Learning Management System

Subject Name

The Cell

Topic

Week

1.

Chapter Overview

2.

3.

Characteristics of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Detailed structure of typical animal and plant cells as seen under light and electron microscope
Using the light microscope for measuring cells
Outline functions of organelles in plant and animal cells:-Fluid Mosaic Model; the movement of
substances into and out of cells

Learning Objectives
Understand the characteristics of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
Detailed structure of an Animal Cell and a Plant Cell and their differences
Using the light microscope for measuring cells
Outline functions of organelles in plant and animal cells
Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
Movement of substances into and out of cells
Replication and division of nuclei and cells - MITOSIS

Learning Outcomes:
On successful completion of this topic students should be able to:

Differentiate Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Recognise Animal and Plant cells

Measure the cells using a Light Microscope and state the magnification

State the functions of the organelles in plant and animal cells

Describe the structure of the Fluid Mosaic Model of the plasma membrane and relate
how substances move into and out of cells

Recognise the different stages of Mitosis in a cell

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Introduction
A. The cell theory: has three generalization:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the smallest unit having the properties of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
B. The small size if the most cells necessitates the use of some type of microscope.
1. Cells: Organized for Life
A. All Cells Are Alike in Some Ways
1. A plasma membrane separates each cell from the environment, permits the flow of
molecules across the membrane, and contains receptors that can affect the cells
activities.
2. DNA carries the hereditary instructions.
3. The cytoplasm containing a semifluid matrix (cytosol) and organelles is located between
the plasma membrane and the region of DNA
B There are Two Basic Kinds of Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) do not have a separation of the DNA from the remainder of
the cell parts.
2. Eukaryotic cells have a definite nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
C. Why Are Cells Small?
1. Because of their small size, most cells can only be seen by using light and electron
microscopes.
2. Cells are necessarily small so that the surface-to-volume ratio remains low; this means
that the interior will not be so extensive that it will not be able to exchange materials
efficiently through the plasma membrane.
D. The Structure of a Cells Membranes Reflects Their Function
1. A large portion of the cell membrane is composed of phospholipids, each composed of a
hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails.
2. If phospholipid molecules are surrounded by water, their hydrophobic fatty acid tails
cluster and a lipid bilayer results; hydrophilic heads are at the outer faces of a two-layer
sheet.
2. The Parts of a Eukaryotic Cell
A. All eukaryotic cells contain organelles.
1. Organelles form compartmentalized portions of the cytoplasm.
2. Organelles separate reactions with respect to time (allowing proper sequencing) and
space (allowing incompatible reactions to occur in close proximity).
B. A diagram of a typical animal cell and brief descriptions are below

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3. The Cytoskeleton: Support and Movement

A. The cytoskeleton is an inter connected system of bundled fibers, slender threads, lattices
extending from the nucleus to the plasma membrane.
1. The main components are microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate
filaments all assembled from protein subunits.
2. Some portions are transient, such as the spindle microtubles used in
chromosome movement during cell division; others are permanent, such as
filaments operational in muscle contraction.
B. Flagella and cilia are microtubular extensions of the plasma membrane have 9+2 crosssectional array and are useful in propulsion.
1. Flagella are quite long, are usually not numerous, and are found on one-celled
protistans and animal sperm cells.
2. Cilia are shorter and more numerous and can provide locomotion for free-living
cells or may move surrounding water and particles if the ciliated sell is anchored.
C. The microtubules of flagella and cilia arise from centrioles which are associated with
basal bodies.
4. The Plasma Membrane: A Lipid Bilayer.
A. The Plasma Membrane is a Mix of Lipids and Proteins
1. Bilayers of phospholipids, interspersed with glycolipids and cholesterol, are the
structural foundation of cell membranes.
2. Without a bilayer , phospolipids show quite a bit of movement; they diffuse
sideways, spin, and flex their tails to prevent close packing and promote fluidity,
which also results from short-tailed lipids and unsaturated tails (kink at double
bonds).
B. Membrane Proteins Carry Out Most Membrane Functions
1. The scattered islands of protein in the sea of lipid creates a mosaic effect.
2. Membrane Proteins (most are glycoproteins) serve as transport proteins, receptor
proteins, recognition proteins, and adhesion proteins.
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Fluid Mosaic Model of a Cell Membrane

5. The Cytomembrane System

A. Within the cytoplasm, newly formed polypeptide chains assembled on the ribosomes may
enter the cytomembrane system.
B. ER: A Protein and Lipid Assembly Line
1. The endoplasmic reticulum is a collection of interconnected tubes an flattened
sacs, continuous with the nuclear membrane.
2. Rough ER consists of stacked, flattened sacs with many ribosomes attached;
oligosaccharide groups are attached to polypeptides as they pass through on their
way to other organelles or to secretory vesicles.
3. Smooth ER has no ribosomes: it is the area from which vesicles carrying proteins
and lipids are budded; it also inactivates harmful chemicals.
C. Golgi Bodies: Packing and Shipping
1. In the Golgi bodies, proteins and lipids undergo final processing, sorting, and
packaging.
2. The Golgi bodies resemble stack of flatten sacs whose edges break away as
vesicles.
D. A Variety of Vesicles
1. Lysosomes are vesicles that bud from Golgi bodies; they carry powerful enzymes
that can digest the contents of other vesicles, worn-out cell parts, or bacteria and
foreign particles.
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2. Peroxisomes are membrane-bound sacs of enzymes that break down fatty acids
and amino acids.
6. Moving Substances Across Membranes By Diffusion and Osmosis
A. Cell membranes show selective permeability
1. Lipid-soluble molecules and small, electrically neutral molecules (for example,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol) cross the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion.
2. Larger molecules (such as glucose) and charged ions (such as Na+, Ca+,
HCO3-)must be moved by membrane transport proteins.
B. Diffusion: A Solute Moves Down a Gradient
1. Molecules constantly collide and tend to move according to existing concentration
gradients.
2. The net movement of like molecules down a concentration gradient (high to low)
is simple diffusion.
3. Gradients in pressure, temperature, and electric charge can also influence
movement.
C. Osmosis: How Water Crosses Membranes
1. Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a differentially permeable
membrane in response to solute concentration gradient.
2. Osmotic movements are affected by the relative concentrations of solutes in the
fluids inside and outside the cell (tonicity)
a. An isotonic fluid has the same concentration of solutes as the fluid in the
cell; immersion in it causes no net movement of water.
b. A hypotonic fluid has a lower concentration of solutes than does the
fluid in the cell; cells immersed in it may swell.
c. A hypertonic fluid has a greater concentration of solutes than does the
fluid in the cells; cells in it may shrivel.
d. Osmotic water movements across a membrane produce osmotic pressure
(the tendency of water to move from a hydrostatic pressure.
7. Other Ways Substances Cross Cell Membranes
A. Small Solutes Cross Membranes Through Transport Proteins
1.
In passive transport, solutes pass through channel proteins in accordance with the
concentration gradient; also called : facilitated diffusion.
2.
In active transport, solutes can move against concentration gradients with
assistance from transport proteins that can change their shape with energy
supplied by ATP, example: Na+ -K+
B. A Vesicles Transport Larger Solutes
1.
Vesicles, small sacs made of membranes, can transport and store substances
within the cytoplasm.
2.
Exocytosis moves substances from cytoplasm to plasma membrane during
secretion.
3.
Endocytosis (also known as phagocytosis) encloses particles in small portions of
plasma membrane to form vesicles that then move into cytoplasm.
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8. The Nucleus
A. The nucleus encloses DNA, the building code for cellular proteins.
1. Its membrane isolates DNA, which contains the code for proteins assembly, from
the sites (ribosome in cytoplasm) where proteins will be assembled.
2. The nuclear membrane helps regulate the exchange of signals between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
B. A Nuclear Envelope Encloses the Nucleus
1. The nuclear envelope consists of two lipid bilayers with pores.
2. The envelope membranes are continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
C. Proteins and RNA are Built in the Nucleolus.
1. The nucleolus appears as a dense mass inside the nucleus.
2. In this region, subunits of ribosomes are prefabricated before shipment out of the
nucleus.
D. DNA is Organized in Chromosomes
1. Chromatin describes the cells collection of DNA plus the proteins associated with
it.
2. Each chromosome is one DNA and its associated proteins.
9. Mitochondria: The Cells Energy Factories
A. Mitochondria make ATP.
1. Mitochondria are the primary organelles for transferring the energy in
carbohydrates to ATP.
2. Oxygen is required for the release of this energy.
B. ATP Forms in an Inner Compartment of the Mitochondrion
1. Each mitrochondrion has compartments formed by inner folded membranes
(cristae) surrounded by a smooth outer membrane.
2. Mitrochondria have their own DNA and some ribosomes, which leads scientists to
believe they may have evolved from ancient bacteria.

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KEY TERMS
TERMS
Cell Structure

Prokaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cell
organelles
Cell Membrane
Centrosomes
Cytoplasm
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes

Microvilli

Mitochondria

Nuclear Membrane

DEFINITIONS/FUNCTIONS
The structure of cells varies according to the type and purpose of
the cell (for example, which functions it is performing and in
which part of the body).
A cell lacking a membrane-bounded nucleus or membranebounded organelles. Prokaryotic cells are thus more primitive
than eukaryotic cells, which evolved from them. A prokaryotic
organism, such as a bacterium, consists of single prokaryotic
cell.
Eukaryotic cells (from the Greek meaning truly nuclear). They
can be easily distinguished through a membrane-bound nucleus.
structures within the cell that are specialised for particular
functions.
The cell membrane keeps the cell together by containing the
organelles within it. Cell membranes are selectively-permeable,
allowing materials to move both into and outside of the cell.
The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which are responsible
for cell-division.
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that is sometimes described
as "the cell-matrix". It holds the organelles in place within the
cell.
The golgi apparatus of a cell is usually connected to an
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) because it stores and then
transports the proteins produced in the ER.
Lysosomes are tiny sacs filled with enzymes that enable the cell
to utilize its nutrients. Lysosomes also destroy the cell after it has
died, though there are some circumstances (diseases/conditions)
in which lysosomes begin to 'break-down' living cells.
"Microvilli" is the pural form; "Microvillus" is the singular form.
Microvilli are finger-like projections on the outer-surface of the
cell.
Not all cells have microvilli.
Their function is to increase the surface area of the cell, which is
the area through which diffusion of materials both into, and out
of, the cell is possible.
"Mitochondria" is a plural term; which is appropriate as these are
not found alone. The quantity of mitochondria within cells varies
with the type of cell.
These are the energy producers within the cell. They generate
energy in the form of Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP). Generally,
the more energy a cell needs, the more mitochondria it contains.
The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus and the nucleolus
from the rest of the contents of the cell.

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Nuclear Pore
Nucleolus

Nuclear pores permit substances (such as nutrients, waste, and

cellular information) to pass both into, and out of, the nucleus.
The nucleolus is responsible for the cell organelles (e.g.
lysosomes, ribosomes, etc.).

Nucleus
The nucleus is the "Control Center" of the cell, which contains
DNA (genetic information) in the form of genes, and also
information for the formation of proteins.
Information is carried on chromosomes, which are a form of
DNA.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes interpret cellular information from the nucleus and so
synthesize appropriate proteins, as required.
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER)

Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER)

"Rough" indicates that there are ribosomes attached to the

surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic
reticulum is where proteins and lipids are produced within the
cell, and is also concerned with the transport of these materials
within the cell.
"Smooth" indicates that there are no ribosomes attached to the
surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum.The endoplasmic
reticulum is where proteins and lipids are produced within the
cell, and is also concerned with the transport of these materials
within the cell.

Membranes & Cell Transport

TERMS
Selective permeability

DEFINITIONS
allows some substances to pass through it while excluding
others

Passive Transport

The movement of a substance across the membrane with no

energy investment
Spontaneous process by which molecules move from a region
where they are highly concentrated to a region in which their
concentration is lower.
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a
region of low water concentration.
Transport of substances across a biological membrane from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
by means of a carrier molecule. Since the substances move
along the direction of their concentration gradients, energy is

Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion

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not required.
Active Transport

Exocytosis

Endocytosis

Phagocytosis

Pinocytosis

Energy is expended by the cell to move a molecule across its

membrane against its concentration gradient. (moving it from
low concentration to high).
moves substances out of the cell Substances to be released are
enclosed within a membrane sac which migrates to the plasma
membrane, fuses, and then ruptures releasing the contents of the
sac.
The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate
substances by localised regions of the plasma membrane that
surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular
vesicle.
Phagocytosis (from Greek phago, meaning eating, cyte, meaning
vessel, and osis meaning process) is the cellular process of
engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an
internal phagosome by phagocytes and protists.
pinocytosis ("cell-drinking", "bulk-phase pinocytosis", "nonspecific, non-adsorptive pinocytosis", "fluid endocytosis") is a
form of endocytosis in which small particles are brought into the
cell suspended within small vesicles that subsequently fuse with
lysosomes to hydrolyze, or to break down, the particles.

REFERENCES
Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts and Experiments by Gerald Karp 2005, 3rd Ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Human Biology by Cecie Starr & Bevery McMillan 2007, 7th Ed., Thomson
Brooks/Cole
Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader 2004, 8th Ed., McGraw Hill

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