American Revolutionary War

Revolutionary War redirects here. For other uses, see

Revolutionary War (disambiguation).
This article is about military actions only. For political
and social developments, including the origins and
aftermath of the war, see American Revolution.

the revolt. Sir William Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, capturing New York City and New
Jersey. Washington was able to capture a Hessian detachment at Trenton and drive the British out of most
of New Jersey. In 1777 Howes army launched a campaign against the national capital at Philadelphia, failing
to aid Burgoynes separate invasion force from Canada.
Burgoynes army was trapped, and surrendered after the
Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. This American victory encouraged France to enter the war in 1778, followed
by its ally Spain in 1779.

The American Revolutionary War (17751783), also

known as the American War of Independence[20] and
the Revolutionary War in the United States, was the
armed conict between Great Britain and thirteen of
its North American colonies, which had declared themselves the independent United States of America.[N 1][21]
Early ghting took place primarily on the North American continent. France, eager for revenge after its defeat in the Seven Years War, signed an alliance with
the new nation in 1778 that proved decisive in the ultimate victory.[22] The conict gradually expanded into a
world war with Britain combating France, Spain, and the
Netherlands. Fighting also broke out in India between
the British East India Company and the French allied
Kingdom of Mysore.

In 1778, having failed in the northern states, the British

shifted strategy toward the south, bringing Georgia and
South Carolina under control in 1779 and 1780. However, the resulting surge of Loyalist support was far
weaker than expected. In 1781, British forces moved
through Virginia and settled at Yorktown, but their escape
was blocked by a French naval victory in September. Led
by Count Rochambeau and Washington,[24] a combined
Franco-American army launched a siege at Yorktown and
captured more than 8,000 British troops in October.[25]

The American Revolutionary War had its origins in

the resistance of many Americans to taxes, which they
claimed were unconstitutional, imposed by the British
parliament. Patriot protests escalated into boycotts, and
on December 16, 1773, the destruction of a shipment of
tea at the Boston Tea Party. The British government retaliated by closing the port of Boston and taking away
self-government. The Patriots responded by setting up
a shadow government that took control of the province
outside of Boston. Twelve other colonies supported Massachusetts, formed a Continental Congress to coordinate
their resistance, and set up committees and conventions
that eectively seized power. In April 1775 ghting
broke out between Massachusetts militia units and British
regulars at Lexington and Concord. They fought the
battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, in
Middlesex County, near Boston. The battles marked the
outbreak of open armed conict between the Kingdom
of Great Britain and thirteen of its colonies on the mainland of British America. The Continental Congress appointed General George Washington to take charge of
militia units besieging British forces in Boston, forcing
them to evacuate the city in March 1776. Congress supervised the war, giving Washington command of the new
Continental Army; he also coordinated state militia units.

The defeat at Yorktown nally turned the British Parliament against the war, and in early 1782 they voted
to end oensive operations in North America. The war
against France and Spain continued, with the British defeating the long siege of Gibraltar, and inicting several
defeats on the French in 1782. In 1783, the Treaty of
Paris ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the
United States over the territory bounded roughly by what
is now Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and the
Mississippi River to the west. France gained its revenge
and little else except a heavy national debt, while Spain
acquired Great Britains Florida colonies.[26][27]

1 Causes
Main article: American Revolution

1.1 Taxes

The close of the Seven Years War in 1763 (called the

French and Indian War in America) saw Great Britain
triumphant in driving the French from North America.
On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress formally voted London decided to pension many ocers on half pay
for independence, and issued its Declaration on July 4.[23] and require the American colonies to pay for them. ParMeanwhile, the British were mustering forces to suppress liament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, which
1

CAUSES

In their declarations Americans had deemed internal

taxes like the Stamp Act as unlawful, but not external
taxes like custom duties. In 1767 Parliament passed the
Townshend Act in order to demonstrate its supremacy. It
imposed duties on various British goods exported to the
colonies. The Americans quickly denounced this as illegal as well, since the intent of the act was to raise revenue
and not regulate trade.[33]
In 1768 violence broke out in Boston over attempts to
suppress smuggling and 4000 British troops were sent
to occupy the city. Parliament threatened to try Massachusetts residents for treason in England. Far from being intimidated, the colonists formed new associations to
boycott British goods, albeit with less eectiveness than
previously since the Townshend imports were so widely
used. In March 1770 ve colonists in Boston were killed
in the "Boston Massacre", sparking outrage.[34]
In 1773, in an eort to rescue the East India Company
from nancial diculties, the government attempted to
increase the companys tea sales by exempting it from
the tea tax (reducing the price of its tea) and appointing certain merchants in America to receive and sell it.
The landing of this tea was resisted in all the colonies
and, when the royal governor of Massachusetts refused
to send back the tea ships in Boston, Patriots destroyed
the tea chests.[35]

1.2 Crisis

Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in newspaper

imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the rst time

starting November 1. This was met with strong condemnation among American spokesmen, who argued that
their Rights as Englishmen meant that taxes could not
be imposed on them because they lacked representation in Parliament.[28] At the same time the colonists rejected the solution of being provided with the represen- This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled
tation, claiming that their local circumstances made it The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase Boston
Tea Party had not yet become standard. Contrary to Curriers
impossible.[29][30]
depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised

Civil resistance prevented the Act from being enforced, as Indians.[36]

and organized boycotts of British goods were instituted.
This resistance was by and large unexpected and pro- Nobody was punished for the "Boston Tea Party" and
duced a violent and very natural irritation.[31]
in 1774 Parliament ordered Boston harbor closed unA change of government in Britain led to the repeal of til the destroyed tea was paid for. It then passed the
the Stamp Act as inexpedient, but also the passage of Massachusetts Government Act to punish the rebellious
the Declaratory Act, which stated, the said colonies and colony. The upper house of the Massachusetts legislature
plantations in America have been, are, and of right ought would be appointed by the Crown, as was already the case
to be, subordinate unto, and dependent upon the imperial in other colonies such as New York and Virginia. The
royal governor was able to appoint and remove at will all
crown and parliament of Great Britain.[32]

3
judges, sheris, and other executive ocials, and restrict
town meetings. Jurors would be selected by the sheris and British soldiers would be tried outside the colony
for alleged oenses. These were collectively dubbed the
"Intolerable Acts" by the Patriots.
Although these actions were not unprecedented (the Massachusetts charter had already been replaced once before in 1691), the people of the colony were outraged.
Town meetings resulted in the Suolk Resolves, a declaration not to cooperate with the royal authorities. In October 1774 an illegal "provincial congress" was established
which took over the governance of Massachusetts outside
of British-occupied Boston and began training militia for
hostilities.
Meanwhile, in September 1774 representatives of the
other colonies convened the First Continental Congress
in order to respond to the crisis. The Congress rejected
a "Plan of Union" to establish an American parliament
that could approve or disapprove of the acts of the British
parliament. Instead, they endorsed the Suolk Resolves
and demanded the repeal of all Parliamentary acts passed
since 1763, not merely the tax on tea and the Intolerable
Acts. They stated that Parliament had no authority over
internal matters in America, but that they would cheerfully consent to trade regulations, including customs duties for the benet of the empire.[37] They also required
Britain to acknowledge that unilaterally stationing troops
in the colonies in a time of peace was against the law.
Although the Congress lacked any legal authority, it ordered the creation of Patriot committees who would enforce a boycott of British goods starting on December 1,
1774.

rights of Parliament. The Whigs felt that the Tory policies were pushing Americans to rebel, while the Tories
thought Whig leniency (such as repealing the Stamp Act)
was doing the same. Many Whigs freely associated themselves with the American Patriot cause, which Tories
thought were encouraging the Americans in their resistance. The result was that, although Lord Norths Tory
government usually had a Parliamentary majority, a large
Whig minority opposed it and constantly criticized its
policies.[38] Meanwhile, Whig commanders in America
such as Sir William Howe and his brother Admiral Howe
came under the suspicion of Tories and Loyalists for not
vigorously prosecuting the war eort.[39]

2 First phase, 17751778

2.1 Outbreak of the War 17751776
2.1.1 Massachusetts
Main article: Boston campaign
In February 1775 Parliament declared Massachusetts to
be in a state of rebellion. Lieutenant General Thomas
Gage, the British North American commander-in chief,
commanded four regiments of British regulars (about
4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the
countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries. On
April 14, he received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders.

This time, however, the British would not yield. Edmund

Burke introduced a motion to repeal all the Acts of Parliament the Americans objected to and waive any rights
of Britain to tax for revenue, but it was defeated 210105.
Parliament voted to restrict all colonial trade to Britain,
prevent them from using the Newfoundland sheries, and
to increase the size of the army and navy by 6,000. In
February 1775 Prime Minister Lord North proposed not
to impose taxes if the colonies themselves made xed
contributions. This would safeguard the taxing rights
of the colonies from future infringement while enabling
them to contribute to maintenance of the empire. This
proposal was nevertheless rejected by the Congress in The British marching to Concord in April 1775
July as an insidious maneuver, by which time hostilities had broken out.
On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700
men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia
at Concord, Massachusetts. Riders including Paul Re1.3 Internal British politics
vere alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered Lexington on the morning of April 19, they found
During this time the British did not present a united front 77 Minutemen formed up on the village green. Shots
toward the American Patriots. The Parliament of Great were exchanged, killing several Minutemen. The British
Britain at this time was informally divided between con- moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three comservative (Tory) and liberal (Whig) factions. The Whigs panies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a
generally favored lenient treatment of the colonists short force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to
of independence while the Tories staunchly upheld the Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the

FIRST PHASE, 17751778

roads, inicting many casualties before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the Battles
of Lexington and Concord, the war had begun.[40]
The militia converged on Boston, bottling up the British
in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived
by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General William Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at
the Battle of Bunker Hill. The British mounted a costly
frontal attack.[41] The Americans fell back, but British
losses totaled over 1,000 men. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British
commander-in-chief.[42] General Gage wrote to the Secretary at War in London:
These people show a spirit and conduct
against us they never showed against the
French.They are now spirited up by a rage
and enthusiasm as great as ever people were
possessed of and you must proceed in earnest
or give the business up. A small body acting
in one spot will not avail, you must have large
armies making diversions on dierent sides, to
divide their force. The loss we have sustained
is greater than we can bear. Small armies cannot aord such losses, especially when the advantage gained tends to do little more than the
gaining of a post.[43]
In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces
and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his
armys desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington
asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some
manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly
from France.[44] Patriots in New Hampshire had seized
powder, muskets and cannons from Fort William and
Mary in Portsmouth Harbor in late 1774.[45] Some of the
munitions were used in the Boston campaign.
The stando continued throughout the fall and winter.
During this time Washington was astounded by the failure
of Howe to attack his shrinking, poorly armed force.[46]
In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the patriots had
captured at Fort Ticonderoga were brought to Boston by
Colonel Henry Knox, and placed on Dorchester Heights.
Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions,
Howes situation was untenable, and the British ed on
March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at Halifax,
Nova Scotia, an event now celebrated in Massachusetts
as Evacuation Day. Washington then moved most of the
Continental Army to fortify New York City.[47]
2.1.2

Quebec

British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American

assault at Sault-au-Matelot, Canada, December 1775

Allen and Benedict Arnold, captured Fort Ticonderoga,

a strategically important point on Lake Champlain between New York and the Province of Quebec. After that
action they also raided Fort St. Johns, not far from Montreal, which alarmed the population and the authorities
there. In response, Quebecs governor Guy Carleton began fortifying St. Johns, and opened negotiations with
the Iroquois and other Native American tribes for their
support. These actions, combined with lobbying by both
Allen and Arnold and the fear of a British attack from the
north, eventually persuaded the Congress to authorize an
invasion of Quebec, with the goal of driving the British
military from that province. (Quebec was then frequently
referred to as Canada, as most of its territory included the
former French Province of Canada.)[48]
Two Quebec-bound expeditions were undertaken. On
September 28, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about
1,700 militiamen, besieging and capturing Fort St. Jean
on November 2 and then Montreal on November 13.
General Carleton escaped to Quebec City and began
preparing that city for an attack. The second expedition,
led by Colonel Arnold, went through the wilderness of
what is now northern Maine. Logistics were dicult,
with 300 men turning back, and another 200 perishing
due to the harsh conditions. By the time Arnold reached
Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his
original 1,100 men. Montgomerys force joined Arnolds,
and they attacked Quebec City on December 31, but were
defeated by Carleton in a battle that ended with Montgomery dead, Arnold wounded, and over 400 Americans
taken prisoner.[49] The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, suering from
poor camp conditions and smallpox, and then withdrew
when a squadron of British ships under Captain Charles
Douglas arrived to relieve the siege.[50]

Another attempt was made by the Americans to push

Main article: Invasion of Canada (1775)
back towards Quebec, but they failed at Trois-Rivires
Three weeks after the siege of Boston began, the Green on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invaMountain Boys, a group of militia volunteers led by Ethan sion and defeated Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island in

2.2

Loyalist Writings

October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the failed as the naval force was repulsed by the Patriot forts.
invasion had begun. While the invasion ended as a dis- Apart from the thirteen, no other British North American
aster for the Americans, Arnolds eorts in 1776 delayed colony joined the rebellion.
any full-scale British counteroensive until the Saratoga
campaign of 1777.
The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in
British public opinion, So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a
majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country.[51] It gained them at best limited
support in the population of Quebec, which, while somewhat supportive early in the invasion, became less so later
during the occupation, when American policies against
suspected Loyalists became harsher, and the armys hard
currency ran out. Two small regiments of Canadiens were
recruited during the operation, and they were with the
army on its retreat back to Ticonderoga.[52] Even after
their retreat, the Patriots continued to view Quebec as a
part of their cause and made specic provisions for it to
join the U.S. under the 1777 Articles of Confederation.
2.1.3

Expelling the royal ocials

2.2.1 British reaction

King George III issued a Proclamation of Rebellion in
August 1775, and addressed Parliament on October 26,
1775. He denounced the authors and promoters of this
desperate conspiracy who had labored to iname my
people in America ... and to infuse into their minds a
system of opinions repugnant to the true constitution of
the Colonies, and to their subordinate relation to Great
Britain ... He detailed measures taken to suppress the
revolt, including "friendly oers of foreign assistance".
The Kings speech was endorsed by both Houses of Parliament, a motion in the House of Commons to oppose
coercive measures was defeated 278108. The British
received an Olive Branch Petition written by the Second
Continental Congress dated July 8, 1775, imploring the
King to reverse the policies of his ministers. The Parliament debated on whether to accept the petition, but
after a lengthy debate rejected it by 53 votes, viewing it
as insincere. Parliament then voted to impose a blockade against the Thirteen Colonies. The popularity of
war in Britain reached a peak in 1777.[55] The king himself took full control as he micromanaged the war effort, despite the opposition of top ocials including the
prime minister North and the civilian heads of the army
and the navy. The king vehemently rejected independence and demanded the use of Indians to distress the
Americans.[56]

At the onset of war, the British had a signicant force only

in Boston, though this force would evacuate by the signing
of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Patriots in
all 13 colonies were quick to establish new revolutionary
governments based around various committees and conventions that they had created in 1774 and early 1775.
Royal governors and ocials found themselves powerless to stop the rebellion and in many places were forced
to ee. In many places the Patriots were energetic and
were backed by angry mobs while the Loyalists were too
intimidated or poorly organized to be eective without
the British army. The term "lynching" originated when
Virginia Patriots held informal courts and arrested Loy- Separately, the Irish Parliament pledged its loyalty and
agreed to the withdrawal of troops from Ireland to supalists (the term did not suggest execution).
press the rebellion in America.[57] Most Irish Protestants
were against the war and favored the Americans, but the
2.2 Loyalist Writings
Catholic establishment supported the king.[58] The American Revolution was the rst war in which Irish Catholics
Loyalist writings throughout the conict persistently were allowed to enlist in the army.[59]
claimed that they were the majority, and inuenced Lon- Militarily, the weak British response to the rebellion in
don ocials to believe that it would be possible to raise 1775 and early 1776 around Boston was a losing cause;
many Loyalist regiments.[53] As late as 1780 the Loyal- the British lost control of every colony.[60] The peacetime
ists were deceiving themselves and top London ocials British army had been deliberately kept small since the
about their supposedly strong base of support.[54]
Glorious Revolution to prevent an abuse of power by the
Patriots overwhelmed Loyalists in the Snow Campaign in
South Carolina in late 1775. Virginias governor Lord
Dunmore attempted to rally a loyalist force but was decisively beaten in December 1775 at the Battle of Great
Bridge. In February 1776 British General Clinton took
2,000 men and a naval squadron to assist Loyalists mustering in North Carolina, only to call it o when he
learned they had been crushed at the Battle of Moores
Creek Bridge. In June he tried to seize Charleston, South
Carolina, the leading port in the South, but the attack

King. To muster a force the British had to launch recruiting campaigns in Britain and Ireland and hire mercenaries from the small German states, both immensely
time-consuming. The king wanted to save money, and
the administration of the army was inecient. Russia refused to rent out soldiers. After a year the British were
able to ship Sir William Howe an army of 32,000 ocers
and men to open a campaign in summer 1776. It was the
largest force the British had ever sent outside of Europe
at that time.[61]

2.3
2.3.1

Campaign of 17761777
New York

FIRST PHASE, 17751778

the preceding year and indicated that other laws could be

revised or repealed so long as the authority of Britain was
acknowledged. The American negotiators insisted they
would not give up the Declaration of Independence.[67]

Main article: New York and New Jersey campaign

Howe then resumed the attack. On September 15, Howe
Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly
taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew north up the island to Harlem Heights, where they
battled the next day repulsing a British advance. On
September 21 a devastating re broke out in the city
which the Patriots were widely blamed for, although no
proof ever existed. On October 12 the British made an
attempt to encircle the Americans, which failed because
of Howes decision to land on an island that was easily cut o from the mainland.[68] The Americans evacuated Manhattan, and on October 28 fought the Battle
of White Plains against the pursuing British. During the
battle Howe declined to attack Washingtons highly vulnerable main force, instead attacking a hill that was of no
strategic signicance.[69][70]
American soldiers in the Battle of Long Island, 1776
now focused on capturing New York City, which then was
limited to the southern tip of Manhattan Island. Howes
force arrived o of Staten Island across the harbor from
Manhattan on June 30, 1776, and his army captured it
without resistance. To defend the city, General Washington spread his forces along the shores of New Yorks
harbor, concentrated on Long Island and Manhattan.[62]
While British and recently hired Hessian troops were assembling, Washington had the newly issued Declaration
of American Independence read to his men and the citizens of the city.[63]

Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan

and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking
about 3,000 prisoners. Thus began the infamous prison
ships system the British maintained in New York for the
rest of the war, in which more American soldiers and
sailors died of neglect and disease than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.[71]

Howe then detached Sir Henry Clinton with 6,000 men

to seize Newport, Rhode Island for the British eet,
which was accomplished without encountering any major resistance.[72] Clinton objected to this move, believing the force would have been better employed up the
Washingtons position was extremely dangerous because Delaware River, where they might have inicted irreparahe had divided his forces between Manhattan and Long ble damage on the retreating Americans.[73]
Island, neither of which could match the full strength of
the opposing force. Military critics note that Howe could
have trapped and destroyed Washingtons entire army if 2.3.2 New Jersey
he had landed on Manhattan, but instead Howe decided
to mount a frontal assault against Long Island.[64] The General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase WashingBritish landed 22,000 men on Long Island in late Au- tons army through New Jersey, but Howe ordered him
gust and badly defeated the Continental army in the wars to halt[74] and Washington escaped across the Delaware
largest battle, taking over 1,000 prisoners and driving River into Pennsylvania on December 7.[75] Howe refused
them back to Brooklyn Heights. Instead of continuing his to order a pursuit across the river, even though the outpursuit Howe decided to lay siege to the heights, claim- look of the Continental Army was bleak. These are the
ing he wanted to spare his mens lives from an assault times that try mens souls, wrote Thomas Paine, who was
on the Patriot fortications. He actively restrained his with the army on the retreat.[76] The army had dwindled
subordinates from landing what could have been the n- to fewer than 5,000 men t for duty, and would be reishing blow against Washingtons forces.[65] Washington duced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the
initially reinforced his exposed position, but then person- year. Congress moved inland and abandoned Philadelally directed the withdrawal of his entire remaining army phia in despair, although popular resistance to British ocand all their supplies across the East River on the night cupation was growing in the countryside.[77]
of August 2930 without loss of men or materiel.[66] The Howe proceeded to divide his forces in New Jersey into
unfavorable direction of the wind had prevented British small detachments that were vulnerable to defeat in detail,
warships from blocking Washingtons escape.
with the weakest forces stationed the closest to WashingA peace conference took place on September 11 to ex- tons army.[78] Washington decided to take the oensive,
plore the possibility of a negotiated solution. The British stealthily crossing the Delaware on the night of Decemadvanced Lord Norths xed contribution formula of ber 2526, and capturing nearly 1,000 surprised and un-

2.4

Campaigns of 17771778

Emanuel Leutzes stylized depiction of Washington Crossing the

Delaware

fortied Hessians at the Battle of Trenton.[79] Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was rst repulsed and
then outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3,
1777, taking around 200 prisoners.[80] Howe then conceded most of New Jersey to Washington, in spite of
Howes massive numerical superiority over him. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jer- Mohawk leader Joseph Brant led both Native Americans and
sey, having given a morale boost to the American cause. white Loyalists in battle.
Throughout the winter New Jersey militia continued to
harass British and Hessian forces near their three remaining posts along the Raritan River.[81] In April 1777 Washington was amazed that Howe made no eort to attack his
weak army.[82]

2.4

Campaigns of 17771778

When the British began to plan operations for 1777, they

had two main armies in North America: an army in Quebec (later under the command of John Burgoyne), and
Howes army in New York. In London, Lord George Germain approved a campaign for these armies to converge
on Albany, New York and divide the American colonies
in two, but did not give any express orders to Howe, who
was developing his own plans. In November 1776 Howe
requested large reinforcements so he could launch attacks
against Philadelphia, New England, and Albany. These
reinforcements were not granted so Howe modied his
plan to launch an attack against Philadelphia only. Germain gave his approval to this, believing that Philadelphia
could be taken in time for Howe to coordinate with the
northern army. Howe, on the other hand, opted to send
his army to Philadelphia by sea via the Chesapeake Bay
instead of taking shorter routes either overland through
New Jersey or through the Delaware Bay. This left him
completely incapable of assisting Burgoyne.[83]
2.4.1

Upstate New York

Main article: Saratoga campaign

"The surrender at Saratoga" shows General Daniel Morgan in

front of a French de Vallire 4-pounder.

The rst of the 1777 campaigns was an expedition from

Quebec led by General John Burgoyne. The goal was to
seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor,
eectively isolating New England from the rest of the
American colonies. Burgoynes invasion had two components: he would lead about 8,000 men along Lake Champlain towards Albany, New York, while a second column
of about 2,000 men, led by Barry St. Leger, would move
down the Mohawk River Valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany.[84]
Burgoyne set o in June, and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga in early July. Thereafter, his march was slowed
by the Americans who knocked down trees in his path,
and by his armys extensive baggage train. A detachment
sent out to seize supplies was decisively defeated in the
Battle of Bennington by American militia in August, de-

FIRST PHASE, 17751778

Saratoga until the end of the war, in direct violation of

the agreed surrender terms, which specied they would
be repatriated immediately.
2.4.2 Pennsylvania
Main article: Philadelphia campaign
Howe began his campaign in June by making a se-

Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley Forge.

priving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men.

Meanwhile, St. Legermore than half of his force Native Americans led by Sayenqueraghtahad laid siege
to Fort Stanwix. American militiamen and their Native
American allies marched to relieve the siege but were ambushed and scattered at the Battle of Oriskany. When
a second relief expedition approached, this time led by
Benedict Arnold, St. Legers Indian support abandoned
him, forcing him to break o the siege and return to Quebec.
Burgoynes army had been reduced to about 6,000 men
by the loss at Bennington and the need to garrison Ticonderoga, and he was running short on supplies.[85] Despite
these setbacks, he determined to push on towards Albany.
An American army of 8,000 men, ocially commanded
by General Horatio Gates (but eectively being led by
his subordinate Benedict Arnold), had entrenched about
10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga, New York. Burgoyne tried to outank the Americans but was checked
at the rst battle of Saratoga in September. Burgoynes
situation was desperate, but he now hoped that help from
Howes army in New York City might be on the way. It
was not: Howe had instead sailed away on his expedition
to capture Philadelphia. American militiamen ocked to
Gates army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. After being badly beaten at the second
battle of Saratoga, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17.
British General Clinton in New York City attempted a diversion in favor of Burgoyne in early October, capturing
two key forts but withdrawing after hearing of the surrender.
Saratoga was the turning point of the war. Revolutionary condence and determination, suering from
Howes successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. What is more important, the victory encouraged
France to make an open alliance with the Americans, after two years of semi-secret support. For the British, the
war had now become much more complicated.[86]

Military uniforms of the American Revolution

ries of maneuvers in New Jersey, which failed to engage

Washingtons greatly inferior force.[87] He then loaded
his troops onto transports and slowly sailed to the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, landing 15,000 troops
on August 25 at the head of the Elk River. Washington
positioned his 11,000 men in a strong position along the
Brandywine River, between the British and Philadelphia,
but Howe outanked and defeated him on September 11,
1777. French observers noted that Howe failed to follow
up on his victory, which could have destroyed Washingtons army.[88]

The Continental Congress again abandoned Philadelphia, and on September 26, Howe nally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into the city unopposed.
A part of Howes army was then split o to reduce
rebel forts blocking his communications up the Delaware
The Americans held the British prisoners taken at River. Hoping to bring about another Trenton-like vic-

9
tory while the British were divided, on October 4 Washington mounted a surprise assault against the British at
Germantown. Howe had failed to alert his troops there,
despite being aware of the impending attack the previous day. The British were in danger of a rout, but
faulty American decisions resulted in Washington being
repulsed with heavy losses.[89]

preparing to make huge concessions to the colonies and

then, allied with them, strike at French and Spanish possessions in the West Indies.[98] To thwart this, they concluded a Treaty of Alliance with the United States on
February 6, 1778, committing the Americans to seek
nothing less than absolute independence. Previously
France had only been willing to act in conjunction with
The armies met at White Marsh in December, where Spain but now they were willing to go to war alone if necessary. Britain responded by recalling its ambassador, alafter some skirmishing Howe decided to retire, ignoring the vulnerability of Washingtons rear, where an at- though Franco-British hostilities did not actually break
out until June 17, 1778.
tack could have cut o Washington from his baggage
[90]
and provisions.
Washington and his army encamped
at Valley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32
km) from Philadelphia, where they stayed for the next six
months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died
from disease and exposure and the army was reduced to
4,000 eectives. During this time Howes army, comfortable in Philadelphia, made no eort to exploit the weakness of the American army.[91] The next spring the army
emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part
to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben,
who introduced the most modern Prussian methods of organization and tactics.[92]
Historians speculate that the British forfeited several
chances for military victory in 17761777 ...[93] and if
General Howe had violated military tradition by advancing in December on the Continental troops quartered [at
Valley Forge], he might have readily overwhelmed them
and possibly ended the war.[94]
Howe submitted his resignation in October 1777; until it
was accepted he spent his time in Philadelphia preparing
his arguments for an expected parliamentary inquiry. Although he had twice as many men as Washington, the bitter memory of Bunker Hill made him highly reluctant to
attack entrenched American forces. General Clinton replaced Howe as British commander-in-chief on May 24, French troops storming Redoubt #9 during the Siege of Yorktown
1778.[95]

Foreign intervention

Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary

War and Spain in the American Revolutionary War
From the spring of 1776, France and Spain had informally been involved in the American Revolutionary War,
with French admiral Latouche Trville having provided
supplies, ammunition and guns from France to the United
States after Thomas Jeerson encouraged a French alliance. Guns such as de Valliere type were used, playing an important role in such battles as the Battle of
Saratoga.[96] After learning of the American victory at
Saratoga, the French became concerned that the British
would reconcile their dierences with the colonists and
turn on France.[97] In particular, King Louis XVI was inuenced by alarmist reports suggesting that Britain was

In 1776, the Count of Aranda met in representation of

Spain with the rst U.S. Commission composed by Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee.[99] The
Continental Congress had charged the commissioners to
travel to Europe and forge alliances with other European
powers that could help break the British naval blockade
along the North American coast. Aranda invited the
commission to his house in Paris, where he was acting
as Spanish ambassador and he became an active supporter of the struggle of the edgling Colonies, recommending an early and open Spanish commitment to the
Colonies. However, he was overruled by Jos Moino,
1st Count of Floridablanca who opted for a more discreet
approach. The Spanish position was later summarized by
the Spanish Ambassador to the French Court, Jernimo
Grimaldi, in a letter to Arthur Lee who was in Madrid
trying to persuade the Spanish government to declare an
open alliance. Grimaldi told Lee that You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not
yet come for us. The war with Portugal France being

10

4 SECOND PHASE, 17781781

unprepared, and our treasure ships from South America

not being arrived makes it improper for us to declare
immediately.[100] Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee,
stores of clothing and powder were deposited at New Orleans and Havana for the Americans, and further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao.
Spain nally entered the war ocially in June 1779, thus
implementing the Treaty of Aranjuez. The Spanish government had been providing assistance to the revolutionaries since the very beginning of the war, but it did not
recognize the United States ocially. The Dutch Republic, which also had assisted the colonists since 1776, declared war on Britain at the end of 1780, and did recognize the United States diplomatically.[101]

4
4.1

Oil on canvas painting depicting the Wyoming Massacre by loyalists and Indians against frontier settlers, July 3, 1778

Second phase, 17781781

British policies

Following news of the surrender at Saratoga and concern over French intervention, the British decided to completely accept the original demands made by the American Patriots. Parliament repealed the remaining tax on
tea and declared that no taxes would ever be imposed on
colonies without their consent (except for custom duties,
the revenues of which would be returned to the colonies).
A Commission was formed to negotiate directly with the
Continental Congress for the rst time. The Commission was empowered to suspend all the other objectionable acts by Parliament passed since 1763, issue general
pardons, and declare a cessation of hostilities. The Commissioners arrived in America in June 1778 and oered
to place the colonies in the condition of 1763 if they
would return to the allegiance of the King. Moreover,
they agreed that no troops would be placed in the colonies
without their consent. The Congress refused to negotiate with the commission unless they rst acknowledged
American independence or withdrew all troops. On October 3, 1778, the British published a proclamation oering amnesty to any colonies or individuals who accepted
their proposals within forty days, implying serious consequences if they still refused. There was no positive
reply.[102]

the coast and turn loose the Native Americans to attack

civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the
King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the
Congress; and would keep the rebels harassed, anxious,
and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable
process, discontent and disappointment were converted
into penitence and remorse and they would beg to return to his authority.[105] The plan meant destruction for
the Loyalists and loyal Native Americans, an indenite
prolongation of a costly war, and the risk of disaster as
the French and Spanish assembled an armada to invade
the British Isles. The King hoped to re-subjugate the rebellious colonies after dealing with the Americans European allies.

4.2 Northern theater

17781781

after

Saratoga,

See also: Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga
French entry into the war had changed British strategy,
and Clinton abandoned Philadelphia to reinforce New
York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. Washington shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal through New
Jersey and attacked him at Monmouth on June 28, 1778.
The battle was tactically inconclusive but Clinton successfully disengaged and continued his retreat to New
York.[106] It was the last major battle in the north. Clintons army went to New York City in July, arriving just
before a French eet under Admiral d'Estaing arrived
o the American coast. Washingtons army returned to
White Plains, New York, north of New York City. Although both armies were back where they had been two
years earlier, the nature of the war had now changed as
the British had to withdraw troops from North America
to counter the French threats elsewhere.[107]

King George III gave up all hope of subduing America by more armies, while Britain had a European war
to ght. It was a joke, he said, to think of keeping
Pennsylvania.[103] There was no hope of recovering New
England. But the King was still determined never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to
punish their contumacy by the indenite prolongation of
a war which promised to be eternal.[104] His plan was to
keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, Quebec, and Florida; other forces would attack the
French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the In August 1778 the Americans attempted to capture
Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting- British-held Newport, Rhode Island with the assistance
trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along of France, but the eort failed when the French withdrew

4.3

Northern and Western frontier

11

Map of Newport with the camp of the troops of Rochambeau and

the position of the squadron of Knight Ternay in 1780.

American coast in 1780, having suered signicant damage in actions in the West Indies.

Portrait of Sir Henry Clinton, British Commander-in Chief in

North America 17781782

their support. The war in the north then bogged down

into a stalemate, with neither side capable of attacking
the other in any decisive manner. The British instead attempted to wear out American resolve by launching various raiding expeditions such as Tryons raid against Connecticut in July 1779. In that year the Americans won two
morale-enhancing victories by capturing posts at Stony
Point and Paulus Hook, although the British quickly retook them. In October 1779 the British voluntarily abandoned Newport and Stony Point in order to consolidate
their forces.
During the winter of 177980 the American army suffered worse hardships than they had at Valley Forge
previously.[108] The Congress was ineective, the Continental currency worthless, and the supply system was
fundamentally broken. Washington was nding it extremely dicult to keep his army together, even without any major ghting against the British. In 1780 actual
mutinies broke out in the American camp. The Continental Armys strength dwindled to such an extent that
the British decided to mount two probing attacks against
New Jersey in June 1780. The New Jersey militia strongly
rallied, however, and the British quickly returned to their
bases.

Benedict Arnold, the American victor of Saratoga, grew

increasingly disenchanted with struggle and decided to
defect. In September 1780 he attempted to surrender the
key American fort at West Point along the Hudson River
to the British, but his plot was exposed. He escaped and
continued to ght under the British army. He wrote an
open letter justifying his actions by claiming he had only
fought for a redress of grievances and since Britain had
withdrawn those grievances (see above) there was no reason to continue shedding blood, particularly in an alliance
with an ancient and tyrannical enemy like France. He
led the last British attack in the north, a devastating raid
against New London in September 1781.
The British held Staten Island, Manhattan, and Long Island until peace was made in 1783. These areas contained
about 2% of the population of the Thirteen Colonies.

4.3 Northern and Western frontier

Further information: Western theater of the American
Revolutionary War
West of the Appalachian Mountains and along the border with Quebec, the American Revolutionary War was
an "Indian War". Most Native Americans supported the
British. Like the Iroquois Confederacy, tribes such as the
Shawnee split into factions, and the Chickamauga split
o from the rest of the Cherokee over dierences regarding peace with the Americans. The British supplied
their native allies with muskets, gunpowder and advice,
while Loyalists led raids against civilian settlements, especially in New York, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. Joint
Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania and at Cherry Valley in New York in 1778 provoked Washington to send the Sullivan Expedition into
western New York during the summer of 1779. There
was little ghting as Sullivan systematically destroyed the
Indians winter food supplies, forcing them to ee permanently to British bases in Quebec and the Niagara Falls
area.[109]

In July 1780 the American cause received a boost when a

5,500 strong French expeditionary force arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. Washington hoped to use this assistance to attack the British at New York and end the war.
Events elsewhere, however, would frustrate this. Additional French reinforcements were prevented from arriving by a British blockade of French ports, and the French
troops at Newport quickly found themselves blockaded
as well. Moreover, the French eet refused to visit the During the Illinois Campaign of 1778, the Virginia fron-

12

4 SECOND PHASE, 17781781

George Rogers Clarks 180 mile (290 km) winter march led to
the capture of General Henry Hamilton, Lieutenant-Governor of
Quebec

tiersman George Rogers Clark attempted to neutralize

British inuence among the Ohio valley tribes by capturing the colonial outposts of Kaskaskia and Cahokia and
Vincennes, in the Illinois Country. When General Henry
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February
1779 and captured Hamilton.[110]
The British Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton. Painting by Sir Joshua
In March 1782, Pennsylvania militiamen killed about a Reynolds, 1782.
hundred neutral Native Americans in the Gnadenhtten
massacre. In the last major encounters of the war, a force
of 200 Kentucky militia was defeated at the Battle of Blue An attempt by French and American forces to retake SaLicks in August 1782.
vannah failed on October 9, 1779. Clinton then besieged
Charleston, capturing it and most of the southern Continental Army on May 12, 1780. With relatively few ca4.4 Georgia and the Carolinas, 17781781 sualties, Clinton had seized the Souths biggest city and
seaport, providing a base for further conquest.[112]
Main article: Southern theater of the American Revolu- The remnants of the southern Continental Army began
tionary War
to withdraw to North Carolina but were pursued by Lt.
Colonel Banastre Tarleton, who defeated them at the
During the rst three years of the American Revolu- Waxhaws on May 29, 1780. With these events, orgationary War, the primary military encounters were in nized American military activity in the region collapsed,
the north, although some attempts to organize Loyal- though the war was carried on by partisans such as Francis
ists were defeated, a British attempt at Charleston, South Marion. Cornwallis took over British operations, while
Carolina failed, and a variety of eorts to attack British Horatio Gates arrived to command the American eort.
forces in East Florida failed. After French entry into On August 16, 1780, Gates was defeated at the Battle of
the war, the British turned their attention to the southern Camden in South Carolina, setting the stage for Corncolonies, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting wallis to invade North Carolina.[113] Georgia and South
large numbers of Loyalists. This southern strategy also Carolina were thus both restored to Britain for the time
had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to being.
the Caribbean, where the British needed to defend eco- Cornwallis eorts to advance into North Carolina were
nomically important possessions against the French and frustrated. A Loyalist wing of his army was utterly deSpanish.[111]
feated at the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7,
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from 1780, which temporarily aborted his planned advance.
Clintons army in New York captured Savannah, Georgia. He received reinforcements, but his light infantry under

4.5

Virginia, 1781

Tarleton was decisively defeated by Daniel Morgan at

the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781. In spite
of this, Cornwallis decided to proceed, gambling that
he would receive substantial Loyalist support. General
Nathanael Greene, who replaced General Gates, evaded
contact with Cornwallis while seeking reinforcements.
By March, Greenes army had grown to the point where
he felt that he could face Cornwallis directly. In the
key Battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis drove
Greenes much larger army o the battleeld, but in doing so suered casualties amounting to one-fourth of
his army. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were
joining up than expected because the Patriots put heavy
pressure on them and their families, who would become
hostages.[114] Cornwallis decided to retreat to coastal
Wilmington, North Carolina for resupply and reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia
open to Greene. He then proceeded north into Virginia
(see below).
American troops in conjunction with Patriot partisans
then began the process of reclaiming territory in South
Carolina and Georgia. Despite British victories at
Hobkirks Hill and at the Siege of Ninety-Six, by the middle of the year they had been forced to withdraw to the
coastal lowlands region of both colonies. The nal battle (Battle of Eutaw Springs) in September 1781 was indecisive but by the end of the year the British held only
Savannah and Charleston.

4.5

13
March, and his army was joined with that of Cornwallis
in May. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding
a large-scale battle while gathering reinforcements.
Cornwallis Virginia campaign was strongly opposed by
his superior, General Clinton, who did not believe such a
large and disease-ridden area, with a hostile population,
could be pacied with the limited forces available. Clinton instead favored conducting operations further north in
the Chesapeake region (Maryland, Delaware, and southern Pennsylvania) where he believed there was a strong
Loyalist presence. Upon his arrival at Williamsburg in
June, Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to establish a fortied naval base and a request to send several thousand troops to New York to counter a possible
Franco-American attack. Following these orders, he fortied Yorktown, and, shadowed by Lafayette, awaited the
arrival of the Royal Navy.[115]
The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged in 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia. The French eet
became available for operations, which could either move
against Yorktown or New York. Washington still favored
attacking New York, but the French decided to send the
eet to their preferred target at Yorktown. Learning of
the planned movement of the French eet in August,
Washington began moving his army south to cooperate.
The British eet, not realizing that the French had sent
their entire eet to America, dispatched an inadequate
force under Admiral Graves.

Virginia, 1781

Main article: Yorktown campaign

Cornwallis proceeded from Wilmington north into

The French (left) and British (right) lines at the Battle of the
Chesapeake

Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by (John Trumbull, 1797)

Virginia, on the grounds that Virginia needed to be subdued in order to hold the southern colonies. Earlier,
in January 1781, a small British raiding force under
Benedict Arnold had landed there, and began moving
through the countryside, destroying supply depots, mills,
and other economic targets. In February, General Washington dispatched General Lafayette to counter Arnold,
later also sending General Anthony Wayne. Arnold
was reinforced with additional troops from New York in

In early September, French naval forces defeated the

British eet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, cutting
o Cornwallis escape. Cornwallis, still expecting to
receive support, failed to break out while he had the
chance. When Washingtons army arrived outside Yorktown, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned his outer position, hastening his subsequent defeat. The combined
Franco-American force of 18,900 men began besieging
Cornwallis in early October. For several days, the French
and Americans bombarded the British defenses, and then
began taking the outer redoubts. The British attempted to
cobble together a relief expedition, but encountered numerous delays. Cornwallis decided his position was becoming untenable and he surrendered his entire army of

14

BRITAIN VS. FRANCE, SPAIN, MYSORE, AND HOLLAND 17781783

over 7,000 men on October 19, 1781, the same day that
the British eet at New York sailed for his relief.[116]

4.6

Downfall of the North Ministry

News of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in Britain in

November 1781. King George III took the news calmly
and delivered a deant address pledging to continue the
war, a majority of the House of Commons endorsed it.
In the succeeding months news arrived of other reverses,
however. The French and Spanish successfully took several West Indian islands and appeared to be on the verge
of completely expelling the British there. Minorca also
surrendered to a Franco-Spanish force on February 5,
1782 and Gibraltar seemed to be in danger of falling as
well. In light of this, Parliament on February 27, 1782
voted to cease all oensive operations in America and
seek peace. Threatened with votes of no condence, on
March 20 Lord North resigned and his Tory government
was replaced by the Whigs. Ironically, shortly after North
resigned the British won the Battle of the Saintes, putting
an end to the French threat in the West Indies, and they
successfully relieved Gibraltar. Had the North government held out for a few more months they would have
been considerably strengthened and could have continued
the war in spite of Yorktown.

Combat de la Dominique, April 17, 1780, by Auguste Louis de

Rossel de Cercy (17361804)

they captured 2,283 enemy ships.[119] The Continental

Congress authorized the creation of a small Continental
Navy in October 1775, which was primarily used for
commerce raiding. John Paul Jones became the rst great
American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24,
1778, the rst victory for any American military vessel in
British waters.[120]

The new Whig administration accepted American independence as a basis for peace. There were no further
major military activities in North America, although the
British still had 30,000 garrison troops occupying New
York City, Charleston, and Savannah.[117] The war continued elsewhere, including the siege of Gibraltar and
naval operations in the East and West Indies, until peace
was agreed in 1783.

Naval war

Main article: Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War

When the war began, the British had overwhelming naval
superiority over the American colonists although their
eet was old and in poor condition, a situation that would
be blamed on Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty. During the rst three years of the war, the Royal
Navy was primarily used to transport troops for land operations and to protect commercial shipping. The American colonists had no ships of the line, and relied extensively on privateering to harass British shipping. The privateers caused worry disproportionate to their material
success, although those operating out of French channel
ports before and after France joined the war caused
signicant embarrassment to the Royal Navy and inamed Anglo-French relations. About 55,000 American
sailors served aboard the privateers during the war.[118]
The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and

The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 13,

1782, by John Singleton Copley

During the second period, the successive interventions of

France, Spain, and the Netherlands extended the naval
war until it ranged from the West Indies to the Bay of
Bengal. This second period lasted from the summer of
1778 to the middle of 1783, and it included operations
already been in progress in America or for the protection
of commerce, and naval campaigns on a great scale carried out by the eets of the maritime powers.

6 Britain vs.
France, Spain,
Mysore, and Holland 17781783
6.1 Europe
Spain entered the war as a French ally with the goal of
recapturing Gibraltar and Minorca, which had been cap-

6.3

India

tured by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704. Gibraltar was besieged for more than three years, but the British garrison
stubbornly resisted and was resupplied twice: once after
Admiral Rodneys victory over Juan de Lngara in the
1780 Moonlight Battle, and again by Admiral Richard
Howe in 1782. Further Franco-Spanish eorts to capture
Gibraltar were unsuccessful. One notable success took
place on February 5, 1782, when Spanish and French
forces captured Minorca, which Spain retained after the
war. Ambitious plans for an invasion of Great Britain in
1779 had to be abandoned.

6.2

West Indies and Gulf Coast

15
Central America was also subject to conict between
Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its informal trading inuence beyond coastal logging and shing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras, and
Nicaragua. Expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa
in 1779 and San Juan in 1780 (the latter famously led by
a young Horatio Nelson) met with only temporary success before being abandoned due to disease. The Spanish
colonial leaders, in turn, could not completely eliminate
British inuences along the Mosquito Coast. Except for
the French acquisition of Tobago, sovereignty in the West
Indies was returned to the status quo ante bellum in the
peace of 1783.

Main articles: Caribbean theater of the American 6.3

Revolutionary War and Gulf Coast campaign
The Battle of the Saintes fought on 12 April 1782
near Guadeloupe.

India

Main article: Second Anglo-Mysore War

When word reached India in 1778 that France had

Bernardo de Glvez.
Norteamerica, 1792, Jaillot-Elwe, Floridas borders
after Bernardo Glvezs military actions.
Spanish forces overran the British lines during the
climactic Battle of Pensacola (1781).
There was much action in the West Indies, especially in
the Lesser Antilles. Although France lost St. Lucia early
in the war, its navy dominated the West Indies, capturing
Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Montserrat, Tobago,
St. Kitts and the Turks and Caicos between 1778 and
1782. Dutch possessions in the West Indies and South
America were captured by Britain but later recaptured by
France and restored to the Dutch Republic. At the Battle
of the Saintes in April 1782, a victory by Rodneys eet
over the French Admiral de Grasse frustrated the hopes
of France and Spain to take Jamaica and other colonies
from the British.[121]

Suren meeting with ally Hyder Ali in 1783. J.B. Morret engraving, 1789.

entered the war, the British East India Company

moved quickly to capture French trading outposts there,
capturing Pondicherry after two months of siege.[123] The
capture of the French-controlled port of Mah on Indias west coast motivated Mysores ruler, Hyder Ali (who
was already upset at other British actions, and beneted
from trade through the port), to open the Second AngloMysore War in 1780. Ali, and later his son Tipu Sultan, almost drove the British from southern India but was
frustrated by weak French support, and the war ended status quo ante bellum with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore.
French opposition was led in 1782 and 1783 by Admiral the Baillie de Suren, who recaptured Trincomalee
from the British and fought ve celebrated, but largely
inconclusive, naval engagements against British Admiral
Sir Edward Hughes.[124] Frances trading posts in India
were returned after the war.

In the Gulf Coast campaign, Count Bernardo de Glvez,

the Spanish governor of Louisiana, quickly removed the
British from their outposts on the lower Mississippi River
in 1779 in actions at Manchac and Baton Rouge in British
West Florida. Glvez then captured Mobile in 1780
and stormed and captured the British citadel and capital of Pensacola in 1781. On May 8, 1782, Glvez
captured the British naval base at New Providence in
the Bahamas; it was ceded by Spain after the Treaty of
Paris and simultaneously recovered by British Loyalists
in 1783. Glvez' actions led to the Spanish acquisition of
East and West Florida in the peace settlement, denied the
British the opportunity of encircling the American forces
from the south, and kept open a vital conduit for supplies to the American frontier. The Continental Congress 6.4 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
cited Glvez in 1785 for his aid during the revolution and
George Washington took him to his right during the rst Main article: Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
parade of July 4.[122]

16

The Dutch Republic, nominally neutral, had been trading

with the Americans, exchanging Dutch arms and munitions for American colonial wares (in contravention of
the British Navigation Acts), primarily through activity
based in St. Eustatius, before the French formally entered the war.[125] The British considered this trade to
include contraband military supplies and had attempted
to stop it, at rst diplomatically by appealing to previous treaty obligations, interpretation of whose terms the
two nations disagreed on, and then by searching and seizing Dutch merchant ships. The situation escalated when
the British seized a Dutch merchant convoy sailing under Dutch naval escort in December 1779, prompting the
Dutch to join the League of Armed Neutrality. Britain
responded to this decision by declaring war on the Dutch
in December 1780, sparking the Fourth Anglo-Dutch
War.[126] The war was a military and economic disaster for the Dutch Republic. Paralyzed by internal political divisions, it could not respond eectively to British
blockades of its coast and the capture of many of its
colonies. In the 1784 peace treaty between the two nations, the Dutch lost the Indian port of Negapatam and
were forced to make trade concessions.[127] The Dutch
Republic signed a friendship and trade agreement with
the United States in 1782, becoming the third country
(after Morocco and later France) to formally recognize
the United States.[128]

Treaty of Paris

Main article: Treaty of Paris (1783)

In London, as political support for the war plummeted

ANALYSIS OF COMBATANTS

the other Allies) were signed on September 3, 1783. The

last British troops left New York City on November 25,
1783, and the United States Congress of the Confederation ratied the Paris treaty on January 14, 1784.[129]
Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Native American allies and ceded all Native
American territory between the Appalachian Mountains
and the Mississippi River to the United States. Native
Americans reluctantly conrmed these land cessions with
the United States in a series of treaties, but the ghting would be renewed in conicts along the frontier in
the coming years, the largest being the Northwest Indian
War.[130] The British sought to establish a buer Indian
state in the American Midwest, and continued to pursue
that goal as late as 1814 in the War of 1812.[131][132]
The United States gained more than it expected, thanks
to the award of western territory. The other Allies had
mixed-to-poor results. France made some gains over its
nemesis, Great Britain, but its material gains were minimal and its nancial losses huge. It was already in nancial trouble and its borrowing to pay for the war used
up all its credit and created the nancial disasters that
marked the 1780s. Historians link those disasters to the
coming of the French Revolution. The Dutch clearly lost
on all points. The Spanish had a mixed result; they did
not achieve their primary war goal (recovery of Gibraltar), but they did gain territory. However, in the long
run, as the case of Florida shows, the new territory was
of little or no value.[27]

8 Analysis of combatants

The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was

approximately 12.6 million[133] while the population of
the thirteen colonies for the same year has been estimated
at 2.8 million including over 500,000 slaves.[134] Theoretically this gave Britain a 4.5:1 manpower advantage.
By comparison the Unions manpower advantage over the
Confederacy in the American Civil War was only 2.5:1.
In practice, the British army never had more than a slight
numerical advantage over the Continental Army due to a
number of factors, including the need to maintain significant numbers of troops outside of North America. Conscription outside of naval impressment did not exist in
Britain back then, and the proportion of Americans willing to serve in their own countrys defense was believed
Benjamin West's famous painting of the American delegations at
to be considerably larger than the proportion of Britons
the Treaty of Paris. The British delegation refused to pose, and
willing to serve overseas. One pre-war estimate claimed
the painting was never completed.
that the Patriots could mobilize 100,000 men in a matter
[135]
but substantial loyalist or neutralist sentiafter Yorktown, British Prime Minister Lord North re- of months,
ment
would
keep
Patriot forces much smaller than their
signed in March 1782. In April 1782, the Commons
[136][137]
potential.
voted to end the war in America. Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris at the end of November 1782; Historians continue to debate whether the odds for Amerthe formal end of the war did not occur until the Treaty ican victory were long or short. John E. Ferling says the
of Paris (for the U.S.) and the Treaties of Versailles (for odds were so long that the American victory was Almost

8.1

Patriots

A Miracle.[138] On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says the

odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever
was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer
of 1776 and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe
and his brother General Howe, missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army....Chance, luck,
and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles.
Elliss point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of
the Howes were fatally awed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity
for a British victory would never come again.[139]:11 The
U.S. Armys ocial textbook argues that while the British
diculties were great, they were hardly insurmountable.
The British forfeited several chances for military victory
in 17761777, and again in 1780 they might have won
had they been able to throw 10,000 fresh troops into the
American war.[140]

17
faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France,
located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the
Americans lived on farms distant from the seaportsthe
British could capture any port but that did not give them
control over the hinterland. They were on their home
ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a
long-established system of local militia, previously used
to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an ocer corps that could form the basis of
local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.[141]
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to
win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The
British expected the Loyalists to do much of the ghting, but they did much less than expected. The British
also hired German mercenaries to do much of their
ghting.[142]

At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the
Main articles: Continental Army and Minutemen
Battle of Germantown[143] proved decisive in gaining the
The Americans began the war with signicant disadvan- attention and support of powerful European nations such
as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly
supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global
stage.[144]

8.1

Patriots

1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford

tages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no nancial system,
no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress
tried to handle administrative aairs through legislative
committees, which proved inecient. The state governments were themselves brand new and ocials had no
administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was
now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in
the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they
faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were
mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British

The new Continental Army suered signicantly from a

lack of an eective training regime, and largely inexperienced ocers and sergeants. The inexperience of its
ocers was compensated for in part by its senior ocers; ocers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates,
Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion
all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved
their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled
and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben,
a veteran of the famed Prussian General Sta. He taught
the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline,
drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary
War Drill Manual.[145] When the Army emerged from
Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the
British troops in battle when they fought a successful
strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.[106]
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia.
Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and
usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only
a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel
far from home and thus were unavailable for extended
operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however,
their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord,

18

ANALYSIS OF COMBATANTS

8.2 Loyalists
Main article: Loyalist (American Revolution)
Historians[149] have estimated that approximately 40 to
45 percent of the colonists supported the rebellion, while
15 to 20 percent remained loyal to the Crown. The rest
attempted to remain neutral and kept a low prole.
At least 25,000 Loyalists fought on the side of the British.
Thousands served in the Royal Navy. On land, Loyalist forces fought alongside the British in most battles in
North America. Many Loyalists fought in partisan units,
especially in the Southern theater.[150]

Population density in the American Colonies in 1775

Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both

sides used partisan warfare but the Americans eectively
suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were
not in the area.[146]
Seeking to coordinate military eorts, the Continental
Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775,
and appointed George Washington as commander-inchief. The development of the Continental Army was
always a work in progress, and Washington used both his
regulars and state militia throughout the war.

The British military met with many diculties in maximizing the use of Loyalist factions. British historian
Jeremy Black wrote, In the American war it was clear to
both royal generals and revolutionaries that organized and
signicant Loyalist activity would require the presence
of British forces.[151] In the South, the use of Loyalists
presented the British with major problems of strategic
choice since while it was necessary to widely disperse
troops in order to defend Loyalist areas, it was also recognized that there was a need for the maintenance of
large concentrated forces able to counter major attacks
from the American forces.[152] In addition, the British
were forced to ensure that their military actions would
not oend Loyalist opinion, eliminating such options as
attempting to live o the country, destroying property
for intimidation purposes, or coercing payments from
colonists (laying them under contribution).[153]

8.3 British

The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional

roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a Main article: British Army during the American War of
resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, Independence
1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of Britain entered the war with condence; it had the worlds
the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washingtons army had 20,000 men, with two-thirds enlisted in
the Continental Army and the other third in the various
state militias.[147] At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental
Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as
regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in
the eight years of the war, but there were never more than
90,000 men under arms at one time.
Armies were small by European standards of the era,
largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder
and other logistical capabilities on the American side.[148]
It was also dicult for Great Britain to transport troops
across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies
that the Patriots tried to cut o. By comparison, Duy
notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from
23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both gures pale in comparison to the armies that were elded in the early 19th
century, where troop formations approached or exceeded
100,000 men.

The Death of Major Peirson, in the 1781 Battle of Jersey

most powerful navy, a well-trained professional army, a

sound nancial system that could pay the costs, a stable government, and experienced leadership.[154] However they were beset with major challenges. Compared

8.3

British

19

to the Americans, the British had no major allies, and

only had troops provided by small German states to bolster the small British Army. At the onset of the war, the
British Army was less than 48,000 strong worldwide, and
suered from a lack of eective recruiting. By 1778,
the army was pardoning criminals for military service and
had extended the age range for service to be from 16 to
50. Although its ocer and non-commissioned ocer
corps were relatively professional and experienced, this
professionalism was diluted because wealthy individuals
lacking military experience could purchase commissions
and promotions. As a consequence, inexperienced ofcers sometimes found their way into positions of high
responsibility.[155]
Distance was also a major problem for the British. Although the Royal Navy was the largest and most experienced in the world at the time, it sometimes took months
for troops to reach North America, and orders were often
out of date because the military situation on the ground
had changed by the time they arrived.[156] Additionally,
the British had logistical problems whenever they operated away from the coast; they were vulnerable to guerilla
attacks on their supply chains whenever they went far
inland. On a logistical note, the ints used in British
weapons also put them at a disadvantage on the battleeld.
British ints could only re for 6 rounds before requiring
re-sharpening, while American ints could re 60 rounds
before resharpening. A common expression ran among
the redcoats; which was that Yankee int was as good
as a glass of grog.[157] Although discipline was harsh in
the army, the redcoats had little self-discipline; gambling,
looting, promiscuity and heavy drinking were common
problems, among all ranks alike. The army suered from
mediocre organisation in terms of logistics, food supplies
were often bad and the sparse land of America oered
little in the way of nding reliable substitutes.[158]
Suppressing a rebellion in America also posed other problems. At the onset of the war, the British had around
8,000 men stationed in North America. However, these
were required to cover an area that stretched from northern Canada to Florida, a distance of almost 2,000 miles
(3,200 km). As the colonies had not been united before
the war, there was no central area of strategic importance.
In European conicts, the capture of a capital city often meant the end of the war; however in America, when
the British seized key cities such as New York, Philadelphia or Bostonor Washington D.C. in the War of 1812
thirty years laterthe war continued unabated. Furthermore, despite the fact that at its height, the British elded
some 56,000 men in the colonies exclusive of mercenaries and militia,[159] they lacked the sucient numbers to
both defeat the Americans on the battleeld and simultaneously occupy the captured areas. It was not unusual for
the Americans to suer a string of defeats, only to have
the British retreat because they could not occupy the captured land. Despite strong Loyalist support, these troops
were often displaced by Patriot militia when British reg-

Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War

ulars were not in the area, demonstrated at battles such as

Kings Mountain. The manpower shortage became critical when France, Spain and the Netherlands entered the
war, as the British were spread across several theatres
worldwide, when before they were concentrated only in
America.[160]
The British also had to contend with several psychological
factors during the conict. The need to maintain Loyalist
allegiance provided setbacks, as the British could not use
the harsh methods of suppressing rebellion they had used
in Ireland and Scotland. Loyalists often came from the
same communities as Patriots and as a result, such methods could not be employed for fear of alienating them.
Even despite these limitations, neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Revolutionaries due to
the conict, such as the war in the Carolinas, marked by
heavy brutality on both sides.[161] As a result of the manpower shortage and Patriot control of the countryside,
where the majority of the American population lived, the
British often could not simultaneously defeat the Americans on the eld and occupy the captured areas, evidenced
by withdrawals from Philadelphia and the Carolinas after
great initial success. A single American victory could often reverse the impact of a string of British successes,
as shown by engagements at Trenton, Bennington, Kings
Mountain and even defeats such as Germantown,[143] all
of which went a long way to galvanizing Patriot support

20

ANALYSIS OF COMBATANTS

for the war, and of persuading European powers such as would quickly damage the colonists trading activities.[167]
France and Spain to support the rebellion.
Early in 1775, the British Army consisted of about 36,000
men worldwide, but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number. Great Britain had a dicult time
appointing general ocers, however. General Thomas
Gage, in command of British forces in North America
when the rebellion started, was criticized for being too
lenient (perhaps inuenced by his American wife). General Jerey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst turned down an
appointment as commander in chief due to an unwillingness to take sides in the conict.[162] Similarly, Admiral
Augustus Keppel turned down a command, saying I cannot draw the sword in such a cause. The Earl of Engham publicly resigned his commission when his 22nd
Regiment of foot was posted to America, and William
Howe and John Burgoyne were members of parliament
who opposed military solutions to the American rebellion. Howe and Henry Clinton stated that they were
unwilling participants in the war and were only following orders.[163] The British Parliament was also far from
united in supporting military opposition to the American
Patriots. Lord North held the post of Prime Minister with
a Tory majority backing him, advocating military suppression of the American rebellion. However, they were
constantly and vehemently opposed by a large Whig minority, with politicians such as Charles James Fox and
Edmund Burke of the Rockingham Whigs ercely voicing their derision of pursuing military solutions to the rebellion. The Whigs gained prominence in Parliament as
the British suered strategic defeats at Saratoga and later
at Yorktown, resulting in the collapse of Lord Norths
ministry.
Over the course of the war, Great Britain signed
treaties with various German states, which supplied about
30,000 soldiers.[164] Germans made up about one-third
of the British troop strength in North America. The
Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel contributed more soldiers
than any other state, and German soldiers became known
as "Hessians" to the Americans. Revolutionary speakers
called German soldiers foreign mercenaries, and they
are scorned as such in the Declaration of Independence.
By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, although these
were spread from Canada to Florida.[165] Initially, several
German principalities oered military support to Great
Britain but these oers were rejected. However, as the
war dragged on it became clear that Great Britain would
need the extra manpower of the German states and led to
Great Britain seeking support from German principalities
such as Hesse-Kassel and Ansbach-Bayreuth.[166]
The Secretary of State at War Lord Barrington and the
Adjutant-General Edward Harvey were both strongly opposed to outright war on land. In 1766 Barrington had
recommended withdrawing the army from the Thirteen
Colonies to Canada, Nova Scotia and Florida. At the
beginning of the war he urged a naval blockade, which

8.4 African Americans

1780 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign

shows a black infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment.

African Americansslave and freeserved on both

sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who
served by act of Lord Dunmores Proclamation. Because
of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the
ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all-black units were formed in Rhode
Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised
freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was
over, out of political convenience. Another all-black unit
came from Saint-Domingue with French colonial forces.
At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary
cause.[168][169]
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and
joined British lines; others simply moved o in the chaos.
For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves
(30% of the enslaved population) ed, migrated or died
during the disruption of the war.[170] This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war.
When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and
Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists.[171] Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More
than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were
resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the
West Indies.[172][173]

8.5 Native Americans

Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were
aected by the war, and many communities were divided over the question of how to respond to the conict. Though a few tribes were on friendly terms with the
Americans, most Native Americans opposed the United
States as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Native Americans fought on the British

8.6

Race and class

side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois

tribes, who elded around 1,500 men.[174] The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the
conict; although the Confederacy did not take sides, the
Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the
British. Members of the Mohawk fought on both sides.
Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The
Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids
throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that
had sided with the British. Both during and after the war
friction between the Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook
and Joseph Brant, who had sided with the Americans and
the British respectively, further exacerbated the split.

A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army

soldiers.

Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against

Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778,
a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements
along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also
joined Thomas Browns raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah.[175] Many
Native Americans were involved in the ghting between
Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi Rivermostly on the British side. Thousands of
Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in or near major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle
of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.[176]

21

8.6 Race and class

Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected
to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000
died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the
Patriots. The British took along some 12,000 at the end
of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including
those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to
10,000 ex-slaves gained freedom.[177] About 4000 freed
slaves went to Nova Scotia along with about 1200 blacks
who remained slaves.[178][179]
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and
working on the family farm had not prepared them for
wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conicted with military discipline and regimentation. A mans birth order often inuenced his
military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and
older sons took charge of the farm. A persons family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeants orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolutions eect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.[180]
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginias mobilization of troops was the conicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unied commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slaveowning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning
a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among
other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the
tensions. Unresolved class conict, however, made these
laws less eective. There were violent protests, many
cases of evasion, and large-scale desertion, so that Virginias contributions came at embarrassingly low levels.
With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia
was mired in class division as its native son, George
Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.[181]

9 Costs of the War

9.1 Casualties
9.1.1 Americans and allies
The total loss of life throughout the war is largely unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease
claimed far more lives than battle. Between 1775 and
1782 a smallpox epidemic swept across North America,
killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph El-

22

10

SEE ALSO

ventable by issuing lemon or lime juice to sailors but was

not taken seriously. Scurvy would be eradicated in the
Royal Navy in 1790s by the chairman of the Navys Sick
and Hurt Board, Gilbert Blane. About 42,000 British
sailors deserted during the war.[188]

9.2 Costs
Main article: Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, 1781

lis suggests that Washingtons decision to have his troops

inoculated against the smallpox epidemic, including the
use of biological warfare by the British, was one of his
most important decisions.[182]
At least 25,000 American Patriots died during active military service.[15] About 6,800 of these deaths were in
battle; the other 17,000 recorded deaths were from disease, including about 8,00012,000 who died of starvation or disease brought on by deplorable conditions while
prisoners of war,[183] most in rotting British prison ships
in New York. Another estimate, however, puts the total death toll at around 70,000, which if true would make
the conict proportionately deadlier than the American
Civil War.[8] The uncertainty arises from the number of
disease deaths, which were believed to be quite numerous, amounting to an estimated 10,000 in 1776 alone.[8]
The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled
by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.[184]
Proportionate to the population of the colonies, the Revolutionary War was at least the second-deadliest conict
in American history, ranking ahead of World War II and
behind only the Civil War.

9.1.2

British and allies

In 1784 a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of

205 British ocers killed in action during the war, including deaths in Europe, the Caribbean, and the East
Indies.[185] An extrapolation based on this list puts British
Army losses at some 4,000 killed and died of wounds.[8]
A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at
6,046 in North America (from 17751779) and 3,326 in
the West Indies (from 17781780).[186] Approximately
1,800 Germans were killed in combat out of a total of
7,774 deaths.[8] British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank
and le deaths in the British service.[187]
About 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during
the war; about a quarter had been pressed into service.
About 1,240 were killed in battle, while 18,500 died from
disease (gures from 17761780 only).[19] The greatest
killer was scurvy, a disease that had been shown to be pre-

The British spent about 80 million and ended with a

national debt of 250 million, which it easily nanced
at about 9.5 million a year in interest.[189] The French
spent 1.3 billion livres (about 56 million). Their total
national debt was 187 million, which they could not easily nance; over half the French national revenue went to
debt service in the 1780s. The debt crisis became a major
enabling factor of the French Revolution as the government could not raise taxes without public approval.[190]
The United States spent $37 million at the national level
plus $114 million by the states. This was mostly covered by loans from France and the Netherlands, loans
from Americans, and issuance of an increasing amount of
paper money (which became not worth a continental).
The U.S. nally solved its debt and currency problems
in the 1790s when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander
Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and in addition
created a national bank and a funding system based on
taris and bond issues that paid o the foreign debts.[191]

10 See also
British Army during the American War of Independence
Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War
Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War
First Treaty of San Ildefonso
First League of Armed Neutrality
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
George Washington in the American Revolution
Naval operations in the American Revolutionary
War
Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
List of American Revolutionary War battles
List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary
War

23
List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of plays and lms about the American Revolution
List of revolutions and rebellions

11

Notes

[1] In this article, the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies who

supported the American Revolution are primarily referred
to as Americans, with occasional references to Patriots, Whigs, Rebels or Revolutionaries. Colonists
who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are
referred to as Loyalists or Tories. The geographical
area of the thirteen colonies is often referred to simply as
America.

12

References

To avoid duplication, notes for sections with a link to a

Main article will be found in the linked article.
[1] A cease-re in America was proclaimed by Congress on
April 11, 1783 pursuant to a cease-re agreement between
Great Britain and France on January 20, 1783. The nal
peace treaty was not signed until September 3, 1783, ratied on January 14, 1784 in the U.S., and nal ratication
exchanged in Europe on May 12, 1784. Hostilities in India continued until July 1783.
[2] (177883)
[3] (177983)
[4] Oneida, Tuscarora, Watauga Association, Catawba,
Lenape, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Mahican, Mi'kmaq (until
1779), Abenaki, Cheraw, Seminole, Pee Dee, Lumbee
[5] (178083)
[6] (178084)
[7] Onondaga, Mohawk, Cayuga, Seneca, Mi'kmaq (from
1779), Cherokee, Odawa, Muscogee, Susquehannock,
Shawnee
[8] Duncan, Louis C. MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1931).
[9] Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. A Companion to the American Revolution (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), p. 328.
[10] Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (Yale University Press, 1985), p. 110.
[11] Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).
[12] Jasano, Maya, Libertys Exiles: American Loyalists in
the Revolutionary World (2011).
[13] A. J. Berry, A Time of Terror (2006) p. 252

[14] Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.

[15] Howard H. Peckham, ed., The Toll of Independence: Engagements and Battle Casualties of the American Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).
[16] American dead and wounded: Shy, pp. 24950. The
lower gure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p. 849.
[17] Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war..
Necrometrics.
[18] Eighteenth Century Death Tolls. necrometrics.com. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
[19] Parliamentary Register (1781), p. 269.
[20] British writers generally favor American War of Independence, American Rebellion or War of American
Independence. See Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Bibliography at the Michigan
State University for usage in titles.
[21] Merrill Jensen, The Founding of a Nation: A History of
the American Revolution, 17631776 (2004).
[22] Brooks, Richard (editor). Atlas of World Military History. HarperCollins, 2000, p. 101 Washingtons success
in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory, but French intervention won the war.
[23] King George refuses Olive Branch Petition. The History
Channel Website. 2014. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
[24] Chernow, Ron. Washington. Penguin Books, 2010, p.
413 Each morning the two men reviewed the progress,
but Washington deferred to French expertise about sieges,
putting the French general in command.
[25] Chernow, Ron. Washington. Penguin Books, 2010, p.
419 The Yorktown victory netted more than eight thousand prisoners...
[26] Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution, ch.
18.
[27] Lawrence S. Kaplan, The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge, International History Review,
September 1983, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp 43142.
[28] Gladney, Henry M. (2014).
No Taxation without
Representation: 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance
(PDF).http://wayback.archive.org/web/
20150513135503/http://www.hgladney.com/PMR/No_
Taxation_without_Representation_(book_description)
.pdf
[29] the people of these colonies are not, and from their local circumstances cannot be, represented in the House of
Commons in Great-Britain. quoted from the Resolutions
of the Stamp Act Congress October 19, 1765
[30] "... as the English colonists are not represented, and from
their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be
represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to
a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several
provincial legislatures, where their right of representation

24

12

can alone be preserved ... quoted from the Declarations

and Resolves of the First Continental Congress October
14, 1774.
[31] W.E.H. Lecky (1898). The American Revolution, 1763
1783. p. 95.
[32] Charles Howard McIlwain (1938). The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation. p. 51.
[33] Paul Boyer; et al. (2014). The Enduring Vision: A History
of the American People. Cengage Learning. p. 142.
[34] What was the Boston Massacre?". Boston Massacre Society.
[35] Boston Tea Party. History.com.
[36] Young, Shoemaker, 18385.
[37] Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and
of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English
colonists are not represented, and from their local and
other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the
British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject
only to the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as
has been heretofore used and accustomed: But, from the
necessity of the case, and a regard to the mutual interest
of both countries, we cheerfully consent to the operation
of such acts of the British parliament, as are bonde, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for
the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the
whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial
benets of its respective members; excluding every idea
of taxation internal or external, for raising a revenue on
the subjects, in America, without their consent. quoted
from the Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress October 14, 1774.
[38] Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England
in the Eighteenth Century (1882), p. 545.
[39] Sabine, Lorenzo, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of
the American Revolution, Vol. I (1864), p. 74.
[40] David Hackett Fischer, Paul Reveres Ride (1994), Pulitzer
Prize-winning history of the campaign.
[41] Adams, Charles Francis, The Battle of Bunker Hill, in
American Historical Review (18951896), pp. 40113.
[42] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 7577.
[43] Hugh F. Rankin, ed. (1987). Rebels and Redcoats:
The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those who
Fought and Lived it. Da Capo Press. p. 63.
[44] Stephenson (1925), pp. 27181.
[45]

Elwin L. Page. The Kings Powder, 1774, New

England Quarterly Vol. 18, No. 1 (Mar., 1945),
pp. 8392 in JSTOR

[46] Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England

in the Eighteenth Century (1882), pp. 44950.

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[47] John R. Alden (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo Press. pp. 18890.
[48] Mark R. Anderson, The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony:
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[49] Willard Sterne Randall, Benedict Arnold at Quebec,
MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History, Summer
1990, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp 3849.
[50] Thomas A. Desjardin, Through a Howling Wilderness:
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[51] Watson (1960), p. 203.
[52] Arthur S. Lefkowitz, Benedict Arnolds Army: The 1775
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War (2007).
[53] Lorenzo Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the
American Revolution, Vol. I (1864) p. 48; Sabine adds
they were certainly wrong.
[54] William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1891). A History of
England: In the Eighteenth Century. p. 139.
[55] Lecky. A History of England. pp. 7072.
[56] Lecky. A History of England. pp. 7678.
[57] Frank A. Biletz (2013). Historical Dictionary of Ireland.
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[58] Vincent Morley (2002). Irish Opinion and the American
Revolution, 17601783. Cambridge UP. pp. 15457.
[59] Lecky. A History of England. pp. 16265.
[60] John C. Miller (1959). Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford UP. pp. 41012.
[61] David Smith (2012). New York 1776: The Continentals
First Battle. Osprey Publishing. pp. 2123.
[62] Fischer (2004), pp. 5152, 83.
[63] Fischer (2004), p. 29.
[64] Adams, Charles Francis, Battle of Long Island, in American Historical Review (18951896), pp. 668669.
[65] Adams, Charles Francis, Battle of Long Island, in American Historical Review (18951896), p. 657.
[66] Fischer (2004), pp. 91101.
[67] Thomas J. McGuire (2011). Stop the Revolution: America in the Summer of Independence and the Conference for
Peace. Stackpole Books. pp. 16566.
[68] John Richard Alden, The American Revolution, 1775
1783 (1954), ch. 7.
[69] Fischer (2004), pp. 10211.
[70] Barnet Schecter, The battle for New York: The city at the
heart of the American Revolution (2002).
[71] Larry Lowenthal, Hell on the East River: British Prison
Ships in the American Revolution (2009).

25

[72] David McCullough (2006). 1776. p. 122.

[73] Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and
Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), p.
221.
[74] Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and
Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), p.
223.
[75] Mary Tucker (1 March 2002). Washington Crossing the
Delaware. Lorenz Educational Press. pp. 2223.
[76] Fischer (2004), pp. 13840.
[77] Fischer (2004), pp. 143205.

[95] Frances H. Kennedy (2014). The American Revolution: A

Historical Guidebook. Oxford UP. p. 163.
[96] Springeld Armory. Nps.gov. 2013-04-25. Retrieved
2013-05-08.
[97] Perkins, James Breck, France In The Revolution (1911).
[98] Corwin, Edward Samuel, French Policy and the American
Alliance (1916), pp. 12148.
[99] E. Chavez, Thomas (1997). Spains Support Vital to United
States Independence, 17771783. United States. Dept. of
Defense. pp. United States.
[100] Sparks, 1:408.

[78] Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and [101] Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American
Revolution (1987), ch. 79.
Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), pp.
22425.
[102] Terry M. Mays (2009). Historical Dictionary of the American Revolution. Scarecrow Press. p. 7.
[79] Fischer (2004), pp. 20659.
[80] Fischer (2004), pp. 277343.

[103] John Ferling (2007). Almost a Miracle: The American

Victory in the War of Independence. Oxford UP. p. 294.

[81] Fischer (2004), pp. 34558.

[104] Trevelyan (1912), vol. 1, p. 4.

[82] Lecky, William, A History of England in the Eighteenth
[105] Trevelyan (1912), vol. 1, p. 5.
Century, Vol. IV (1891), p. 57.
[83] Adams, Charles Francis, Campaign of 1777, Proceed- [106] John Ferling (2007). Almost a Miracle: The American
Victory in the War of Independence. Oxford UP. pp. 294
ings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Volume 44
95.
(191011), pp. 2526.
[84] Ketchum (1997), p. 84.

[107] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 17588.

[85] Ketchum (1997), pp. 285323.

[108] The Winning of Independence 17771783, American

Military History, Volume 1 (2005).

[86] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 18898

[109] Colin Gordon Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (1995).
[87] Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress and
Termination of the American War Volume I (1794), pp.
[110] Lowell Hayes Harrison, George Rogers Clark and the War
28789.
in the West (2001).
[88] Adams, Charles Francis. Campaign of 1777, Mas[111] Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The Amersachusetts Historical Society, Vol. 44 (191011), p. 43.
ican Revolution in the South (2000).
[89] Stephen R. Taae, The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777
[112] John W. Gordon and John Keegan, South Carolina and the
1778 (2003), pp. 95100 except and text search.
American Revolution: A Battleeld History (2007).
[90] Cadwalader, Richard McCall (1901). Observance of the
One Hundred and Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacu- [113] Hugh F. Rankin, North Carolina in the American Revolution (1996).
ation of Philadelphia by the British Army. Fort Washington
and the Encampment of White Marsh, November 2, 1777:. [114] Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American
pp. 2028. Retrieved 2016-01-07.
Revolution in the South (2000).
[91] Noel Fairchild Busch, Winter Quarters: George Washing- [115] Michael Cecere, Great Things are Expected from the Virton and the Continental Army at Valley Forge (Liveright,
ginians: Virginia in the American Revolution (2009).
1974).
[116] Richard Ferrie, The World Turned Upside Down: George
[92] Paul Douglas Lockhart, The Drillmaster of Valley Forge:
Washington and the Battle of Yorktown (1999).
The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American
Army (2008).
[117] Mackesy, p. 435.
[93] The Winning of Independence, 17771783 American [118] Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the RevoluMilitary History Volume I (2005).
tionary War. Usmm.org. Retrieved 2013-05-08.
[94] A Concluding Commentary Supplying Washingtons [119] John Pike (1907-10-18). Privateers.
Army (1981).
rity.org. Retrieved 2013-05-08.

Globalsecu-

26

[120] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 33146.

12

REFERENCES

[143] Trevelyan, p. 249.

[121] Lewis, Charles (2014-06-15). Admiral De Grasse and [144] Ketchum (1997), pp. 40548.
American Independence. Naval Institute Press. ISBN
[145] Philander D. Chase. Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von";
9781612514734.
American National Biography Online (2000). Accessed
[122] Heintze, A Chronology of Notable Fourth of July CeleJanuary 29, 2015.
bration Occurrences.
[146] Black (2001), p. 59. On militia see Boatner (1974), p.
[123] Riddick (2006), pp. 2325.
707, and Weigley (1973), ch. 2.
[124] Fletcher (1909), pp. 15558.

[147] Crocker (2006), p. 51.

[125] Edler (1911), pp. 3738, 4262; The American trade via [148] Boatner (1974), p. 264 says the largest force WashingSt. Eustatius was very substantial. In 1779 more than
ton commanded was under 17,000"; Duy (1987), p.
12,000 hogsheads of tobacco and 1.5 million ounces of
17, estimates Washingtons maximum was only 13,000
indigo were shipped from the Colonies to the island in extroops.
change for naval supplies and other goods; Edler, p. 62
[149] Greene and Pole (1999), p. 235.
[126] Edler (1911), pp. 95173.
[150] Savas and Dameron (2006), p. xli.
[127] Edler (1911), pp. 23346.
[151] Black (2001), p. 12.
[128] Had Elalamy, Moulay (November 21, 2013). Why Morocco Matters To The U.S.. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved [152] Black (2001), p. 1314.
April 12, 2015.
[153] Black (2001), p. 14.
[129] Richard Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and
American Independence (1983).
[154] On the top leaders see Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy,
The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the Amer[130] Benn (1993), p. 17.
ican Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale University Press, 2013).
[131] Dwight L. Smith, A North American Neutral Indian
Zone: Persistence of a British Idea Northwest Ohio Quar[155] Michael Lanning (2009). American Revolution 100: The
terly 1989 61(24): 4663.
Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Signicance. Sourcebooks.
[132] Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure:
pp. 19396.
The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783
1842. U of Toronto Press. p. 24.
[156] Black (2001), p. 39; Greene and Pole (1999), pp. 298,
306.
[133] Mulhall, Michael G., Mulhalls Dictionary of Statistics
(1884), p. 357.
[157] Edward E. Curtis, The Organization of the British Army in
the American Revolution (Yale U.P. 1926) ch 1 online.
[134] Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics U.S. Census Bureau.
[135] Tyler, Moses. The Literary History of the American Rev- [158] Curtis, The Organization of the British Army in the Amerolution Vol. I (1897), p. 399.
ican Revolution, ch. 4.
[136] Lecky, William. A History of England in the Eighteenth [159] Curtis, The Organization of the British Army in the AmerCentury Vol. IV (1891), p. 287.
ican Revolution, ch. 3.
[137] Perkins, James Breck France in the Revolution (1911).

[160] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 298, 306; Black (2001), pp.

29, 42.

[138] John E. Ferling, Almost A Miracle: The American Victory

in the War of Independence (2009), pp. 56277.
[161] Black (2001), pp. 1416 (Harsh methods), pp. 35, 38
(slaves and Indians), p. 16 (neutrals into revolutionaries).
[139] Joseph J. Ellis (2013). Revolutionary Summer: The Birth
of American Independence. Random House.
[162] Ketchum (1997), p. 76.

[140] Richard W. Stewart, ed., American Military History Vol- [163] Ketchum (1997), p. 77.
ume 1 The United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation, 17751917 (2005) ch 4 The Winning of Indepen- [164] Ingrao, Charles. "" Barbarous Strangers": Hessian State
dence, 17771783 (2005), p. 103.
and Society during the American Revolution. American
Historical Review (1982): 954976. in JSTOR.
[141] Pole and Greene, eds. Companion to the American Revolution, ch. 3639.
[165] Black (2001), pp. 2729; Boatner (1974), pp. 42426.
[142] Michael Lanning (2009). American Revolution 100: The [166] Morrissey (2004), pp. 20, 21.
Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Signicance. Sourcebooks. [167] The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994),
pp. 19596.
p. 12223.

27

[168] Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), pp. 6469.

[189] Robert Tombs and Isabelle Tombs (2006). That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the
[169] Leslie Alexander (2010). Encyclopedia of African AmerPresent. Knopf Doubleday. p. 179.
ican History. ABC-CLIO. p. 356.
[190] Tombs (2007), p. 179.
[170] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 16191877, New York:
Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73
[191] David Kennedy; et al. (2011). The Brief American
[171] Kolchin, p.73

Pageant: A History of the Republic, Volume I: To 1877.

Cengage Learning. p. 136.

[172] William Weir (2004). The Encyclopedia of African American Military History. Prometheus Books. pp. 3132.
[173] Cassadra Pybus, Jeersons Faulty Math: the Question
of Slave Defections in the American Revolution, William
and Mary Quarterly (2005) 62#2 pp: 243264. in JSTOR
[174] Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.

13 Further reading
Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence, 17751783. 2001. Analysis from a
noted British military historian.

[175] Ward, Harry M. (1999). The war for independence and

the transformation of American society. Psychology Press.
p. 198. ISBN 978-1-85728-656-4. Retrieved March 25,
2011.

Benn, Carl.
Historic Fort York, 17931993.
Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd., 1993. ISBN 0920474-79-9.

[176] O'Brien, Greg (April 30, 2008). Pre-removal Choctaw

history: exploring new paths. University of Oklahoma
Press. pp. 123126. ISBN 978-0-8061-3916-6. Retrieved March 25, 2011.

Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-81170578-1. Military topics, references many secondary
sources.

[177] Cassandra Pybus, Jeersons Faulty Math: the Question

of Slave Defections in the American Revolution, William
and Mary Quarterly 2005 62#2: 243264.
[178] John N. Grant, Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia,
17761815. Journal of Negro History (1973): 253270.
in JSTOR
[179] James W. St G. Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search
for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone,
17831870 (1992).
[180] William Baller, Farm Families and the American Revolution, Journal of Family History (2006) 31(1): 2844.
Issn: 0363-1990. Fulltext: online in EBSCO.
[181] Michael A. McDonnell, Class War: Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia, William and
Mary Quarterly 2006 63(2): 305344. Issn: 0043-5597
Fulltext: online at History Cooperative.
[182] Ellis (2004), p. 87.
[183] Burrows, Edwin G. (Fall 2008). Patriots or Terrorists.
American Heritage. 58 (5). Archived from the original on
March 23, 2013. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
[184] American dead and wounded: Shy, pp. 24950. The
lower gure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p. 849.
[185] The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,
Volume 27 (1903), p. 176.
[186] Parliamentary Register (1781), pp. 26365.
[187] Annual Register, 1783 (1785), pp. 199200.
[188] Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).

Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed.

in chief.
The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19507198-0.
Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New
York: Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1-4000-5363-6.
Curtis, Edward E. The Organization of the British
Army in the American Revolution (Yale U.P. 1926)
online
Duy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the
Age of Reason, 17151789 Routledge, 1987. ISBN
978-0-7102-1024-1.
Edler, Friedrich. The Dutch Republic and The
American Revolution. University Press of the Pacic, 1911, reprinted 2001. ISBN 0-89875-269-8.
Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington.
(2004). ISBN 1-4000-4031-0.
Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. Pox Americana: The Great
Smallpox Epidemic of 177582. New York: Hill and
Wang, 2001. ISBN 0-8090-7820-1.
David Hackett Fischer. Washingtons Crossing. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19517034-2.
Fletcher, Charles Robert Leslie. An Introductory
History of England: The Great European War, Volume 4. E.P. Dutton, 1909. OCLC 12063427.

28
Greene, Jack P. and Pole, J.R., eds. The Blackwell
Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Malden,
Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999.
ISBN 1-55786-547-7. Collection of essays focused
on political and social history.
Gilbert, Alan. Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. ISBN
978-0-226-29307-3.
Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice,
17631789. Northeastern University Press, 1983.
ISBN 0-930350-44-8. Overview of military topics;
online in ACLS History E-book Project.
Morrissey, Brendan. Monmouth Courthouse 1778:
The Last Great Battle in the North. Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-772-7.
Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 17631776. (2004)
Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The
Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of
Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87023-663-6.
Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of
Americas Revolutionary War. Henry Holt, 1997.
ISBN 0-8050-4681-X.

14

REFERENCE LITERATURE

Michigan Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-472-06431-2). Collection of essays.

Stephenson, Orlando W. The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776, American Historical Review, Vol. 30,
No. 2 (Jan. 1925), pp. 271281 in JSTOR.
Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy:
The French and the British from the Sun King to the
Present Random House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-40004024-7.
Trevelyan, George Otto. George the Third and
Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American
revolution Longmans, Green, 1912.
Watson, J. Steven. The Reign of George III, 1760
1815. 1960. Standard history of British politics.
Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War. Indiana University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-25328029-9.
Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Americas Battle
for Freedom, Britains Quagmire: 17751783. New
York: Free Press, 2005 (a division of Simon &
Schuster). ISBN 0-7432-2687-9. An account of the
British politics on the conduct of the war.

14 Reference literature

These are some of the standard works about the war in

Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 17751783. general that are not listed above; books about specic
London, 1964. Reprinted University of Nebraska campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found
Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8032-8192-7. Highly re- in those articles.
garded examination of British strategy and leadership.
Billias, George Athan. George Washingtons Generals and Opponents: Their Exploits and Leadership
McCullough, David. 1776. New York: Simon &
(1994) scholarly studies of key generals on each side
Schuster, 2005.
Conway, Stephen. The War of American Indepen Reynolds, Jr., William R. (2012). Andrew Pickens:
dence 17751783. Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995.
South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War.
ISBN 0-340-62520-1. 280 pages.
Jeerson NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN
Lowell, Edward J. The Hessians in the Revolution
978-0-7864-6694-8.
Williamstown, Massachusetts, Corner House Pub Riddick, John F. The History of British India: a
lishers, 1970, Reprint
Chronology. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.
Bancroft, George. History of the United States of
ISBN 978-0-313-32280-8.
America, from the discovery of the American conti Savas, Theodore P. and Dameron, J. David. A Guide
nent. (185478), vol. 710.
to the Battles of the American Revolution. New York:
Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The TriSavas Beatie LLC, 2006. ISBN 1-932714-12-X.
umph of the American Revolution. Penguin, 1998
Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, the
(paperback reprint).
Slaves, and the American Revolution, New York,
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard
NY: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2006
A., eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revo Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Relutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military Hisections on the Military Struggle for American Intory (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online
dependence. New York: Oxford University Press,
editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all
1976 (ISBN 0-19-502013-8); revised University of
topics

29
Frey, Sylvia R. The British Soldier in America: A
Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary
Period (University of Texas Press, 1981).
Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels: The
American Revolution through British Eyes. New
York: Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-02895-X.

15 External links
Liberty The American Revolution from PBS
American Revolutionary War 17751783 in the
News
Important battles of the American Revolutionary
War

Kwasny, Mark V. Washingtons Partisan War,

17751783. Kent, Ohio: 1996. ISBN 0-87338546-2. Militia warfare.
15.1
Middlekau, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The
American Revolution, 17631789. Oxford University Press, 1984; revised 2005. ISBN 0-19-5162471. online edition
Savas, Theodore; J. David Dameron (2006). Guide
to the Battles of the American Revolution. Savas
Beatie. Contains a detailed listing of American,
French, British, German, and Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles, and
what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both sides, And all the important battles.
Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat:
The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714
1783 (2008) 802 pp., detailed coverage of diplomacy from London viewpoint
Symonds, Craig L. A Battleeld Atlas of the American Revolution (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units
Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. (2
volumes. New York: Macmillan, 1952.) History of
land battles in North America.
Wood, W. J. Battles of the Revolutionary War,
17751781. ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint). Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles,
with emphasis on American military leadership.
Men-at-Arms series: short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions:
Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. General
Washingtons Army (1): 177578 (1994)
Zlatich, Marko. General Washingtons Army
(2): 177983 (1994)
Chartrand, Rene. The French Army in the
American War of Independence (1994)
May, Robin. The British Army in North America 17751783 (1993)
The Partisan in War, a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789.

Bibliographies

Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution

Bibliographies of the War of American Independence
http://wayback.archive.org/web/
20151101171424/http://www.history.army.mil/
reference/revbib/revwar.htm compiled by the
United States Army Center of Military History
Political bibliography from Omohundro Institute of
Early American History and Culture

30

16

16
16.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

American Revolutionary War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War?oldid=707518782 Contributors:

Paul Drye, Joao, The Epopt, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, EdwardOConnor, Sjc, DanKeshet,
Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Eob, Danny, JeLuF, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Zoe, Nonenmac, Jinian, Montrealais,
Modemac, Hephaestos, Someone else, Edward, Lir, Infrogmation, HollyAm, JohnOwens, Ken Arromdee, Michael Hardy, GABaker, Kwertii, Taras, Pde, Chadloder, Minesweeper, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Oklah, Snoyes, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, DropDeadGorgias, Ugen64, Ciphergoth, Cyan, LouI, Big iron, Jiang, Evercat, Alex756, Rl, John K, Hike395, Jengod, Mulad, Agtx, Charles
Matthews, RickK, Sebastian Wallroth, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Fuzheado, Zoicon5, Selket, Katana0182, DJ Clayworth, Vancouverguy, Peregrine981, Fruits~enwiki, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Saltine, Itai, Tempshill, Mattworld, VeryVerily, Ryoho, Ark30inf,
Wernher, Thue, Bevo, Jecar, HarryHenryGebel, Indefatigable, Raul654, Mtcv, Gakrivas, Penfold, Jerzy, Proteus, Johnleemk, Cvaneg,
David.Monniaux, Dimadick, Louis-H. Campagna, AlexPlank, Robbot, Sander123, Astronautics~enwiki, Kizor, PBS, Simonf, RedWolf,
Baldhur, Kowey, JosephBarillari, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Henrygb, AaronS, Flauto Dolce, Rorro, Rholton, Sami The Peelite, Caknuck,
Wally, Hadal, JesseW, Wikibot, Alba, ElBenevolente, Jor, SoLando, Diberri, Xanzzibar, Mattaschen, Dina, Jooler, Filemon, Davidcannon, ManuelGR, McDutchie, Decumanus, Centrx, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Lunkwill, Nat Krause, Bwood, Geeoharee, Netoholic,
Tom harrison, IRelayer, Zigger, Peruvianllama, Wwoods, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, NeoJustin, Alison, Jonathan O'Donnell, Kenneth Alan, Niteowlneils, Beta m, Guanaco, Per Honor et Gloria, Rchandra, Steven jones, Bobblewik, Ryanaxp, SonicAD, Stevietheman,
Geni, Dvavasour, Gdr, Vanished user svinet8j3ogifm98wjfgoi3tjosfg, Quadell, Albrecht, Antandrus, BozMo, Beland, Cincinnatus7, Ejgm,
Jossi, HistoryBA, Vogon, Josquius, Kesac, DragonySixtyseven, H Padleckas, Pmanderson, Vagrant, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Hardouin,
Klemen Kocjancic, Ratiocinate, Now3d, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Gazpacho, SYSS Mouse, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture,
Venu62, DanielCD, Grzes, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, ArnoldReinhold, Sahasrahla, Xezbeth, Roodog2k, Paul
August, SamEV, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Neko-chan, Wolfman, Nachtwind, El C, Pjrich, Lycurgus, Hayabusa future, Mwanner,
Junesix, QuartierLatin1968, Aude, Shanes, Tom, Susvolans, Brisis~enwiki, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Nrbelex, Spoon!, Adambro,
Unsungzeros, Bobo192, Spalding, Infocidal, Smalljim, Clawson, Dtremenak, Kevin Myers, Cwolfsheep, Adrian~enwiki, JW1805, Palmiro,
Mark Musante, Mcornelius, Alphax, Bigmeuprudeboy, Cspurrier, Hajenso, WikiLeon, Twobells, BillyTFried, Leifern, Notash, Jjron,
Supersexyspacemonkey, Stephen Bain, Nickfraser, Ommnomnomgulp, Jumbuck, Danski14, Frank101, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Eleland, LtNOWIS, Richard Harvey, Proteus71, TechMan15, Free Bear, Arthena, Borisblue, Mr Adequate, Andrewpmk, Andrew Gray, Riana, AzaToth, SHIMONSHA, Derumi, Necrogen, Hoary, Lightdarkness, RoySmith, Mailer diablo, Mysdaao, Hu, Malo,
Yummifruitbat, Bart133, Hohum, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Binabik80, BanyanTree, Helixblue, Danaman5, Danntm, Evil Monkey,
Harej, Grenavitar, Skyring, Bsadowski1, Kusma, Drbreznjev, Blaxthos, Dan100, Ceyockey, Dismas, Tom.k, Zntrip, Ondrejk, Rorschach,
Firsfron, Woohookitty, LostAccount, TigerShark, John-1107, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Jersyko, Jacobolus, Scjessey, Pol098, Before My Ken,
^demon, MONGO, Lapsed Pacist, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, Xayk, IrishHermit, Damicatz, Flamingspinach, J M Rice, Zzyzx11, Wayward,
Gimboid13, BryanKaplan, Essjay, Xiong, Gallaghp, MrSomeone, Matturn, Gettingtoit, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, GoldRingChip, Wraybm1, Cuchullain, BD2412, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, RxS, Edison, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd,
Erebus555, Pleiotrop3, SiberioS, Rillian, Quiddity, Carbonite, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Feydey, Himasaram, BCV, Funnyhat, Oblivious,
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Red Slash, Jtkiefer, Joewright, Matt01, Anonymous editor, Splash, Pigman, Chris Capoccia, Elephant53, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin,
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as led, Irishguy, Banes, Rmky87, Dahveed323, Misza13, Nanten, Mckyj57, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), Threepwood89, Tony1,
Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Xompanthy, T, PrimeCupEevee, Gadget850, Wangi, Obi-WanKenobi-2005, Mistercow, Cinik, BusterD, Cvalin,
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M77, CWenger, HereToHelp, Tyrenius, Spliy, 4shizzal, Easter Monkey, Prog101, Garion96, Allens, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, RG2,
NeilN, Lawyer2b, Maxamegalon2000, Paul Erik, Asterion, SkerHawx, Elliskev, Nick-D, DVD R W, CIreland, Victor falk, CraigRNielsen,
Luk, Jeklib, Vanka5, Attilios, 6SJ7, SmackBot, Looper5920, Sprocket, Py, Slashme, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Pgk,
C.Fred, AndyZ, Blossom Morphine, Allixpeeke, Patrickneil, WookieInHeat, Mscuthbert, Renesis, Alephh, Jab843, Arniep, Vilerage,
PhD-Econobot, HalfShadow, Jackregan, MediaMangler, Moralis, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Brianski, Algont, Hmains, Skizzik, Jerkofski,
Ppntori, Terrare, ERcheck, Andy M. Wang, Cowman109, Izehar, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Pecher, BrownBean, Keegan, Persian Poet
Gal, Rex Germanus, NCurse, Tigah, Sirex98, Snori, Apeloverage, Hibernian, Sadads, Tripledot, Dlohcierekims sock, DemolitionMan,
Onkelschark, Darth Panda, George Ho, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Ajaxkroon, HoodedMan, Danielkueh, Roman
Babylon, JohnJHenderson, Tommyjb, GeorgeMoney, Andy120290, Daydreamer302000, Brianhull2, Pax85, Grover cleveland, Cameron
Nedland, Stevenmitchell, Censorwolf, Kelleraven90, WhereAmI, Steven X, Dharmabum420, BIL, YankeeDoodle14, Krich, MrRadioGuy, Fuhghettaboutit, PrometheusX303, BostonMA, Theonlyedge, Sens08, Tylergolato, Nakon, Savidan, TedE, VegaDark, Raichu, Jabamula~enwiki, Freemarket, Illnab1024, BryanG, Wybot, Adamarthurryan, Kendrick7, Where, Shawn2082, Daniel.Cardenas, Springnuts,
Risssa, FelisLeo, Kukini, Andrew Dalby, BridgeBurner, -Ilhador-, Googabi, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Zahid Abdassabur, Sanya, Kuru, Acthomas, Darkildor, PJMIV, General Ization, Der MW, UberCryxic, Mike1901, Gizzakk, Pat Payne, Whodhellknew, JohnI, AllStarZ, Sir
Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Linnell, The Frederick, Coredesat, Accurizer, Minna Sora no Shita, Tlesher, Osbus, Majorclanger, Joshua
Scott, IronGargoyle, Ben Moore, RandomCritic, 16@r, Ex nihil, JediScougale, Volker89, Wargirl~enwiki, Mr Stephen, Stizz, Kpw22,
Neddyseagoon, Ryulong, Pitman6787, Citicat, Andrwsc, Noleander, LaMenta3, Ryanjunk, Iceberg584, Xionbox, Christian Historybu,
Lucid, Wild Wolf, Ginkgo100, Emx~enwiki, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, The Giant Pun, Meservy, Vanished user 90345uifj983j4toi234k,
Joseph Solis in Australia, Wjejskenewr, Theoldanarchist, J Di, R~enwiki, Provocateur, Tony Fox, Shoreranger, The71, Civil Engineer III,
Courcelles, Matcreg, Ziusudra, Deathpalm, Beachbumz, Eluchil404, Tawkerbot2, Asteuartw, Planetbarbara, Revcasy, Lahiru k, CalebNoble, JForget, Adam Keller, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Insanephantom, Van helsing, Iced Kola, Seeraamaazu, Ninetyone, Jon kare, N3X15,
Wikipedialover, Jeremiad, Xous, Dgw, MGRILLO, Black and White, Old Guard, Esahr, Chicheley, MrFish, Felixboy, Siemonsma, TJDay,
ElectricEye, Sopoforic, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, Red4tribe, Bballhog@aol.com, Sammy Houston, MC10, Mato, DrunkenSmurf, Gogo Dodo,
Travelbird, Corpx, ST47, Almost Famous, JamesLucas, Crazy4metallica, Karaas, Alphageekpa, B, Dynaow, Demomoke, Christian75,
DumbBOT, Chrislk02, LINKBook, TheCheeseManCan, Englishnerd, Deejayk, Corporal Punishment, Marielleh, Omicronpersei8, Venice-

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menace, FrancoGG, BetacommandBot, Canute, Epbr123, Jochannon, Mroach12, Ante Aikio, Auror, Kablammo, BenMerill, Vidor, N5iln,
Al Lemos, Nootherusernametouse, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, SGGH, Sfv132, Malfoyl, Pmrobert49, Top.Squark, HammerHeadHuman, Joaq99, JustAGal, Mnemeson, PJtP, Phoe, Sturm55, Philippe, CharlotteWebb, Tocino, Tree Hugger, Floridasand, Dermo69, Tinot,
Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Yupik, LEACHIE, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Turlo Lomon, Novel compound, Chemboy1,
ReverendG, Fru1tbat, Doc Tropics, Jayron32, Thunderbird15, Haber, KINGBOBOFTHENORTH, Malcolm, Credema, North Shoreman,
Gdo01, RedCoat10, Uberstroker, Killerman2, Bjenks, Sangaman, Ioeth, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Husond, Wiki0709, Gcm, Barek, MPWilk,
MER-C, BlindEagle, Kelden~enwiki, Stellmach, Mcorazao, Inks.LWC, WikipedianProlic, Arch dude, Fredbloggins, Bahar, Kakashi64,
Andonic, Fairview360, Hut 8.5, Matthew Husdon, Savant13, Kirrages, Pogo935, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Beaver~enwiki, Mardavich,
Penubag, Magioladitis, Connormah, Hroulf, Swikid, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Transcendence, Je Dahl, Dekimasu, Mbc362,
Kars, Puddhe, Stevecolbert, Outcomer, Tedickey, Nyttend, Kevinmon, WODUP, Nidator, Snowded, KConWiki, Zlsmith, Ahecht, Just
H, User009, BilCat, Ciaccona, Rbha7, Theleaderofmany12, Tlmclain, Greg Carter, Cdiasoh, Jayhshah, Jtl6713, Just James, TehBrandon, Glen, DerHexer, Caranorn, The Sanctuary Sparrow, Acadienne, DGG, RedFoxBandit, NatureA16, Stephenchou0722, Wittyname,
Ratherhaveaheart, Bryson109, Lawrence142002, Namsn, MartinBot, CliC, EyeSerene, Mr.Patrick40, G-my, Jim.henderson, Rettetast,
Jsamans, Juansidious, Slyfoxx, Centpacrr, Anaxial, Lucassmith, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Fusion7, Nono64, Etienne2007, Wikitiki89, PrestonH, Ancapistan, LedgendGamer, Zeete, J.delanoy, Abecedare, DrKay, Trusilver, Greatdane1995, D. Hamilton, Rbrewer42, Bogey97, Ginsengbomb, PhilLiberty, Bamzguitargurl, Jairuscobb, ABTU, Acalamari, Textangel, Scholarus, Bree123,
Bot-Schafter, Rockfall, KMJOHN11, McSly, Clerks, Dfoofnik, Julin123, Ryan Postlethwaite, Novis-M, Samtheboy, Trumpet marietta
45750, Skier Dude, PocklingtonDan, Sigismondo, War of the Antz, JayJasper, Detah, Lizzie Harrison, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Floateruss, Zkxp2p, MikeAtomic, Tedmag, Peh5812, NewEnglandYankee, Eightninezero, Fatboy88, Joe tooker, Rwessel, Rosenknospe, Xgmx,
JHeinonen, Mufka, Tascha96, Jakeus, Bl4ckVo1d~enwiki, 2help, Phancypants, Mattlemmon, WJBscribe, Tweisbach, Tygrrr, Revwarboy,
Ryacy, Treisijs, Trip Johnson, Jack Carmenita, Andy Marchbanks, Wewelsburg, Onekooleskimo, Cavsluver013, RjCan, Punktastic, Xiahou, Reloj~enwiki, Bubbleboy92, Brynulf, Spellcast, Ethan Allen, Wikieditor06, Nigel Ish, Aaaa57, Shindo131, Brandx2407, Shiggity,
VolkovBot, Rtdixon86, TallNapoleon, Hersfold, Pan Wikipedia, Indubitably, James Callahan, Tesscass, Alexandria, HJ32, Adrian two,
Vauxhall Bridgefoot, CART fan, Jedravent, Philip Trueman, Ewfterwgerg, ESommers, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, XavierGreen, BuickCenturyDriver, Lollipop Lady, Moogwrench, Asarla, Eric354, Cheesemeister, Militarybooks, BWMSDogs, Dchall1, Andres rojas22, SteveStrummer, Arnon Chan, Someguy1221, Jimperator, Oxfordwang, Ocolon, PichuUmbreon, Bass shing physicist, Whitebengal, Ferengi, Martin451, JhsBot, Oren neu dag, Supertask, Cgs4151, LeaveSleaves, Drappel, Noformation, David in DC, Dude018219293, Samman4040,
Wiae, Maxim, Prof77, 67th Tigers, CO, Mwilso24, January2007, InternetHero, Tribulation725, BobTheTomato, Meters, Y, Cantiorix,
Farkas Jnos, Synthebot, Aigiqinf, Depaderico, Jason Leach, Falcon8765, Tttom, Insanity Incarnate, Monty845, Showers, Logan, PGWG,
Sacularamacal13, Sfmammamia, HansHermans, Beprep2010, Levangvilava, NHRHS2010, PokeYourHeadO, Al Ameer son, Legokid,
Flamingofreak212, The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick, Flonto, SieBot, Interselector, MunkyJuce69, Cake44, SpencerCS, Hertz1888, Oldag07,
Rystheguy, Caltas, Ledvader, New England, The Parsnip!, Backwalker, RJaguar3, Triwbe, REL1870, Cathyonyc, TerritorialWaters, Illlaw, GlassCobra, BeerPongChamp, Westfalenbaer, Keilana, Kisa Angel, Bentogoa, Gotipe, Flyer22 Reborn, Perspicacite, Xkfusionxk,
Grimey109, Arbor to SJ, NJChristian07, Ferret, Oxymoron83, Harry~enwiki, KPH2293, Bagatelle, Pac72, Minturn, I think 2 + 2 = 22.,
Alessandroandcharlie, Star x crazy, Hotdjdave, OKBot, Kumioko (renamed), Asdf96, Andrewtss, Svick, Jmj713, ColWilliam, Bogo1983,
Freeyer918, Kokookoko, WarDemon, BradMajors, LondonStatto, Hamiltondaniel, Superbeecat, Hannah Bevan, Into The Fray, Random1234567, Francvs, Explicit, Furado, Curieux~enwiki, Fornost345, RegentsPark, Redcoatpaul, FlamingSilmaril, MBK004, Ilikepigtails, ClueBot, Dvl007, LAX, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, CiudadanoGlobal, Kisb92, The Thing That Should Not Be, Magicman710,
Rjd0060, Plastikspork, Usome, Gawaxay, Boo1210, Supertouch, Drmies, Marquise189, TheOldJacobite, Codik, Jed Bartlet, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, David Trochos, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, TheSmuel, Piledhigheranddeeper, Masterblooregard, Michaelp2113,
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Lilabit89, Searcher 1990, Ddaawg, Redthoreau, Audaciter, BOTarate, Rebel Redcoat, Chargerz21, Lord Cornwallis, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Kolakowski, IJA, Carlos28, Berean Hunter, Skatebam950, Anon126, Crazybones123, DumZiBoT, Chris1834, RexxS, GBgagne,
BarretB, Against the current, Tarheel95, Andrews Palop, Jordanp, Ursutraide, UESPArules, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, WikHead, SilvonenBot, NellieBly, Alexius08, Ereunetes, JCDenton2052, SelfQ, Airplaneman, Surtsicna, HexaChord, Aantia, Addbot, Basilicofresco,
Mortense, Treehug29, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, SuperSmashBros.Brawl777, Seattlefan12, Non-dropframe,
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WCCasey, Jamietw, Raf45Martinez, Tbhotch, Ramessou Mriamon, CuboneKing, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, AYE R, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Beyond My Ken, Wdjunkin, DASHBot, Steve03Mills, Vinnyzz, Cdtew, EmausBot, Bobthecrusher, John of Reading, Olecrab,
Ctyonahl, ThatMorgan, Dewritech, Ronald Wenonah, RA0808, Austin Luft, Olof nord, RenamedUser01302013, NotAnonymous0, Gwillhickers, Huckamike, Somebody500, Slightsmile, Winner 42, Kiran Gopi, Wikipelli, K6ka, John of Lancaster, Regaina, JAHelg, John Cline,
Hit45, Checkingfax, Illegitimate Barrister, Olgalednichenko, Rafandalucia, F, Bollyje, Usersame, KuduIO, Forestburg, Awatson88,
Red8Doori, Unreal7, SporkBot, Monterey Bay, Cloudshill, RaptureBot, LisaLewis1, Arman Cagle, Jay-Sebastos, TyA, Augurar, Brandmeister, Kgsbot, Zuggernaut, Zuludown, Thetalkingheads, Donner60, BBrad31, Katemorganishere, Caturday2, Ripcurl40, $1LENCE
D00600D, CountMacula, ChuispastonBot, Jimidey cricket, Coolemanable, LikeLakers2, TYelliot, 28bot, Socialservice, Jxraynor, Cgt,
Sonicyouth86, Petrb, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, NapoleonX, Iiii I I I, Battlesnake1, Toolen, CocuBot, This lousy T-shirt, Joefromrandb, Da-

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16.2

Images

File:AmericanRevolutionaryWarMon.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/
AmericanRevolutionaryWarMon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, derived from:
File:Battle of Trenton by Charles McBarron.jpg - Public domain as work of U.S. military.
File:BattleofLongisland.jpg - Public domain as work of U.S. military.
File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg - Public domain due to age.
File:Battle of Guiliford Courthouse 15 March 1781.jpg - Public domain due to age and as work of U.S. military.
File:The death of general warren at the battle of bunker hill.jpg - Public domain due to age. Original artist: Charles McBaron - File:Battle
of Trenton by Charles McBarron.jpg
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File:Canadian_militiamen_and_British_soldiers_repulse_the_American_assault_at_Sault-au-Matelot.jpg
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