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CONTENTS:
Lucas Gusher
Spindletop, Texas 1901
A rotary rig circulates fluid while the bit drills. A powerful pump can move fluid down the pipe to the bit and
back through the annulus space to the surface. At the surface, equipment removes the cuttings, and the clean
fluid is recirculated back down the pipe. Thus, with rotary drilling, drilling does not have to stop in order to bail
cuttings.
Spindletop, 1901
This method of drilling was introduced in the oil fields of Spindletop, Texas, marking the beginning of the
modern petroleum industry. By 1914, 10% of all oil wells were drilled using rotary drilling. Today, except for
special applications or the setting of conductor casing, rotary drilling is used almost exclusively.
Since then there have been many major advances in the rotary drilling field. New technology is continually
being developed to make drilling faster and safer. New developments in the drilling technology have allowed the
drilling of horizontal wells wherein the bit can be steered toward the target areas. The development of deep
water drilling technology has allowed operators to develop oilfields in very deep water in excess of 3000 meters.
Current developments in drilling fluids have increased the rate of penetration and allowed the development of
high pressure, high temperature areas that were could not be developed before.
Rig Floor
Suction lines
Mud pit
Cutaway of
Formation
Bit
Solids control equipment
The functions, properties and composition of drilling fluids will be discussed in Section 2: Introduction to
Drilling Fluids.
Pressure Control
The density ( 'mud weight') of the drilling fluid is
a critical parameter for successful, safe drilling.
Subsurface rocks and the fluids within them can
have pressure due to overburden and geologic
stresses.
While drilling, the column of mud inside the hole must exert a force (hydrostatic force) that will control
the subsurface pressures. This is achieved by increasing the mud weight by adding weighting agents,
commonly Barite (BaSO4).
While drilling, the mud's hydrostatic pressure must exceed the formation pore fluid pressure to avoid
influx of gas or brine. If the mud weight becomes too great, the rock fracture pressure may be exceeded,
thus causing the formation to collapse and the mud to be lost to the formation.
Wellbore Stabilisation
In certain formations, the interaction between the drilling fluid and the formations being drilled may
destabilise the well bore. This is common in rocks such as claystones, shales or marls which have a high
clay content. Contact with water may promote hydration of the clays leading to swelling and dispersion.
Such formations require an 'inhibitive' fluid to maintain a stable well bore and prevent enlargement
('wash outs').
Reservoir Protection
The drilling fluid used to drill the reservoir should have the least possible effect on reservoir
permeability in order to avoid expensive loss of oil or gas production.
Corrosion Protection
The drilling fluid should not be corrosive or abrasive in order to protect the drilling and production
equipment.
Environmental Protection
The components should be selected so that any discharge of mud or cuttings has the minimum possible
environmental impact. Environmental concerns are the major driving force behind current drilling
fluids research and are dictating the development of drilling fluids. The health of the rig workers is also
an important aspect and products are selected to minimise exposure and health risks.
Density
The density or mud weight is critical to the safety of the drilling operation and to wellbore stability.
Density can be increased by adding weighting agents, the most common of which is barite (barium
sulphate, BaSO4).
Viscosity
An important variable for solids suspension and cutting transport. Solids suspension is the ability of the
fluid to keep the solids from falling. This is important to maintain the density of the fluid. The
viscosity is also important in bringing the drilled solids or cuttings to the surface.
Inhibition:
Chemical Properties
These affect product performance, inhibition and corrosion. The properties normally measured would be
pH, alkalinity, calcium, total hardness and chloride. Exact procedures will depend on the type of drilling
fluid in use.
Additional Properties
A large number of other properties can be determined using more sophisticated laboratory test methods
not usually available at the rig site. These include:
(1) Dynamic Filtration Properties
(2) Reservoir Damage Potential
(3) Inhibition Level
(4) Toxicity
(5) Abrasivity
(6) Corrosiveness
(7) Lubricity
(8) Temperature Stability
As the solids are broken down, there is an increase in the overall surface area (see diagram below). This causes
the entrainment of more water and thus an increase in viscosity. There is also more reaction between the
chemicals in the mud and the drilled solids, so the overall inhibition and fluid loss properties of the mud is
reduced.
Representation of the relationship between the size reduction of particles and the increase of surface area
There are several options that we can do to maintain the mud properties and continue drilling:
1) Allow the drilled solids build up in the mud system: The response will be to replace the mud with a new
batch once the mud properties deteriorate and to discharge the old mud.
2) Dilute the mud with fresh mud to keep the properties within the required specifications. The problem with
this is that the mud volume will continually build up, so discharging mud is also required.
3) Lower the solids content of the mud with the use of solids control equipment to reduce the amount of
additional mud needed to maintain the mud properties. Please note that the efficiency of the solids control
equipment is normally in between 60 to 75 %, which means 25 to 40 % of the drilled solids is retained in
the mud. Thus, dilution and addition of new mud is necessary to maintain the mud properties. Discharging
is still required once the mud volume builds, but the volume will not be as much as options 1 and 2. The
third option has both economic and environmental benefits.
Size (microns)
greater than 2000
250 to 2000
74 to 250
44 to 74
2 to 44
less than 2
Density increases.
An increase in the density results in an equivalent increase in the hydrostatic force exerted by the
column of mud on the formation, which may result in loss circulation, stuck pipe due to
differential sticking, and destabilization of the wellbore.
Inhibition decreases.
Additives which inhibit the reaction and swelling of clays and shales act by adsorbing onto the
formation. An increased solids content in the mud means that the additives will adsorb onto
the solids in the mud rather than the formation, decreasing their effectiveness. This turns into
a dangerous cycle, because if the mud is not inhibitive, then the formation may swell and cause
additional solids to enter the mud, causing a loss of control in the mud system.
Settling:
Dilution:
Dilution can take the form of water, chemical treatments or whole mud addition to maintain
and control drilling fluid properties.
Mechanical Separation
Mechanical Separation by the use of solids control equipment use two basic methods. They
either use screens to separate the solids or use centrifugal force to increase the gravity and
cause the solids to settle out of the mud.
of large &
The amount of dilution necessary depends on many factors such as the rock type being drilled, the hole
size, the type of bit used, the efficiency of the solids removal equipment, the type of mud used, and the
properties required.
2.4.4. Water Based Mud Discharge
At present the dumping of WBM and cuttings offshore is normally unrestricted, although several
countries are currently investigating the environmental impact of water based muds. Organic
enrichment does not normally take place to anything like the same extent as with oil based mud
systems. Toxicity is unlikely to cause problems as the fluids (which are water miscible) undergo massive
dilution in the water column.
The discharge of cuttings results in a thin layer of sedimented material on the sea floor around the rig
which can affect some benthic (bottom living) organisms. Any mud discharged with the cuttings will be
water miscible and thus the soluble components will be washed off during sedimentation. Material
settling on the sea floor consists of the clean, solid particulate phase (cuttings, barite, and drill solids).
There is some concern over the heavy metal content of WBM's (particularly the barite), however, the
evidence suggests that the metals of concern are generally present as highly insoluble compounds and
are not readily bioavailable
* Cut point: Size where 50% of solids are separated form the mud.
ATTACHMENTS:
C) WATER BASED MUD SYSTEMS:
(1) BENTONITE
Dispersed Gel
Pre-hydrated Gel/Sea Water
Gyp/Lignosulphonate (with pre-hydration).
Extended Bentonite
High Temperature Bentonite
Lime
Mixed Metal Hydroxide
(2) SALT WATER CLAY MUDS
Attapulgite Muds
Sepiolite Muds
Sepiolite muds used in geothermal wells (high temp).
(3) POLYMER MUDS
Nondispersed Polymer
KCl/Polyacrylamide
High Temperature Polymer
Polyglycerol
Cationic Polymer
B) COMMON MATERIALS USED IN WATER BASED MUDS:
(1) MINERALS
Polyacrylates and Copolymers of Polyacrylates: Dispersants and fluid loss control additives
Polyacrylamide (PHPA) :Shale Control Additive.
Polyglycerols :Shale Control and Lubricity.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Lubricants
Bactericides
Detergents
Defoamers
Lost Circulation Materials