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The micronutrients that are managed by growers and we will discuss include:
Iron
Boron
Manganese
Zinc
Molybdenum
Cobalt
There are three additional micronutrients that have been classified as essential, but are generally not managed
by growers. These additional three nutrients, listed below, are rather managed under experimental conditions:
Nickel
Chlorine
Cobalt
Form: Iron is taken up by plants as either Fe2+ (ferrous cation) or Fe3+ (ferric cation).
Function: Iron is involved in photosynthesis, respiration, chlorophyll formation, and many enzymatic
reactions.
BORON
Form: Boron is taken up by plants primarily as H3BO3 (boric acid) and H2BO3- (borate).
Function: Boron plays an important role in the movement and metabolism of sugars in the plant and
synthesis of plant hormones and nucleic acids. It also functions in lignin formation of cell walls.
M AN G AN E S E
Function: Manganese is a component of enzymes and is also involved in photosynthesis and root
growth. Additionally, it is involved in nitrogen fixation.
ZINC
Function: Zinc is a component of many organic complexes and DNA protein. It is also an important
enzyme for protein synthesis. Also, zinc is involved in growth hormone production and seed
development.
M O LYB D E N U M
COPPER
Function: Copper is also a component of enzymes, some of which are important to lignin formation in
cell walls. It is also involved in photosynthesis, respiration, and processes within the plant involving
nitrogen.
Cycling:
IRON
The iron cycle includes both mineral and organic forms.
Mineral Iron
includes soluble iron and organic matter complexes in the form of chelates
Fe containing minerals may dissolve to replenish the soil solution as iron is removed by plants. Little iron is
retained by the cation exchange sites of soil particles as compared to base and acid cations.
Organic Iron
Organic cycling is an important process that ensures iron availability through the processes of mineralization and
immobilization.
Iron Chelation
Iron can also form strong complexes with organic matter known as chelates (a Greek word meaning claw).
Chelation occurs between soluble organic compounds and certain metals in the soil through processes involving
microorganisms. Chelates are very important in micronutrient management because chelation increases the
solubility and plant uptake of many metal micronutrients. We will encounter chelation again when discussing zinc,
copper and manganese.
M AN G AN E S E
The manganese cycle is very similar to the iron cycle. The manganese cycle, too, has four fractions:
Like iron, little manganese is retained by the cation exchange sites of soil particles. Manganese may undergo
precipitation/dissolution, sorption/desorption on the CEC, mineralization/immobilization, and chelation.
ZINC
Zinc bearing minerals can dissolve and supply zinc to the soil solution. Once in the soil solution, zinc can be
immobilized, taken up by plants, retained by soil particles, or chelated with soluble organic matter. Organic matter
containing zinc must undergo mineralization before it becomes available for plant uptake.
COPPER
Like Zinc, the copper cycle includes:
Solution copper
Copper may be occluded, or buried, within the structures of various minerals, such as iron and
aluminum oxides
Organic copper
Copper is more tightly bound to organic matter than the other micronutrients
Copper-containing minerals can dissolve and supply Zn to the soil solution. Like zinc, copper can be immobilized
by microorganisms, taken up by plants, or exchanged on soil particle surfaces. Copper may also form chelates
with soluble organic matter. Organic copper must be mineralized before it is available for plant uptake.
M O LYB D E N U M
Unlike the previous metal micronutrients, molybdenum exists as an anion in the soil solution. Nonetheless, the
molybdenum cycle is similar to the others. The molybdenum cycle includes:
Soil solution
Organic matter
Instead of being held onto the cation exchange capacity, molybdenum is held to soil particles with an anion
exchange capacity (including amorphous materials, iron oxides, acidic kaolin clays). Organic molybdenum
undergoes mineralization and immobilization.
BORON
Boron exists in the soil as:
Boron is the only nonmetal micronutrient described in this section. H3BO3 is most common form of boron in soils
that have a pH between 5 and 9. The exchangeable boron buffers changes in the boron levels of the soil solution.
Organic matter supplies plant available boron. Boron should be carefully managed when applied to the soil since
the range between boron sufficiency and toxicity levels is very narrow.
Soil pH: The availability of iron may be limited in soils with high pH, especially in arid, calcareous soils.
Soil Moisture and Aeration: Poorly aerated soils with excessive moisture in calcareous soil can
promote iron deficiencies.
Organic Matter: Organic matter improves iron availability due to chelation, which increases iron
solubility. Additions of manure can increase chelation.
Interactions with other nutrients: Excessive amounts of other micronutrients, particularly copper,
manganese, zinc and molybdenum, can decrease iron availability
M AN G AN E S E
Soil pH: Soils with high pH have limited manganese availability since manganese precipitates at high
pH.
Soil Moisture and Aeration: High soil moisture and poor aeration increases the availability of
manganese due to an increase in solubility.
Organic Matter: Manganese availability increases with the addition of natural organic matter (i.e.
compost) due to favorable chelation which increases the level of exchangeable and solution
manganese.
Interactions with other nutrients: High amounts of copper, iron, and zinc may induce manganese
deficiency.
ZINC
Zn adsorption: Though the relative amount of zinc on the cation exchange capacity is low, zinc is
attracted and held tightly to magnesite, dolomite and CaCO3 minerals. As a result, soils containing
these minerals can develop zinc deficiencies.
Climate: Cool, wet weather generally has a negative effect on zinc availability.
Interactions with other nutrients: Copper, iron, manganese, and phosphorus can interfere with zinc
uptake.
COPPER
Soil texture: Copper availability is lower in highly leached, coarse textured soils.
Soil pH: Copper availability decreases as pH increases, primarily due to decreased solubility of copper
minerals.
Organic matter: Copper forms very tight bonds with organic matter (more so than any other
micronutrient), which may reduce its availability in organic (peat and muck) soils.
Buried Cu: Copper may be occluded, or buried, within the structure of clay minerals and oxides.
Occluded Cu is not available to plants.
Interactions with other nutrients: Copper availability to plants may be reduced when zinc, iron, and/or
phosphorus contents are high in the soil solution.
M O LYB D E N U M
Soil pH: Unlike the other micronutrients, the availability of molybdenum increases with increasing pH.
Fe/Al oxides: Molybdenum is strongly held onto the surfaces of aluminum and iron oxides, which
reduces its availability.
Interactions with other nutrients: Copper and manganese can reduce the uptake of molybdenum by
plants. Phosphate enhances molybdenum uptake.
BORON
Soil texture: Highly leached, coarse textured soils tend to have low boron availability.
Plant factors: The range between boron sufficiency and boron toxicity is very narrow. Crop sensitivity to
boron varies, and it is important to become familiar with the boron sensitivity of your crop.
Interactions with other nutrients: Crops are less sensitive to boron when there is ample amount of
calcium. This is because calcium acts to reduce boron availability. Boron may become deficient when
the Ca:B range is greater than 1,200:1.
Trace Elements
Table 1 ignores the occurrence of trace elements in bacterial nutrition. Trace elements are metal ions required by
certain cells in such small amounts that it is difficult to detect (measure) them, and it is not necessary to add them to
culture media as nutrients. Trace elements are required in such small amounts that they are present as "contaminants"
of the water or other media components. As metal ions, the trace elements usually act as cofactors for essential
enzymatic reactions in the cell. One organism's trace element may be another's required element and vice-versa, but
the usual cations that qualify as trace elements in bacterial nutrition are Mn, Co, Zn, Cu, and Mo.
Carbon and Energy Sources for Bacterial Growth
In order to grow in nature or in the laboratory, a bacterium must have an energy source, a source of carbon and other
required nutrients, and a permissive range of physical conditions such as O 2 concentration, temperature, and pH.
Sometimes bacteria are referred to as individuals or groups based on their patterns of growth under various chemical
(nutritional) or physical conditions. For example, phototrophs are organisms that use light as an energy source;
anaerobes are organisms that grow without oxygen; thermophiles are organisms that grow at high temperatures.
All living organisms require a source of energy. Organisms that use radiant energy (light) are called phototrophs.
Organisms that use (oxidize) an organic form of carbon are calledheterotrophs or (chemo)heterotrophs. Organisms
that oxidize inorganic compounds are called lithotrophs.
The carbon requirements of organisms must be met by organic carbon (a chemical compound with a carbon-hydrogen
bond) or by CO2. Organisms that use organic carbon areheterotrophs and organisms that use CO2 as a sole source of
carbon for growth are calledautotrophs.
Thus, on the basis of carbon and energy sources for growth four major nutritional types of procaryotes may be defined
(Table 2).
Energy Source
Carbon
Source
Photoautotrophs
Light
CO2
Photoheterotrophs
Light
Organic
compounds
Chemoautotrophs or
Lithotrophs
(Lithoautotrophs)
Chemoheterotrophs or
Heterotrophs
Inorganic
compounds, e.g. CO2
H2, NH3, NO2, H2S
Organic
Organic
compounds
compounds
Examples
Cyanobacteria, some
Purple and Green
Bacteria
Some Purple and
Green Bacteria
A few Bacteria and
many Archaea
Most Bacteria, some
Archaea
Almost all eucaryotes are either photoautotrophic (e.g. plants and algae) or heterotrophic (e.g. animals, protozoa, fungi).
Lithotrophy is unique to procaryotes and photoheterotrophy, common in the Purple and Green Bacteria, occurs only in a
very few eucaryotic algae. Phototrophy has not been found in the Archaea, except for nonphotosynthetic light-driven
ATP synthesis in the extreme halophiles.