Biomechanics

It is a branch which deal with the of study of forces and their effects
on living systems
Bone Anatomy and Classifications
Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The mechanical
stresses imposed on a bone and its function determine its form.
Bones are classified according to their shape. Long bones generally
have long, hollow shafts with knobby ends. They are designed for
large movements. Long bones occur in the extremities and include
the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals,
metatarsals, phalanges, and clavicle. Short bones are small, solid,
and blocklike. These bones are well suited to transferring forces and
shock absorption, but they are not very mobile. The wrist and ankle
bones
(the carpals and tarsals) are all short bones. As their name implies,
flat bones have flat surfaces and are thinner in one dimension.
These bones are designed for protection. The ribs, skull, scapula,
sternum, and pelvic bones are flat bones. Irregular bones are those
that fit into none of the
other categories. These bones are designed for support, protection,
and leverage. The vertebrae (including the sacrum and coccyx) and
the facial bones are examples of irregular bones. Some bones are
also described as sesamoid bones. These bones develop within
tendons, often in an effort to decrease stress or increase leverage.
The patella is an example of a sesamoid bone.
The mechanical stresses imposed on a bone and its
function determine its form.
Long bones are the bones most involved in motion.The long, hollow,
cylindrical shape of long bones makes them lightweight, yet still
quite strong in resisting bending loads.A certain amount of
mechanical stress is necessary to stimulate growth, but too much
may cause premature closure of growth plates. Certain hormones
also affect growth at the epiphyseal plate. Too little growth hormone
retards growth, whereas too much may extend growth past the
normal age of closure. Sex hormones increase the rate of cartilage
replacement and thus lead to closure of the epiphyseal plates. This
is the primary reason for the closure of most growth plates during
puberty. Growth in the diameter of long bones occurs where the
periosteum (the membrane covering the surface of the bone)
interfaces with bone. New bone is deposited there to increase the
thickness of the walls and the diameter of the bone. At the same
time, however, bone is absorbed at the inner surface of the wall, and

the central cavity of the bone is enlarged. Growth in the diameter of

bones ceases with closure of the epiphyseal plates; however,
throughout life, bone continues to adapt to changes in mechanical
stress with increases or decreases in wall thickness and density.

Joints
A joint or articulation is any place where two bones meet or join.
Joints have a variety of functions. Their primary function is to join
bones together while controlling the motion allowed between them.
Joints can provide rigid or highly mobile connections between bones,
depending on their individual functions. In addition to joining bones
together, another joint function is to transfer forces between bones.
These two competing functions, force transferal and motion control,
lead to interesting structural designs of joints.
A joint or articulation is any place where two bones meet or
join. The joints primary function is to join bones together
while controlling the motion allowed between them
Joint Classifications
Most of the joints of the appendicular skeleton are synovial joints.
Functionally, joints can be classified by how much movement they
allow. The functional classifications for joints are synarthrodial
(immovable), amphiarthrodial (slightly movable), and diarthrodial
(freely movable).The synovial joints are of most interest to us
because these are the joints where movement occurs.Synovial (or
diarthrodial) joints are subclassified into six different types according
to the movements allowed and the structure of the joint: gliding,
hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket.
Stability of Synovial Joints
Joint stability refers to a joint's resistance to movement in planes
other than those defined by the degrees of freedom of movement
for the joint, or to movement of the articulating surfaces away from
each other through shear dislocation (sliding laterally) or traction
dislocation (pulling apart). Stability of a hinge joint thus refers to its
ability to resist abduction and adduction, internal and external
rotation, or dislocation. Joint flexibility refers to the range of motion
possible in the planes of motion defined by the degrees of freedom
of movement for the joint and how easily these motions can occur.
Flexibility
of a hinge joint thus refers to its range of motion in flexion and
extension and the ease of these movements.

Joint stability refers to the joint's resistance to movement in

planes other than those defined by the degrees of freedom
of movement for the joint, or to movement of the
articulating surfaces away from each other through shear
dislocation (sliding laterally) or traction dislocation (pulling
apart).
The reciprocal convex and concave shapes of the articulating ends
of bones in a synovial joint are primarily responsible for determining
the planes of motion allowed at the joint. Compressive and shear
forces develop between matching parts of articulating bones to
resist any shear dislocations or rotations in planes other than those
for which the joint was designed.The tighter the bone-to-bone fit and
the deeper the matching convex and concave surfaces of the joint,
the more stable the joint. The hip is more stable than the shoulder
because the hip socket (the acetabulum) is much deeper than the
shoulder socket (the glenoid fossa). Articular cartilage and
fibrocartilage discs increase bone to bone fit and also assist with
joint stability. The menisci of the knee give the condyles of the femur
a deeper depression to sit in than the relatively flat tibial plateau.
Whereas the articulating bones resist compressive and shear forces
at joints, ligaments provide the tensile forces to resist traction
dislocations when something tends to pull the bones apart at a joint.
Their tensile strength is also required when a bending load acts on
the joint in a plane different from the plane of motion of the joint. In
this case, the joint must act like a beam, with compression stress on
one side and tensile stress on the other. The articular surfaces of the
bones on one side of the joint resist the compression component of
the bending load, whereas the ligaments on the opposing side resist
the tensile component of the bending load. The articular capsule
itself provides some of this tensile strength, but most joints have
ligaments as well to strengthen the joint so it can resist dislocating
torques or traction forces. The ligaments may occur as thickened
bands in the articular capsule itself or as external ligaments
separate from the articular capsule. The locations of ligaments
relative to the joint they protect thus determine the stability of the
joint to bending loads that may cause dislocating abduction,
adduction, or rotation.
Tendons and the muscles attached to them also resist tensile forces
and thus contribute to joint stability in a manner similar to
ligaments. The line of pull of most muscles is such that a component
of the force generated during a contraction tends to pull the bones
of a joint more tightly together, thus affording resistance to any
traction-dislocating forces that tend to pull the bones apart.In
certain joint positions, muscles may actually create forces having

components that tend to dislocate rather than stabilize a joint.The

muscles, tendons, and tendinous sheets (aponeuroses) that cross
joints also provide some lateral support to the joints they cross.
Another factor that contributes slightly to the stability of synovial
joints is the pressure within the joint cavity. This internal pressure is
less than the pressure external to the joint cavity, so a suction force
is created. The articulating bones are thus sucked together as long
as the joint cavity is sealed and intact.
Flexibility of Synovial Joints
Joint flexibility refers to the range of motion in the planes in which
the joint is designed to move. Range of motion of a limb is limited by
some of the same factors that contribute to joint stability: the bones,
ligaments, and muscles. Range of motion is limited by other factors
as well.
Joint flexibility refers to the range of motion in the planes in
which the joint is designed to move.
Range of motion is limited by the extensibility of the muscles that
cross a joint. Muscles that cross more than one joint (multiple-joint
muscles) may not be able to stretch far enough to allow full range of
motion at a joint if the positions at each joint the muscle crosses
stretch the muscle. The hamstring muscles are an example of a
multiple-joint muscle since these muscles cross both the hip and
knee joints. They are stretched if the knee extends and stretched
farther if the hip then flexes (as in the first case). The tension in the
hamstring muscles limited your hip flexion when the knee was
extended. When the knee is flexed, the tension in these muscles was
relieved, and you are able to flex the hip farther. Most muscles that
cross only one joint (single-joint muscles) are extensible enough that
they do not limit range of motion at that joint. With the exception of
the rectus femoris, the quadriceps muscles are all single joint
muscles. Flex your hip and knee at the same time. The quadriceps
muscles are not stretched to their limit at the knees range-of-flexion
limit. Ligaments limit range of motion also. Ligaments that do not
align radially with respect to an axis of the joint become looser
during one joint action and tighter as the reverse joint action
progresses, until the ligament stops the movement. At ball-andsocket and pivot joints, twisting of the ligaments limits the range of
rotation. The articular capsule itself also limits range of motion. The
shapes of the articulating bones may also limit range of motion.
Elbow extension stops when the olecranon process of the ulna
becomes constrained by the olecranon fossa of the humerus, or vice
versa. The lateral malleolus of the fibula limits eversion of the ankle
when it contacts the calcaneus. The bulkiness of soft tissues or
clothing around a joint may also limit range of motion. Someone
with large elbow flexor muscles (biceps brachii and brachialis) may

not have as much range of elbow flexion as someone with less

developed muscles. Mobility, or the ease of movement through a
range of motion, is affected by friction within the joint and by the
inertia and tension in the muscles around the joint, especially those
that oppose the joint motion in question (antagonist muscles). Any
wearing or damage to the articular cartilage increases joint friction
and thus reduces mobility. Wear and tear of the articular
fibrocartilage discs reduces mobility as well in joints with these
structures. Damage to the articular cartilage or bone within the joint
cavity may produce loose particles that decrease mobility. Damage
to the synovial membrane and its capacity for producing synovial
fluid also results in loss of joint mobility. People suffering from
arthritic diseases often have one or more of these problems.

Muscles
Muscles are the active components of the musculoskeletal system.
Although the bones and joints of the skeleton form the framework of
the body, this framework would collapse without the active force
generation of muscles providing stiffness to the joints. Muscles are
the motors of the musculoskeletal system that allow the levers of
the skeleton to move or change position. Typically, muscles have
two ends that are attached by tendons to bones on either side of a
joint. When a muscle contracts, it pulls with equal force on each
attachment, and each bone will tend to move. Anatomically, the
origin of a muscle is its more proximal attachment, and the insertion
of a muscle is its more distal attachment.
Mechanically, the origin of a muscle attaches to the bone that
moves less, and the insertion attaches to the bone that moves more.
A muscles line of pull refers to the direction of the resultant force
produced at an attachment. The direction of the resultant force is
along a line from the origin to the
insertion of the muscle.
Factors influencing muscular force generation
1)Physiological cross section- Thicker the muscle more is the
strength
2)Number of joints the muscle crosses-Single joint muscles are
stronger than multi joint muscles
3)Number & type of motor units recruited during musclular
contraction.
4)Synchronization of motor units.

Terms

1. Center of mass/gravity It is an imaginary point on or off

the body(like in a doughnut) where the complete mass of the
object is supposed to be concentrated.It is not necessarily the
point at the geometrical center of the body.The center of mass
depends upon
The distribution of the matter If the mass is
uniformly distributed then the center of mass will be near
the geometric center while if the matter is unevenly
distributed then the center of mass will be closer to
where where the matter is densely concentrated
Positioning of the matter The center of mass
changes with the change in relative positioning of the
parts w.r.t the complete object
Eg.In standing erect,the center of mass is somewhere
near the 2nd sacral vertebrae posteriorly.If we bend the
trunk anteriortly,the center of mass moves forward in the
sagittal plane and is located out of the body.This is the
reason why the muscles of the lower back contract to
stabilizes the center of mass located out of the body.
2) Line of gravity- It is a line perpendicular to the ground
and passing through the center of mass/gravity
3) Base of Support(BOS) It is the imaginary circle drawn
on the contact surface around the contact points of the object
with the surface.
4)Force It is a linear pull or push on an object
5)Torque It is a pull on the object in a particular
direction.The numerical value of torque is the product of Total
force and the perpendicular distance of the force from axis of
rotation.

As seen from the above diagram,the torque is the force with

the arrow moving towards the head of humerus.With the
external force as 100lb throughout the repetition,the torque
with the angle of insertion at 82* (elbow at 90*) is 99.9lb,while
torque at +37* and -37* is 79.9lb.This is because the
perpendicular distance keeps on changing during the
repetition.

Types of forces/torques which act on the body

A)Internal forces These are the forces which are developed
within the body
Tensile forces-These are pulling forces which try to
elongate the body.eg in tug-of-war there is a tensile force
acting on the rope.
Compressive forces-These are pushing forces which try
to shorten the length of the body.eg.When you squeeze a
sponge there is compressive forces on it.
B)External forces These are forces which act on an object
as a result
of its interaction with the
environment surrounding it.
Gravitational force It is the downward pulling force
exerted by the earth on objects on its surface.It is about
9.8 m/s2.
Buoyant force It is an upward force on the object
immersed in the fluid which keeps it floating.It depends
upon the size(volume of the object).

 Viscous Drag force-It is an opposing force (like the

frictional force)on an object moving in the fluid or air.
Form Drag force It is a sum of the impact forces
resulting from collision between fluid or air molecules and
the object.
Dynamic force It is a combination of viscous drag
force and form drag forceforce which help the body move
horizontally in fluid or air.
C)Contact forces These are the forces which occur between
objects in contact with each other.
Normal /Ground reaction force This is a force which
acts perpendicular to the object in contact with each
other
Frictional force It is a force parallel to the two
surfaces in contact and opposes motion or sliding
between the two surfaces.It is proportional to the normal
contact force i.e higher the normal contact force,more is
the frictional force.
ADDITION OF FORCES
The net sum of the forces acting on an object is the sum
of all the external forces acting on it.
Colinear forces-These are forces which act along the
length of the object.Both the compressive and tensile
forces are examples of collinear forces.
Concurrent forces These are forces which do not act along the
same line but pass through the same point on the body.
NEWTONS LAWS

The relationships between forces, torques, and the resulting

movements were described by Sir Isaac
Newton (16421727). Three laws describe the interactions:
1. The law of inertia states that a body will maintain its state of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by an
external force.Eg.A book will always remain on the table for years all
together unless some external force tries to interact and change its
position or If the Cycle is suspended in air and pedaled once then
will continue its motion unless some external force like air resistance
will oppose the movement and slow it down.

2. The law of acceleration states that the acceleration of a body

resulting from an applied force will be proportional to the magnitude
of the applied force, in the direction of the applied force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
The formula for acceleration is
a = F /m
where
F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
3. The law of reaction states that when two bodies interact, the
force exerted by the first body on the second is met by an equal and
opposite force exerted by the second body on the first. In other
words, for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Energy-It is the capacity to perform work.
Work-It is the energy spent in moving a load to a set distance.it is
the product of force and displacement.
Power It is the capacity to perform work at a faster rate.

Advanced Biomechanical Concepts

Projectiles
Many sport and athletic competitions involve the throwing or hitting
an object through the air. Objects that fly through the air free of
external forces (with the exceptions of gravity and air friction) are
considered projectiles. Flying objects are undergoing displacement
over time and are considered to be in a free-fall state, such that
gravity and dynamic force are the only forces that affect the flight.
The instant any other external force is applied to an object, the
object is no longer considered a projectile because its free-fall state
has been disrupted. If the external force is removed and the two
objects separate, the original object will begin another free fall. The
original object will, however, have different kinematic qualities than
it had before the external force was applied. Projectiles moving in
any direction can be defined using a three-axis Cartesian coordinate
system. The prediction and quantification of numerous aspects of a
projectiles flight can occur if the assumption is made that no air
resistance affects the object while it is traveling through its arc. This
does not occur in a real-world situation, but only in a vacuum. If one
assumes no air resistance, then the only external force that must be
accounted for is gravity. Gravity only affects the vertical motion.
Numerous predictions regarding the flight of the object can be made

if one assumes a parabolic flight and the symmetry of the resulting

arc created during flight. Success in throwing, hitting, or catching
projectiles ultimately depends on the projectiles release velocity,
angle of projection, and the height of the release. Changes in
throwing technique or force production by the muscles will alter the
path of the projectile . The principles of biomechanics can be used to
help an athlete improve the success when tracking a projectile. This
is typically done by altering movement patterns and training
programs of the athlete.

Kinetic Link Principle

Successful performance in sports and athletic competition depends
on a coordination of muscle contraction for skilled movements.
Highly skilled athletes often make very complex sports skills look
simple and easy. Qualitative terms, such as good timing, smooth
movement, effortless motion, and great skill, are used to indicate
that the nervous system appropriately controls the musculature
causing it to contract with the appropriate intensity or to relax at
just the right time to produce the necessary movements for
successful performance. Sport activities can be very challenging to
perform because many requirements are necessary for success,
including force production, velocity production, specific pattern of
body motions and/or positions achieved, and conservation of energy
while moving at a relatively fast velocity. Highly skilled athletes take
advantage of the bodys kinetic link system and create well-timed
movements through coordinated muscle contractions. Two basic
principles guide the bodys kinetic link system: sequential
movements and simultaneous movements of body segments .
The sequential kinetic link principle (also called sequential
motion) means that segments of the body and joint rotations occur
in a specific sequence.This coordinated movement typically leads to
a high velocity of momentum generated during the last segment of
the performance. Sports skills that require the sequential kinetic link
for success have the energy or momentum flowing from one body
segment to another. The creation of momentum in the bigger slower
segments of the body leads to effective transferal of momentum to
the smaller, faster moving segments . An example would be pitching
a baseball. To throw with maximum velocity, the pitcher must
generate force by the body and then transfer that force to the ball.
To successfully do this, a pitcher must generate force using the legs
and hips, then transfer that force to the shoulder and elbow. This
sequential motion process will lead to the force being imparted to
the ball upon release from the throwing hand. This highly skilled

sequential motion must be performed with great accuracy when

pitching a baseball.
The simultaneous kinetic link principle means that major motor
movements of the body occur at the same time (simultaneously) so
that no observable difference in time exists between the
contributions of the different body segments to the performance.
Movements employing the simultaneous kinetic link principle are
engaged when the athlete is required to move his or her body, an
object, or another opponent, all of which offer varying degrees of
resistance. An example would be performing a supine bench press.
During the execution of the bench press, various muscle groups
become active during the lowering and raising the bar. Simultaneous
contraction of the pectoralis major muscles as well as other
supporting muscles including the anterior deltoids, serratus anterior,
coracobrachialis, and the triceps occurs so that force can be
generated by the muscles to move the weight. Many sports
activities require both the sequential and simultaneous kinetic link
principles to occur during performance of the movement.
Additionally, some activities require both the production of great
force to move a massive object and the production of high velocity
during the movement . For example, during the performance of a
power clean lift, the muscle of the body must generate significant
force to lift the bar off of the floor and at the same time have the bar
move at a fast velocity so that the weight can be moved quickly to
the finishing position. Only when the muscles involved in the
movements contract simultaneously can the power clean lift be
completed successfully.