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MODULE 4
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FUNDAMENTALS

MODULE 4.1.3.
INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

1.1 GENERAL
Integrated circuits, or ICs, have changed the entire electronics industry. Before
ICs were developed, all electronic circuits consisted of individual (discrete),
components that were wired together, often requiring a large amount of physical
space. Printed circuit Board (PCB) technology made it possible to reduce the
amount of space required. Electronic circuits can be quite complex, requiring a
large number of components, since discrete components have a fixed size, there
is a practical limitation on the amount of size reduction that can be achieved.
The development of integrated circuit technology has made it possible to
fabricate large numbers of electronic components onto a single silicon chip. As a
result, the physical size of a circuit can be significantly reduced, making it
possible to design circuits and devices that would otherwise be impractical.
ICs are complete circuits containing many transistors, diodes, resistors and
capacitors as may be necessary for the circuit operation. They are encapsulated
in packages that are often no larger than a single discrete transistor. The
technology and materials used in the manufacture of ICs are basically the same
as those used in the manufacture of transistors and other solid-state devices. In
addition, ICs are manufactured for a wide variety of applications and, as a result,
are used throughout the electronics industry.
1.1.1 ADVANTAGES
The small size of the IC is its most apparent advantage. A typical IC can be constructed on a piece of
semiconductor material that is less than 4mm2. Even when the IC is suitably packaged, it still occupies only
a small amount of space. The small size of the IC also produces other benefits such as they consume less
power than the equivalent conventional circuit. They generate less heat and therefore generally do not
require elaborate cooling or ventilation systems.
ICs are also more reliable than conventional circuits. This greater reliability result because every
component within the IC is a solid-state device and is permanently connected together with a thin layer of
metal. They are not soldered together like the components in a conventional circuit and a circuit failure due
to faulty connections is less likely to occur.

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1.1.2 DISADVANTAGES
It might appear that the IC has only advantages to offer and no real disadvantages. Unfortunately, this is not
the case, since ICs are an extremely small device it cannot handle large currents or voltages. High currents
generate heat within the device and small components can be easily damaged if the heat becomes excessive.
High voltages can break down the insulation between the components in the IC because the components are
very close together. This can result in shorts between the adjacent components, which would make the IC
completely useless. Therefore, most ICs are low power devices, which have a low operating current
(milliamps) and low voltages (5 20V). Also, most ICs have a power dissipation range of less than 1 watt.
At the present only four types of component are commonly constructed within an IC. This makes only a
narrow selection of components available, these are:
1.

Diode.

2.

Transistor.

3.

Resistor.

4.

Capacitor.

Diodes and transistors are the easiest components to construct and are used extensively to perform as many
functions as possible within each IC. Resistors and capacitors may also be formed, but it is much more
difficult and expensive to construct these components. The amount of space occupied by a resistor
increases with its value and in order to conserve space, it is necessary to use resistors with values as low as
possible.
Capacitors occupy even more space than resistors and the amount of space required increases with the value
of the capacitor.
Ics cannot be repaired because their internal components cannot be seperated. When one internal
component becomes defective, the whole IC becomes defective and musty be replaced. This means that
good components are often thrown away with the defective ones. This disadvantage is not as bad as it
sounds, as the task of fault finding is simplified because it is only necessary to trace the problem to a
specific circuit instead of an individual component. This greatly simplifies the task of maintaining highly
complex systems and reduces the demands on maintenance personnel.

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1.2 IC CONSTRUCTION
There are basically four methods of construction used for ICs. These are:
1.

Monolithic.

2.

Thin-Film.

3.

Thick Film.

4.

Hybrid.

1.2.1 MONOLITHIC ICS

The monolithic IC is constructed in basically the same manner as a Bipolar Transistor, although the
overall process requires a few additional steps because of the greater complexity of the IC. Its fabrication
begins with a circular semiconductor wafer (usually silicon). This wafer is usually very thin (0.015mm
0.3mm) and either 2.5cm or 5cm in diameter. The semiconductor serves as a base on which the tiny
integrated circuits are formed and is commonly referred to as a Substrate. Figure 1 shows the IC
construction.
IC Construction

2 .5 -

DI
5 CM

TE
AME

NUMBER OF ICS FORMED

DEPENDS ON THE SIZE
OF THE WAFER
0.015 - 0.30mm

SILICON WAFER

ONCE THE ICS HAVE

BEEN FORMED, THE
WAFER IS SLICED INTO
INDIVIDUALCHIPS

ICS ARE FORMED

ON THE WAFER

Figure 1

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When all of the ICs have been simultaneously formed, the wafer is sliced into many sections, which are
commonly referred to as Chips or Dice. Each chip represents one complete integrated circuit and
contains all the components and wiring associated with that circuit. Once the ICs have been separated into
individual chips, each IC must be mounted in a suitable package and tested.

1.2.2 BIPOLAR IC CONSTRUCTION

As mentioned earlier, the components that are commonly used in ICs are diodes, Transistors, resistors and
capacitors. Diffusing impurities into selected regions of a semiconductor wafer (substrate) can form these
components. This process produces PN junctions at specific locations and the basic manner in which these
four components are formed and the manner in which they are interconnected are shown at Figure 2.
Basic Construction of Bipolar IC
Figure 2

CIRCUIT

CAPACITOR

ALUMINIUM OR
GOLD METALIZATION
FILM

P-TYPE SUBSTRATE

DIODE

P-TYPE SUBSTRATE

TRANSISTOR
RESISTOR

SILICON OXIDE
FILM
(INSULATION LAYER)

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The circuit shown in figure 2 is a simple circuit consisting of a capacitor, a PN

junction diode, an NPN transistor and a resistor. Operating voltages and currents
can be applied to the circuit through terminals 1,2 and 3 as shown. This circuit
could be easily constructed using four discrete components, however, it can also
be produced as a monolithic IC.

1.2.3 MOS ICS

Not all ICs are constructed using bipolar components, ICs are often designed to utilize either bipolar
transistors or Field-Effect transistors (FETS). The Field effect transistor is one in which the emittercollector current is controlled by voltage rather than by a current. Figure 3 shows the construction and
operation of a MOSFET.
MOSFET
GATE
SILICON OXIDE
FILM INSULATING
LAYER

SOURCE
TERMINAL

GATE
TERMINAL

DRAIN
TERMINAL

N CHANNEL
SOURCE

P or N TYPE SUBSTRATE

DIFFUSED
SOURCE
REGION

DRAIN

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

DIFFUSED
DRAIN
REGION

+10V

CONSTRUCTION

METAL
PLATE

SILICON OXIDE
INSULATION
METAL

OXIDE
+15V

N-TYPE

P-TYPE

N-TYPE

SILICON SILICON SILICON

SEMICONDUCTOR

OPERATION

Figure 3
The FET may be constructed of a channel of either N-type or P-type silicon with a controlling gate sitting
on top. One end of the channel is called the source, and the other end is called the drain. An N-channel
FET has a P-type gate, so that when a positive voltage ios applied to the gate, the FET is forward biased.
There will be current flow between the source and the drain. When a negative voltage is applied to the gate,
the FET will be reversed biased, and the flow between the source and the drain will be pinched off.

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The source and drain regions are diffused into the substrate. A thin layer of
silicon oxide is formed over the substarte and the appropriate windows are cut
into it so that metal electrodes ) terminals) can be formed at the proper locations.
Note that the gate terminal is separated from the substrate by an extremely thin
oxide layer, which is only 1 X 10-10 metres thick, but it completely isolates the gate
from the substrate.

1.2.4 THIN-FILM IC
Unlike the monolithic ICs, which are formed within a semiconductor material (substrate), the thin-film
circuit is formed on the surface of an insulating substrate. In the thin-film circuit, components such as
resistors and capacitors are formed from extremely thin layers of metals and oxides, which are deposited
onto a glass or ceramic substrate. Interconnecting wires are also deposited on the substrate as thin strips of
metal. Components such as diodes and transistors are formed as separate semiconductor devices and then
permanently attached to the substrate at the appropriate locations.
The substrate on which the thin-film circuit is formed is usually less than 2.5cm 2. Depositing tantalum or
nichrome as thin films or strips on the surface of the substrate forms the resistors. These films are usually
less than 0.00254cm thick. The thickness, length and width of each strip that is formed on the substrate
determine the value of each resistor. The interconnecting conductors are extremely thin metal strips, which
have been deposited on the substrate. Low resistance metals, such as gold. platinum, or aluminium, are
generally used as conductors. The substrate is made from an insulating material that will provide a rigid
support for the components. Glass or ceramic materials are often used as substrates. Figure 4 shows a
portion of a thin-film circuit.
Thin-Film IC
Figure 4

THIN-FILM
RESISTORS
THIN-FILM
CONDUCTORS

INSULATING
SUBSTRATE

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1.2.5 THICK-FILM ICS

Thick-film ICs components are formed on an insulating substrate by using a Silk-screen process. In this
process, a very fine wire screen is placed over the substrate and a metalized-ink is forced through the screen
using a squeegee. Only certain portions of the wire screen are open (the remaining portions are filled with a
special emulsion), thus allowing the ink to penetrate and coat the specific portions of the substrate. A
pattern of interconnecting conductors is formed on the substrate, which is then heated to over 6000C to
harden the painted surface and become low resistance conductors.
Resistors and capacitors are also silk-screened on top of the substrate by forcing the appropriate materials
(in paste form) through the appropriate screen and then heating the substrate to a high temperature. This
process is repeated using various pastes until the circuit is formed. Components such as diodes and
transistors are formed as separate semiconductor devices and then permanently attached to the substrate at
the appropriate locations.

1.2.6 HYBRID ICS

Hybrid ICs are formed by utilizing various combinations of monolithic, thin-film and thick film techniques
and may in certain circumstances contain discrete semiconductor components in chip form. Therefore
many types of hybrid circuit arrangements can be produced. A typical hybrid circuit might consist of a thinfilm circuit on which various monolithic ICs have been attached or it could utilize monolithic ICs thickfilm components and discrete diodes and transistors that are all mounted on a single insulating substrate.
A portion of a hybrid IC is shown at figure 5. An insulated substrate is used to support the circuit
components as shown. The monolithic IC is mounted on the substrate along with thich-film resistors and a
small discrete capacitor. All the components are interconnected with conductors that are formed on the
substrate using film techniques. The monolithic IC is connected to the conductors with fine wires that are
bonded in place. Thick-film resistors will usually have notches cut into them to trim their values. The
capacitor used in these circuits can be formed either by using film techniques or miniature devices can be
installed between conductors as shown.

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DISCRETE
CAPACITOR

INSULATING
SUBSTRATE

INPUT/OUTPUT
TERMINALS
CONDUCTORS

MONOLITHIC
IC

THICK-FILM
RESISTOR

Hybrid IC Construction
Figure 5

1.2.7 IC PACKAGES
Like transistors and other types of solid state components, ICs are mounted in packages, which protect
them from moisture, dust and other types of contaminations. Many different types of IC packages are
available and each type has its own advantges and disadvantages. The most popular IC package is the
Dual In-Line (DIL) package. The packages also make it easier to install the ICs in various types of
equipment, since each package contains leads which can be either plugged into matching sockets or plugged
into DIL mounting frames.

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Figure 6 shows typical DIL packages.

INTERCONNECTING
CONDUCTORS

MONOLITHIC
ICs

CONNECTING PINS

DIL Packages
Figure 6
The IC package shown in figure 6 contains three monolithic ICs, also a network of conductors have been
formed on the same base that supports the chip. Various conductor pads on the chips are connected to these
conductors with fine gold wires that have been bonded in place. The conductors in turn are connected to
two rows of connecting pins along the edge of the package. A lid or cover (not shown) is placed over the
opening in the package and soldered into place to provide an air tight (hermetically sealed) unit.
Integrated circuits may also be mounted in Metal cans that are similar to the types used to house
transistors. The metal can have 8 or more connecting leads and can used to house either monolithic or
hybrid type ICs. The advantage of these packages is that they may be installed in a variety of ways. Metal
cans can be used over a wide temperature range (-55 - +125C) and are therefore suitable for military and
space applications. Figure 7 shows the DIL and metal can type of packages.

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TYPICAL MINIATURE
DUAL IN-LINE (DIL)
PACKAGES

MODULE 4.1.3.
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TYPICAL METAL CAN

IC PACKAGES

DIL and Metal Can Packages

Figure 7

1.3 TYPES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Integrated circuits are placed into two general groups, these are:
1. Digital ICs.
2. Linear ICs.
1.4 DIGITAL ICS
Digital circuits use discrete values (0 or 1) to perform 3 general functions. These
are:
1. AND Function.
2. OR Function.

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3. NOT Function.
Thgese three function are performed by logic circuits that are called the AND, OR
and NOT logic gates. These gates or circuit configurations can be combined to
make decision based on digital input information. In a digital logic gate it is only
possible to have an output of either a 0 or 1.

1.4.1 AND GATE

Figure 8 shows the AND gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding circuit to carry out this
function.

A
A.B
B
SYMBOL

A.B

TRUTH TABLE

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

AND Gate
Figure 8
The AND gate has an output of 1 only when all of its inputs are equal to 1. This is similar to a multiplier
function since the only possibilities in a digital circuit are 0 X 1 = 0 and 1 X 1 = 1. The schematic circuit in
figure 8 shows two switches connected in series. Unless both switches are closed, there is no current flow
to the output.

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1.4.2 OR GATE
Figure 9 shows the OR gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding circuit to carry out this
function.

A
A+B
B
SYMBOL
A

A+B

TRUTH TABLE

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

OR Gate
Figure 9

1.4.3 NOT GATE

The NOT gate provides an output that is always the opposite the input. This is called inversion or 180
phase shift. Thus, the NOT gate is commonly referred to as an inverter. In the bipolar transistor, the
common emitter amplifier configuration was the only one capable of inverting the input so is used to carry
out the NOT function.

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Figure 10 shows the NOT gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding circuit to carry out this
function.

A
+VE

TRUTH TABLE

SYMBOL
OUTPUT

INPUT

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

NOT Gate
Figure 10

1.4.4 COMBINATION LOGIC CIRCUITS

The three basic logic circuits can be combined into a single decision making circuit with more than 1
distinct outputs. Consider a circuit that compares two inputs and calculates three outputs as shown below.

Output X1

Input A < Input B

Output X2

Input A > Input B

Output X3

Input A = Input B

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A combined logic circuit that would carry out the function is shown at Figure 11.
A

X1

X2

X3

TRUTH TABLE

A
X1 (A<B)

B
X3 (A=B)

X2 (A>B)

Combination Logic Circuit

Figure 11

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1.5 LINEAR (OR ANALOGUE) IC

Figure 12 shows the type of analogue signal handled by the Linear Integrated
Circuit.

TIME

Analogue Signal
Figure 1

1.6 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP AMP)

The integrated circuit operational amplifier is one of the most useful and versatile
electronic devices available today. The name operational amplifier is not new; it
refers to a type of amplifier originally used in analogue computing to perform
mathematical operations e.g. multiplication or division by a constant. The
modern integrated circuit device can be adapted (by feedback) to perform most
general-purpose amplifier duties, as well as its use in mathematical operations.

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The Op Amp can consist of many stages of amplification to ensure high gain, and
will be arranged to have two input terminals, two power supply terminals and an
output terminal. In addition it will normally have terminals for setting the output to
zero when the input is zero.
The Op Amp consists of a transistor circuit of considerable complexity, which has
been found so useful that the whole circuit is manufactured on a single piece of
silicon, fitted with input and output leads, and covered in plastic. It is the first
Integrated Circuit, and can be treated just as if it were a new component.
Figure 2 shows a type 741 Op Amp and circuit.

POWER
SUPPLY
(+)
INVERTING
INPUT

7
8
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT

6
NON-INVERTING
INPUT

1
3
5

4
POWER
SUPPLY
()

V
4

5
GROUND

NON-INVERTING
INPUT

VOLTAGE

V+

OUTPUT

Op Amp and Circuit

Figure 2

INVERTING
INPUT

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In the Op Amp, two pins are marked supply + and supply - and are connected to
the amplifiers power supply. The device also has two inputs, the Inverting input
(V) identified by a negative symbol. A Non inverting input (V N) identified by a
positive sign and a single output (VO).
Note: The negative/Positive signs on the inputs does not mean that
negative/positive signals are applied, but identify the inverting and non-inverting
terminals.
The V, VN and VO are the values of the voltages applied to the inputs and
obtained form the output. These voltages are joined by the equation:

VO = AO (VN V)
Here we have a slight problem. Voltages are measured between one point in a
circuit and another. Usually one point is the negative or zero line. When
calculating VN & V it does not matter were the reference is as long as it is the
same for both voltages. When we obtain the output V O we need to know the
reference point used by the Op Amp. This is not the zero line but a voltage
halfway between the positive supply and the zero line.
The other unknown quantity in the equation is AO, the Open Loop Gain. This
gain is constant for each particular Op Amp and is the ratio between two voltages.
Open Loop gain in Op Amps is normally 105.

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The following example will make use of the equation. Figure 3 shows an Op Amp
with an open loop voltage gain of 400, connected between a 12V supply.
+12V

GAIN = 400
VOUT

5.88V
5.87V
ZERO LINE

Op Amp
Figure 3

V = 5.88V

VN = 5.87

AO = 400

Using the equation:

VO = AO(VN - V)
VO = 400(5.87 5.88)
= 400(-0.01)
= -4V
The voltage is relative to a point halfway between +12v and zero, that is 6V. The
output voltage is therefore 4V below 6V, i.e. 2V. What would the output be if the
input values were reversed?
Ans:.

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1.7 THE UNITY GAIN FOLLOWER

The somewhat lengthy term operational amplifier will now be dropped and it will
be referred to, as most people do, simply as the op amp. The simplest op amp
with feedback configuration is the unity gain follower, which has a direct
connection from output to inverting terminal, and the input is applied to the noninverting terminal as shown in Figure 4. For convenience, power supplies will not
be shown in these circuits.

VOUT

VIN

Unity Gain Follower

Figure 4
Consider the circuit in Figure 4 and assume that v in is a small positive dc voltage.
With its enormous gain the output will probably saturate positive as soon as v in is
applied. But the output is connected directly to the input inverting terminal, and
being much greater than vin will drive the output to saturate negative, which is fed
back to the input inverting terminal to drive the output to saturate positive again.
It would appear that the output voltage is slamming from positive saturation to
negative saturation and back again at a rapid rate. This of course is not the case
at all, since in its travel from one extreme to the other, the output will arrive at the
same value as the input, and when this is fed back to the inverting input terminal,
the input difference voltage will be zero and there will be no signal to amplify.
Thus vout holds a value equal to vin.

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What has happened here is very important, since it applies to all op amps with
negative feedback circuits, and it should be noted that feedback from the output
to the inverting input terminal causes the output to take on a value which reduces
the input difference voltage to zero.
Since the output of the unity gain follower is the same as the input, it may, on first
consideration, have no practical application. As previously stated, even if the
feedback caused the output to equal the input, the input and output impedances
remain vastly different. Herein lies its practical application, as an impedance
matching device, and it serves as an excellent buffer stage preventing
interaction between a signal source and load.
1.8 THE FOLLOWER WITH GAIN
By reducing the amount of voltage fed back to the inverting terminal, the gain of
the amplifier can be raised above unity, and effectively multiply the input by a
factor determined by the amount of feedback. The reduction in feedback voltage
may be achieved by a potential divider arranged as shown in Figure 5.

R2

OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS
ATTENUATED BY THE
RATIO:

VIN

R1: R1 + R2

R1

BEFORE BEING APPLIED

TO THE INVERTING INPUT

Follower with Gain

Figure 5

VOUT

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1.9 THE INVERTER

The circuit incorporates a sign change between input and output. This is
achieved by bringing the input into the inverting terminal along with the feedback
loop, and by earthing the non-inverting terminal, as shown in Figure 6. The
resistors R1 and R2 still maintain the multiplication (or division) factor.

R2

R1

VIN
VOUT

The Inverter
Figure 5

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1.10 THE SUMMING AMPLIFIER

As the title implies, this is an adding device. The circuit can take any number of
voltage inputs, and the output voltage is simply the sum of these inputs.
The circuit in Figure 7 has a feedback loop containing a resistor Rf and the facility
to sum three input voltages.

RF
R1
V1IN
R2
V2IN
R3
V3IN

VOUT

RF = R1 = R2 = R3
VOUT = V1IN + V2IN + V3IN

Summing Amplifier
Figure 7
It must again be emphasised that using negative feedback, the feedback loop
forces the output to take on a value, which reduces the input difference voltage to
zero.
The input voltages V1, V2 and V3 are supplied to the inverting (-) terminal via
resistors R1, R2 and R3. Since the input difference voltage is zero, the potential at
the inverting terminal and hence the junction of R 1, R2 and R3 is the same as the
non-inverting (+) terminal, which is earth. Also, since the inputs are applied to the
inverting terminal, the output voltage will experience an inversion (sign change).
The output of the circuit, then, is the sum of the input voltages. Note again that
inversion takes place due to the inputs being applied to the inverting terminal.

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1.11 THE DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

Figure 8 shows how two inputs can be subtracted. This circuit differs from
previous types with negative feedback in that the non-inverting terminal is not at
earth. As before, however, the negative feedback drives the output to a value,
which reduces the input difference voltage to zero.

RF

R1 = RF
R2 = R3

R1
V

R2
VN
R3

V OUT = (VN - V)

Difference Amplifier
Figure 8

VO

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1.12 THE INTEGRATOR

This circuit performs the calculus operation of integration. An operational
amplifier with negative feedback applied via a capacitor (instead of a resistor) will
perform the mathematical operation of integration (see Figure 8). Such circuits
are widely used in analogue computing - e.g. if the input voltage uses the
analogue of acceleration (m/s/s), the output voltage is the analogue of speed
(m/s). Another use of this type of circuit is to produce a triangular (or ramp)
waveform from a square wave (or step) input; this technique is used in digital
voltmeters and some forms of analogue/digital converters. Figure 9 shows an
Integrator.

C1

R1

VIN
VOUT

Integrator
Figure 9

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MODULE 4.1.3.
INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS

1.13 THE DIFFERENTIATOR

With negative feedback applied through a resistor and the input signal through a
capacitor, the circuit will perform the mathematical operation of differentiation.
The output voltage then takes up a value proportional to the rate of change of the
input voltage - e.g. if the input voltage is the analogue of distance travelled
(miles), the output is the analogue of average speed (miles per hour). The circuit
can also be used to produce pips (e.g. calibration markers) when the input signal
is a square wave. (To prevent high frequency instability, it is usual to connect a
small capacitor (e.g. 10 F) across the feedback resistor to reduce gain at
frequencies above the required operating frequency). Figure 10 shows a
differentiating circuit.

R1

C1

VIN
VOUT

Differentiating Circuit
Figure 10
As in all previous circuits with negative feedback loops, the output voltage takes
on a value, which reduces the input difference voltage to zero, and a virtual earth
exists on the inverting terminal. Vin is across C and -vout across R.

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1.14 THE COMPARATOR

A comparator is a device, which compares two input voltages and indicates at the
output, which of the two is the larger. Basically, the circuits use a differential input
operational amplifier without feedback: so the output takes up either the positive
or negative supply level depending on which of the inputs is higher. See Figure
11.

WHEN VIN < VREF THEN VOUT = -V MAX

WHEN VIN > VREF THEN VOUT = +V MAX
+VE
VREF

+
VIN

The Comparator
Figure 11

VOUT

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1.15 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Although the characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier are unattainable,
modern integrated circuit types can provide an extremely close approximation.
The ideal characteristics are:
*

A very large open loop gain, near infinite,

Output unaffected by signal frequency, no signal phase shift with change in

frequency,

A very large (infinite) input impedance so that the amplifier takes negligible
current,

A very small output impedance so that the output of the amplifier is

unaffected by loading,

Output voltage is zero for zero input voltage (offset zero applied).

Naturally, no practical operational amplifier will be this perfect, which means of

course that there will be small operational errors with such devices. Therefore,
the closer to the ideal properties the amplifier is made, the smaller will be these
errors.

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engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS

MODULE 4.1.3.
INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS