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M-I Drilling Fluids

Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids

CONTENTS:

1. Introduction to Rotary Drilling


1.1. A Brief History of Drilling
1.2. Rotary Drilling Components
1.2.1. Power System
1.2.2. Hoisting System
1.2.3. Rotary System
1.2.4. Circulating System
2. Introduction to Drilling Fluids
2.1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
2.2. Properties of Drilling Fluids
2.3. Mud Selection: What type of mud to use?
2.4. Solids Control and Discharge
2.4.1.
Effects of Drilled Solids
2.4.2.
Solids Control Equipment
2.4.1.
Water Based Mud Discharge
Attachment A: Solids Control Equipment
Attachment B: Flowchart of the Solids Control Process
Attachment C: Water Based Mud Systems
Attachment D: Common Materials Used in Water Based Muds

M-I Drilling Fluids


Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids
1. INTRODUCTION TO ROTARY DRILLING:
1.1. A Brief History of Drilling
Cable Tool Drilling, Ancient China
Drilling originated in China with the drilling of brine wells to produce
salt with primitive cable-tool rigs. The Chinese are credited with
developing the cable-tool principle in drilling. To make a hole, the rigs
used a cable to which workers attached a heavy, sharply pointed bit.
Rig machinery lifted the cable and bit and dropped them. The falling
bit struck the ground with a heavy blow, punching its way into the
rock.
Repeated lifting and dropping allowed the bit to drill. From time to
time, however, workers stopped drilling, pulled the bit from the hole,
and removed the pieces of rock or cuttings that the bit produced. This
was done using a bailing tool. By 1500 A.D., it was believed that the
Chinese were drilled as deep as 2,000 feet using this method, which
was used as late as the 1940s.
Drakes Well
In 1859, Drake's well became the first known commercial oil well,
planned and drilled solely to search for oil in the United States
(Asians and Europeans had been drilling oil wells before). Using the
cable-tool method, the well was drilled to a depth of 65 feet and
produced 2,000 bbl of oil in its first year. This small project in
Titusville, Pennsylvania marked the beginning of the Petroleum era in
the United States.
Rotary Drilling, 1863
In 1863, a French civil engineer named Leschot became the first
person to use rotary drilling to drill a water well. A rotary drilling rig
turns, or rotates, a bit on the bottom, which drills and creates the hole.
A series of pipes are added to lower the bit to the bottom. When the bit
is at the bottom, the driller starts rotating it using a rotating machine
called the rotary table. As the bits teeth, or cutters, rotate over the
formation,
they gouge or scrape the rock away.

Lucas Gusher
Spindletop, Texas 1901

A rotary rig circulates fluid while the bit drills. A powerful pump can move fluid down the pipe to the bit and
back through the annulus space to the surface. At the surface, equipment removes the cuttings, and the clean
fluid is recirculated back down the pipe. Thus, with rotary drilling, drilling does not have to stop in order to bail
cuttings.
Spindletop, 1901
This method of drilling was introduced in the oil fields of Spindletop, Texas, marking the beginning of the
modern petroleum industry. By 1914, 10% of all oil wells were drilled using rotary drilling. Today, except for
special applications or the setting of conductor casing, rotary drilling is used almost exclusively.
Since then there have been many major advances in the rotary drilling field. New technology is continually
being developed to make drilling faster and safer. New developments in the drilling technology have allowed the
drilling of horizontal wells wherein the bit can be steered toward the target areas. The development of deep
water drilling technology has allowed operators to develop oilfields in very deep water in excess of 3000 meters.
Current developments in drilling fluids have increased the rate of penetration and allowed the development of
high pressure, high temperature areas that were could not be developed before.

M-I Drilling Fluids


Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids

1.2. Rotary Drilling Rig Components:


1.2.1. Power System
The power system provides all the energy required for the operation of the rig. A normal drilling rig usually
requires from 1,500 to 2,500 kilowatts.
The power is delivered by diesel engines, called prime movers. A rig may need from two to four prime movers,
depending on its size. The bigger the rig, the deeper it can drill, and the more power it needs.
The engines provide power for the drawworks, rotary table, and mud pumps. In some cases, the diesel engine
powers a generator, which, in turn, powers electric motors. A simple, flexible control system offers flexibility in
the placement of equipment. In other cases, the diesel engine provides direct power by the use of gears, chains,
belts, and clutches.
1.2.2. Hoisting System

Rig Floor

The most striking feature of a drilling rig is the


derrick. In some cases, the derrick can be over 50
meters tall. The taller the derrick, the longer the
section of pipe that can be handled when going in or
pulling out of the hole. This can allow for the adding
of two or three joints of pipe at the same time (called
doubles and triples), which reduces down-time
during the drilling process. The drawworks consists
of a large spool of cable and a brake driven by the
rig engines. It provides the cable used by the pulleys
hung in the derrick.
The remainder of the hoisting system consists of
blocks and lines that do the actual hoisting: The
crown block is a stationary set of pulleys attached to
the top of the derrick that gives mechanical
advantage in handling large loads. The traveling
block is the lower, moving set of pulleys.

1.2.3. Rotary System


To make hole, the drillstring turns, which causes
the bit to cut into the rock and earth. Rotating
Equipment are of two basic types: Either it uses a
kelly assembly or a top drive. The kelly assembly
includes a swivel, a special length of pipe known as
the kelly, the rotary table, and a kelly bushing.
Most offshore rigs (and some land rigs) have
replaced the conventional swivel, the kelly, and the
kelly bushing with a powered swivel called the top
drive. In highly deviated (38 degrees or more) and
horizontal wells, the torque required to turn the
drillstring makes rotary-table drilling impractical
or impossible.

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Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids
In these situations, a downhole motor is used to rotate the drillbit. When a downhole motor is used, the
drillstring does not rotate. Instead, the mud is used like hydraulic fluid to supply power to the hydraulic motor,
which is placed in the drillstring between the bit and the drill collar.
Below the swivel is the kelly, a square- or hexagonal-shaped pipe joint that can be turned by the rotary table.
This specially shaped joint of pipe allows torque to be applied efficiently to the drilling, without the slippage that
might occur with a round joint of pipe. Below the kelly is the drill pipe, and below the drill pipe are the drill
collar and the drillbit. Drill collars are heavy, thick-walled joints of pipe inserted between the drill pipe and the
drill bit. The heavier weight of the drill collars add weight to the drill bit, which improves drilling performance.
1.2.4. Circulating system:
The circulating system is composed of all the components related to the circulation and maintenance of the
drilling fluid, which includes the mud pumps, the pipes and hoses required to bring the mud from the pumps to
the drill pipe and the annulus, the solids control equipment, and the mud tanks or mud pits.
The mud pumps provide the power to circulate the mud into and out of the hole. They are large, positivedisplacement pumps which are usually rated to pump at above 20 MPa (3000 psi).
Mud is kept in pits when it is not downhole. While, historically, these pits were just earthen holes, environmental
concerns now require that the pits most often be above-ground containers that protect the environment from
contamination. A mud-mixing hopper is attached to the pit, so that materials can be added to the mud to meet
changing requirements for density and other mud properties.
The solids control equipment removes the drilled solids (cuttings) from the drilling fluid while maintaining the
liquids and fine weighting agents as much as possible. Over a period of time the properties of the drilling fluid
deteriorate and the fluid needs to be treated or replaced to maintain the desired drilling rate.
Stand pipe
Discharge lines
Mud pumps
Swivel
Drill pipe

Suction lines

Mud pit

Cutaway of
Formation

Bit
Solids control equipment

The functions, properties and composition of drilling fluids will be discussed in Section 2: Introduction to
Drilling Fluids.

2. AN INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS

M-I Drilling Fluids


Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids are a complex mixture of chemical and mineral components . This report provides an overview of
the functions, properties and components of drilling fluids. The latter part of this report is concerned about
solids control and the discharges encountered in the use of water based muds in an offshore environment.
During the drilling process, the mud is continuously circulated down the inside of the drill pipe, through the bit
nozzles and back to the surface via the annular gap between the wellbore and the outside of the drill pipe. The
mud performs a number of essential functions such as transport of the rock debris produced by the bit (the
'cuttings'), control of downhole pressures, wellbore stabilization, lubrication and many others.

2.1. Functions of Drilling Fluids:

Removal of Cuttings from the Bottom of the Hole


One of the most important functions of the
drilling fluid is to transport freshly drilled rock
cuttings from the bit to the surface by way of the
annular space. At the surface the fluid passes
through the solids control equipment to separate
the drilled solids (cuttings) from the fluid.

Suspension When Circulation is Interrupted


A drilling fluid should form a gel structure that is
capable of suspending the cuttings, to prevent the
cuttings from falling back in and choking the
wellbore.

Pressure Control
The density ( 'mud weight') of the drilling fluid is
a critical parameter for successful, safe drilling.
Subsurface rocks and the fluids within them can
have pressure due to overburden and geologic
stresses.
While drilling, the column of mud inside the hole must exert a force (hydrostatic force) that will control
the subsurface pressures. This is achieved by increasing the mud weight by adding weighting agents,
commonly Barite (BaSO4).
While drilling, the mud's hydrostatic pressure must exceed the formation pore fluid pressure to avoid
influx of gas or brine. If the mud weight becomes too great, the rock fracture pressure may be exceeded,
thus causing the formation to collapse and the mud to be lost to the formation.

Isolation of the Fluids from the Formation


There is a natural tendency for the liquid phase of the mud to enter small pores in the rock by filtration.
Excessive filtrate loss must be avoided. Excessive build up of filter cake (the filtrate left by the filtration
process) must also be avoided as it causes problems with movement of pipe in and out of the wellbore
and also promotes stuck pipe due to 'differential sticking' in the filter cake. Filtration and filter cake
build up are controlled by the addition of special additives ('fluid loss control' products).

Cool and Lubricate the Bit and Drill String


A drilling fluid conducts heat away from the bit and drill string and loses this heat at surface. Fluids
which lubricate the bit effectively result in faster drilling.

Support Part of the Weight of the Drillpipe


The buoyancy provided by the fluid is proportional to its density.

M-I Drilling Fluids


Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids

.Maximise Penetration Rates


Rate of penetration is affected greatly by fluid properties such as high shear rate viscosity, solids content
and density. In practice, a compromise of properties is reached which permit the fastest drilling of a
stable hole.

Wellbore Stabilisation
In certain formations, the interaction between the drilling fluid and the formations being drilled may
destabilise the well bore. This is common in rocks such as claystones, shales or marls which have a high
clay content. Contact with water may promote hydration of the clays leading to swelling and dispersion.
Such formations require an 'inhibitive' fluid to maintain a stable well bore and prevent enlargement
('wash outs').

Reservoir Protection
The drilling fluid used to drill the reservoir should have the least possible effect on reservoir
permeability in order to avoid expensive loss of oil or gas production.

Secure Maximum Geological Information


Exploration wells are drilled primarily for geological information. The drilling fluid used should be
sufficiently inhibitive to avoid hole washouts (vital for interpretation of log results), minimise alteration
of core samples, and protect the cuttings from hydration or dispersion. It should also not interfere with
the detection of hydrocarbons ('shows'). In some cases, the salinity may be adjusted to enhance log
interpretation.

Corrosion Protection
The drilling fluid should not be corrosive or abrasive in order to protect the drilling and production
equipment.

Environmental Protection
The components should be selected so that any discharge of mud or cuttings has the minimum possible
environmental impact. Environmental concerns are the major driving force behind current drilling
fluids research and are dictating the development of drilling fluids. The health of the rig workers is also
an important aspect and products are selected to minimise exposure and health risks.

2.2. Properties of Drilling Fluids

Density
The density or mud weight is critical to the safety of the drilling operation and to wellbore stability.
Density can be increased by adding weighting agents, the most common of which is barite (barium
sulphate, BaSO4).

Viscosity
An important variable for solids suspension and cutting transport. Solids suspension is the ability of the
fluid to keep the solids from falling. This is important to maintain the density of the fluid. The
viscosity is also important in bringing the drilled solids or cuttings to the surface.

Fluid Loss Control


Often, the mud is in contact with permeable formations which allows fluids to pass. Without fluid loss
control, the liquid phase of the mud will pass through the formation, leaving behind a filter cake.
Additives to control fluid loss and minimize the liquid phase lost to the formation are included in the
mud system.

Inhibition:

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Primer on Rotary Drilling and Drilling Fluids
Most clays and shales swell (increase in total volume) because of adsorbed water. Chemicals are added to the
mud which prevent the swelling and keeps the wellbore stable.

Chemical Properties
These affect product performance, inhibition and corrosion. The properties normally measured would be
pH, alkalinity, calcium, total hardness and chloride. Exact procedures will depend on the type of drilling
fluid in use.

Additional Properties
A large number of other properties can be determined using more sophisticated laboratory test methods
not usually available at the rig site. These include:
(1) Dynamic Filtration Properties
(2) Reservoir Damage Potential
(3) Inhibition Level
(4) Toxicity
(5) Abrasivity
(6) Corrosiveness
(7) Lubricity
(8) Temperature Stability

2.3. Mud Selection: What type of mud to use?


Wells are drilled in a series of sections of progressively increasing depth and decreasing diameter. It is common
for two, three or even more different types of fluid to be used in the process. For example, the large diameter 'top
hole' sections commonly drilled to around 1500 feet below sea bed will use a low cost bentonite or guar gum
mud. Further down, a polymer or oil based fluid may be chosen. Occasionally different fluids may be used for
drilling into the reservoir or during well completion operations (before the well is put on production).
Drilling fluid selection depends primarily on geological factors such as the type of rocks to be drilled and
anticipated downhole temperatures and pressures. One of the key parameters is the level of inhibition. For
example in the North Sea area, most wells penetrate a thick layer of Tertiary and Cretaceous claystones which
cause many problems if not drilled with an inhibitive system such as an oil based drilling fluid.
Generally, inhibitive fluids (e.g. KCl/Polyacrylamide or polyglycerol containing fluids) require less dilution
because the cuttings do not hydrate and disperse as readily as in uninhibitive muds (e.g. dispersed bentonite).
Most countries require information on toxicity, biodegradability, and bioaccumulation potential of drilling fluids.
Water-based muds, in particular are regarded as being more environmentally acceptable than oil based mud.
In general WBM gives a less stable wellbore and produces larger gauge holes than oil based muds. There is also
more dispersion of solids into the mud (hence higher dilution requirements and more waste). The use of oil based
mud may be acceptable on cost or technical grounds. Oil based muds have better properties in terms of viscosity,
fluid loss control, thermal stability, and lubricity. The disposal of oil based mud raises some environmental
concerns, however.
2.4.
Solids Control and Mud Discharge:
The goal of solids control is to remove the cuttings from the mud while retaining liquid and barite in the system.
The accumulation of drilled solids have adverse effects on the viscosity, density, fluid loss control and inhibitive
properties of mud. It is important to remove the drilled solids as soon as possible (i.e. as soon as they reach the
surface) and not have the solids recirculate back into the system. If the drilled solids bypass the solids control
equipment, they will be broken down to smaller pieces making removal impossible.
Since there will always be fine drilled solids retained in the mud, dilution and addition of chemicals to maintain
the drilling fluid properties will always occur.

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As the solids are broken down, there is an increase in the overall surface area (see diagram below). This causes
the entrainment of more water and thus an increase in viscosity. There is also more reaction between the
chemicals in the mud and the drilled solids, so the overall inhibition and fluid loss properties of the mud is
reduced.

Representation of the relationship between the size reduction of particles and the increase of surface area

There are several options that we can do to maintain the mud properties and continue drilling:
1) Allow the drilled solids build up in the mud system: The response will be to replace the mud with a new
batch once the mud properties deteriorate and to discharge the old mud.
2) Dilute the mud with fresh mud to keep the properties within the required specifications. The problem with
this is that the mud volume will continually build up, so discharging mud is also required.
3) Lower the solids content of the mud with the use of solids control equipment to reduce the amount of
additional mud needed to maintain the mud properties. Please note that the efficiency of the solids control
equipment is normally in between 60 to 75 %, which means 25 to 40 % of the drilled solids is retained in
the mud. Thus, dilution and addition of new mud is necessary to maintain the mud properties. Discharging
is still required once the mud volume builds, but the volume will not be as much as options 1 and 2. The
third option has both economic and environmental benefits.

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Drilled Solids Classification By Particle Size


Particles
Coarse
Intermediate
Medium
Fine
Ultrafine
Colloidal

Size (microns)
greater than 2000
250 to 2000
74 to 250
44 to 74
2 to 44
less than 2

The smaller the particles get, the


harder they are to remove from the
mud system.

2.4.1. Effect of Drilled Solids:


Drilled solids are contaminants in the mud system and must be removed otherwise they degrade the
mud properties. When solids build up, the following effects occur:
Viscosity increases:
Viscosity of the solution increases because of the increased number of particles in the solution, and
because more water is adsorbed onto the clay particles. The increase in viscosity results in
increased pumping pressure, increased gel strength, and increased entrapment of air in the
mud. Furthermore, increased viscosity leads to less efficient solids removal, which causes
more and more solids to be retained in the mud. Unless there is some diluting performed,
the viscosity will continually increase to a point that the whole system needs to be replaced
with new mud.
Fluid loss increases.
Fluid loss results in formation damage due to the migration of fine particles and filtrate into permeable
formations, decreased hole diameter due to thick filter-cake. A thickened filter-cake can cause
potential stuck pipe problems. The thick filter cake also causes the hole diameter to decrease,
which may lead to surge and swab problems when the drillstring is run into or pulled out of
the hole. A thick filter cake also hinders passage of the drillstring.

Density increases.
An increase in the density results in an equivalent increase in the hydrostatic force exerted by the
column of mud on the formation, which may result in loss circulation, stuck pipe due to
differential sticking, and destabilization of the wellbore.

Inhibition decreases.
Additives which inhibit the reaction and swelling of clays and shales act by adsorbing onto the
formation. An increased solids content in the mud means that the additives will adsorb onto
the solids in the mud rather than the formation, decreasing their effectiveness. This turns into
a dangerous cycle, because if the mud is not inhibitive, then the formation may swell and cause
additional solids to enter the mud, causing a loss of control in the mud system.

2.4.2. Solids Control Techniques:

Settling:

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This method requires the separation of the solids from the fluid by gravitational force. The
success of settling will depend on several factors, including size and shape of the particles, the
density of the particle, the dnesity of the fluid and the time allotted for settling. The time
required for particle settling may be reduced by the use of a flocculant to increase particle size
or by the use of centrifugal force to increase the gravitaional force.

Dilution:
Dilution can take the form of water, chemical treatments or whole mud addition to maintain
and control drilling fluid properties.

Mechanical Separation
Mechanical Separation by the use of solids control equipment use two basic methods. They
either use screens to separate the solids or use centrifugal force to increase the gravity and
cause the solids to settle out of the mud.

.2.4.3. Solids Control Equipment


A variety of equipment is used on the rig to remove the drilled
solids from the mud.
The mud passes through several pieces of equipment, namely the
shale shakers, the sandtrap, desander, desilter, degasser, mud
cleaner and centrifuge. Each equipment removes smaller and
smaller particles from the mud before it is returned to the
circulating system.
The efficiency of solids control equipment varies in between 60
to 75%. Fine drill solids accumulate in the mud during drilling
and these have an adverse effect on mud properties and Shale Shaker: for the removal
penetration rates. Thus, some form of dilution is commonly medium size particles
required. This is
usually carried out by discharging solidsladen mud (and replacing the lost volume with fresh mud.

of large &

The amount of dilution necessary depends on many factors such as the rock type being drilled, the hole
size, the type of bit used, the efficiency of the solids removal equipment, the type of mud used, and the
properties required.
2.4.4. Water Based Mud Discharge
At present the dumping of WBM and cuttings offshore is normally unrestricted, although several
countries are currently investigating the environmental impact of water based muds. Organic
enrichment does not normally take place to anything like the same extent as with oil based mud
systems. Toxicity is unlikely to cause problems as the fluids (which are water miscible) undergo massive
dilution in the water column.
The discharge of cuttings results in a thin layer of sedimented material on the sea floor around the rig
which can affect some benthic (bottom living) organisms. Any mud discharged with the cuttings will be
water miscible and thus the soluble components will be washed off during sedimentation. Material
settling on the sea floor consists of the clean, solid particulate phase (cuttings, barite, and drill solids).
There is some concern over the heavy metal content of WBM's (particularly the barite), however, the
evidence suggests that the metals of concern are generally present as highly insoluble compounds and
are not readily bioavailable

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ATTACHMENT A: SOLIDS CONTROL EQUIPMENT


Shale Shakers
Removes coarse and medium size particles using a vibrating
screen.
Comes in either single deck or dual deck configurations.
The performance of the Shale shaker depends on many factors,
including the type of screen used (size, shape), the type of
vibration (linear, circular or eliptical), and the nature of the mud.
Cut point* : 147 microns
Sand Trap
The sand trap is a settling tank with a capacity of about 3 to 5 m 3.
It has to be emptied at regular intervals to remove the settled
solids.
Degasser
Removes entrained gas from the mud. The degasser either
introduces a vacuum that increases the bubble size, spreads out
the mud over a large surface area, introduces agitation or
centrifugal force to drive the gasses to the surface.
Degassers are located downstream of the shale shakers and
upstream of any equipment that requires a centrifugal pump, as
entrained air may cause centrifugal pumps to cavitate .
Desander:
Hydrocyclones separate solids by the using centrifugal force cause
the solids to settle from the liquid. The diameter of the desander
is normally larger than 6 inches.
Cut point : 74 microns
Desilter
The desilter is a smaller version of the desander . The diameter of
the desander is normally smaller than 6 inches
Cut point : 25 microns
Centrifuge
A centrifuge increases the gravitational force by the use of high
speed cylinders. They allow the removal of fine solids from the
mud system.
However, they cannot remove colloidal particles form the mud.
Cut point : 4 microns

* Cut point: Size where 50% of solids are separated form the mud.

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ATTACHMENTS:
C) WATER BASED MUD SYSTEMS:
(1) BENTONITE
Dispersed Gel
Pre-hydrated Gel/Sea Water
Gyp/Lignosulphonate (with pre-hydration).
Extended Bentonite
High Temperature Bentonite
Lime
Mixed Metal Hydroxide
(2) SALT WATER CLAY MUDS
Attapulgite Muds
Sepiolite Muds
Sepiolite muds used in geothermal wells (high temp).
(3) POLYMER MUDS
Nondispersed Polymer
KCl/Polyacrylamide
High Temperature Polymer
Polyglycerol
Cationic Polymer
B) COMMON MATERIALS USED IN WATER BASED MUDS:
(1) MINERALS

Barite (BaSO4): Weighting Agent


Hematite and Ilmenite : Weighting Agents much less common than Barite
Dolomite and Limestone: Weighting Agents (acid soluble).
Bentonite: Smectite Clay. Provides viscosity and fluid loss control
Attapulgite and Sepiolite: Salt Water Clays.

(2) NATURAL POLYMERS OR THEIR DERIVATIVES

Xanthan Gum: Viscosifier


Guar Gum: Viscosifier, usually used for top hole sections
HEC (Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose) :Viscosifier
Starch :Fluid Loss Control additive
CMC (Carboxy Methyl Cellulose) : Fluid Loss Control additives.
PAC (Polyanionic Cellulose): Viscosifiers
Lignite: Dispersants and fluid loss control
Tannin + derivatives: reducing agents for bentonite
Lignosulphonates: PAL (Polyanionic Lignin): Fluid loss control additive.

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(3) SYNTHETIC POLYMERS:

Polyacrylates and Copolymers of Polyacrylates: Dispersants and fluid loss control additives
Polyacrylamide (PHPA) :Shale Control Additive.
Polyglycerols :Shale Control and Lubricity.

(4) BASIC CHEMICALS

Caustic Soda (NaOH) and Potassium Hydroxide: Alkalinity Control.


Lime (Ca(OH)2) and Soda Ash (Na2CO3) :Control of Soluble Calcium.
Soda Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) :Alkalinity Control.
Gypsum (CaSO4) :Provides soluble source of calcium ions
Salt (NaCl) and Potassium Chloride: Soluble weighting agents for use in solids-free completions
Calcium Chloride: Brines.
Magnesium Chloride: Also added to increase inhibition or to prepare salt-saturated muds
Calcium Bromide and Zinc Bromide: Soluble weighting agents for high density completion brines

(5) MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICALS:

Corrosion Inhibitors
Lubricants
Bactericides
Detergents
Defoamers
Lost Circulation Materials

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