
They are, therefore, particularly useful for measurements within a small range of temperatures. Each
thermistor must be calibrated individually in a liquid bath if an accuracy of 0.2F (0.1C) or better is
required. Because of the relatively high resistance of thermis tors, care must be taken to maintain the
electrical insulation of resistance of the thermistor element. Thermistors have a ten dency to drift
unless they have been properly "cured" by the manufacturer before use. But if this has been
properly done and if they arc not subjected to shock and are treated with care, they will hold their
calibration for long periods to within 0.05F (0.03C) and better. Thermistor time constants are on the
order of one to two seconds; consequently, thermal damp ing of the airstream is recommended.
11.4 In general, resistance thermometers (including therm istors) arc used where high accuracy is
required. Their instal lation and usage more nearly follow practices employed for mercury-in-glass
thermometers than for thermocouples; how ever, resistance thermometers retain the advantage of
the remote reading instrumentation of thermocouples.
higher temperature coefficient of resistivity than resistance thermometers made of wires or metals.
11. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES-RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
thermocouples are equally applicable for use with resistance thermometers except as obviously
inappropriate due to the mechanical construction of the instrument. Under controlled conditions and
with suitable calibration, resistance thermometers can electrical averaging of many points of
temperature measurement.
11.5 The techniques suggested in connection with mercury-in-glass thermometers and
requirements necessary for conformance to the standard. It has not been processed according
to the ANSI requirements for a standard and may contains material that has not been subject
to public review or a consensus process. Unresolved objectors on informative material are not
offered the right to appeal at ASHRAE or ANSI.)
INFORMATIVE ANNEX A BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. American National Standard for Temperature Measurement Thermocouples, ANSI MC96.1-1982,
American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018.
2. Precision Measurement and Calibration, National Bureau of Standards, Handbook 77, Volume II,
Heat and Mechanics, February 1, 1961, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402.
Swindells, ed., August 1968, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.
4. ASME PTC 19.-1974 (RA 2004), Performance Test Code: Temperature Measurement, Instruments
and Apparatus, ANSI/ASME PTC 19.3-1974, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East
47th Street, New York, NY 10017.
5. "Errors in Temperature Measurement of Moving Air Under Isothermal Conditions Using

Thermocouples, Thermistors and Thermometers," J.C. Davis, T.K. Fai-son, and P.R. Achenbach,
ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 73, 1967.
6. 1989 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals, Chapter 13, pp. 13.5-13.9.
3. Precision Measurement and Calibration, NBS Special Publication 300, Volume 2, Temperature, J.F.
(This annex is not part of this standard. It is merely informative and does not contain
Force (emf) Tables for Standardized
Thermocouples,
ANSI/ASTM International, West
Conshohocken,E230-1987, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street,
Philadelphia PA 19103, 2011, DOI: 10.1520/ E0230_E0230M-llE01.
8. Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement, ASTM STP 470B-1981, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.
9. "Errors in Temperature Measurement," P. Bliss and R.K.Morgan,
Bechwit, Thomas G., Buck, N. Lewis, Marangoni, Roy, D., Mechanical Measurements, 3rd ed., 1982,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts
McGee, Thomas D., Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement, 1988, Wiley, New York.
Steinhart, John S. and Hart, Stanley R., Calibration curves for thermistors, Deep Sea Research and
Amsterdam.
NIST Monograph 175-1993. Temperature-Electromotive Force Reference Functions and Tables for the
Letter-Designated Thermocouple Types Based on the ITS-90, (U.S.) National Institute of Standards
and Technology, April 1993.
Oceanographic Abstracts, Volume 15, Issue 4, August 1968, Pages 497-503, ISSN 0011-7471. Elsevier,
7. ANSI/ASTM Standard E230-1 lei, 2011, Standard Specification and for Temperature Electromotive
to the ANSI requirements for a standard and contains material that has not been subject to public
review or a consensus process. Unresolved objectors on informative material are not offered the
right to appeal at ASHRAE or ANSI.
INFORMATIVE ANNEX B EXAMPLE OF AN UNCERTAINTY

ESTIMATE FOR A TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT WITH AN RTD
In this example, an RTD is used to measure temperature. The equation that relates the resistance
of the RTD to the temperature the RTD is sensing is
Rt = Ro. (1+.T)
(B_1)
T = temperature for the resistance Rt
Ro = resistance at 0C (32F)
= coefficient of the RTD and has units of ohm/ohm.C (ohm/ohm.F)
Rearranging to solve for T, one gets the following:
T = (Rt-Rn)/(a-Rn)
(B_2)
Where
(B-3)
(B-4)
(B-5)
Using the uncertainty equation in ANSI/ASHRAE Guideline 2, paragraph 5.4.4 gives
(B-6)
Instrument Application 1:
For this RTD, a is 0.00385 ohm/ohm-C, R o is 100 ohms; the following are from the
instrument specification:
(B-7)
Calculating the partial differentials of T with respect to each of the variables gives
= 0.000001 ohm/ohmC
Rt = 0.004 ohm
Evaluation at Rt = 100 ohm @ 0C (32F)
Evaluation at Rt = 113.7375 ohm @ 35C (95F)
R = 0.05C or 0.0001925 ohm
The difference between this application and Instrument Application 1 is that the RTD reader
was changed out for a less accurate model. The RTD element was left the same. The new model
has a full range of 375 ohm with an accuracy of 0.1% of full scale or 0.375 ohms.
Rt = 0.375 ohm
Evaluation at Rt = 100 ohm @ 0C (32F)
Evaluation at Rt = 113.7375 ohm @ 35C (95 F)
Instrument Application 2: Technology, March 1971.
The accuracy of the reader is just as important as the accuracy of the RTD sensor.
to the ANSI requirements for a standard and contains material that has not been subject to public
review or a consensus process. Unresolved objectors on informative material are not offered the
right to appeal at ASHRAE or ANSI.)
INFORMATIVE ANNEX C EXAMPLE OF AN UNCERTAINTY

ESTIMATE FOR A TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT WITH A
THERMOCOUPLE
The equation that relates the voltage across a thermocouple to the temperature the
thermocouple is sensing is:
(C-1)
where Tj is the temperature being measured in C (F).
Ej = Em + Ecjc
(C-2)
In this example, a thermocouple is used to measure temperature.
Comments:
Em = voltage difference across the thermocouple
Ecjc = calculated equivalent voltage of the cold junction temperature if the cold junction temperature
is not 0C (32F)
Using the uncertainty equation in ANSI/ASHRAE Guideline 2, paragraph 5.4.4 gives:
(C-3)
reading the voltage, wire is the impact to the temperature measurement due to variances in the alloy of
the thermocouple wire, cond is the impact to the temperature measurement due to the nonuniformity
in the isothermal bar that is used for the cold junction, and cjc is the impact to the temperature
measurement due to the accuracy of the cold junction sensor.
Due to the high order of the equation, the derivatives are best found analytically for:
Those results show that
are all approximated by 1.
where volts is the impact to the temperature measurement due to the accuracy of the multimeter
Where
For this case, the thermocouple is a type T with the junction temperature at 20C and the sensing
temperature at 55C.
wire = 0.8C,
cjc = 0.5C,
cond =0.5C, and
volts =0.1% of the voltage reading (for this case,
(C-4)
Where
(C-5)
For a delta measurement, the uncertainty becomes:
Application 1:
application, the result is:

T= 1.001C
Application 2:
For Instrument Application 2, everything is the same, except the thermocouple reader along
with the junction temperature sensing was upgraded.
T = 1 .14C
For a delta measurement, the uncertainty becomes:
If the wire was taken from adjoining sections of the spool, neglecting the wire term for the delta
T= 0.8C
application, the result is:
neglecting the wire term for the delta

If the wire was taken from adjoining sections of the spool,
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About ASHRAE
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advancing heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration to serve humanity and promote a sustainable world
through research, standards writing, publishing, and continuing education.
For more information or to become a member of ASHRAE, visit www.ashrae.org.
To stay current with this and other ASHRAE standards and guidelines, visit www.ashrae.org/standards.
ASHRAE also offers its standards and guidelines on CD-ROM or via an online-access subscription that provides
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To ensure that you have all of the approved addenda, errata, and interpretations for this
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Addenda, errata, and interpretations for ASHRAE standards and guidelines will no
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ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 41.

Standard Method for

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ASHRAE Standing Standard Project Committee 41

ASHRAE STANDARDS COMMITTEE 20122013

ASHRAE INDUSTRIAL ADVERTISING POLICY ON STANDARDS

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This is a Redline document produced by Techstreet,

- Red strikethrough text denotes deletions.

- Blue underlined text denotes modifications and additions.

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Informative Annex CExample of an Uncertainty Estimate for a

Informative Annex BExample of an Uncertainty Estimate for a

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Standard Method for

fixed error: same as systematic error.

Precision error: same as random error.

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desirable as good practice.

temperature, dry-bulb: the temperature of a gas or mixture of gases indicated by an accurate

qualification) is the temperature indicated by a wet-bulb psychrometer constructed and used

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Resistance temperature devices (RTDs)

Electric resistance thermometers, including thermistors

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For steady-state tests 1 minute

For steady-state testing1 minute

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Achieving a total system accuracy within 0.3F (0.17C) of individual values.

When using temperature transducers in series or parallel (such as thermocouple grids or

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For transient testing20 seconds

See Section 4.6)

See Section 4.6)

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TABLE 1 Instrument and Test Tolerances for Temperature Measurement

See Section 4.6) See Section 4.6)

Applicable where the temperature difference is measured with a single instrument.

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5.2.1 Temperature, "C (F)

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5.2 Values to be Determined

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Simplifications introduced as prescribed calculation procedures, such as use of constant coefficients in

The effects of the action and interaction of the following:

a. Performance oscillations of instruments, especially of the self-balancing or remote reading

b. Performance oscillations of the apparatus producing the test environment.

C. Performance oscillations of the equipment being used.

cannot be overcome by merely specifying a high degree of instrument accuracy.

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a. Nonuniformity of temperature across the airstream.

b. Nonuniformity of air velocity.

c. Thermal radiation to or from the instrument sensing elements if exposed to surrounding

Nonuniformity of the humidity ratio of the air in the event humidification or

(Informative) For the special requirements of obtaining wet-bulb temperature measurements.

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