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Review Article
Disorders of Fluids and Electrolytes
JulieR. Ingelfinger, M.D., Editor

An Integrated View of Potassium Homeostasis


MichelleL. Gumz, Ph.D., Lawrence Rabinowitz, Ph.D., and CharlesS. Wingo, M.D.
From the Departments of Medicine
(M.L.G., C.S.W.), Molecular Biology and
Biochemistry (M.L.G.), and Physiology
and Functional Genomics (C.S.W.), University of Florida, North FloridaSouth
Georgia Veterans Health System (C.S.W.),
and Malcom Randall Veterans Affairs
(VA) Medical Center (C.S.W.) all in
Gainesville, FL; and the Department of
Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California School of Medicine
at Davis, Davis (L.R.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Wingo at the Nephrology
Section, 111G, Malcom Randall VA Medical Center, 1601 Archer Rd., Gainesville,
FL, 32608-1197.
This article was updated on July 2, 2015,
at NEJM.org.
N Engl J Med 2015;373:60-72.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1313341
Copyright 2015 Massachusetts Medical Society.

he plasma potassium level is normally maintained within narrow limits (typically, 3.5 to 5.0 mmol per liter) by multiple mechanisms that
collectively make up potassium homeostasis. Such strict regulation is essential for a broad array of vital physiologic processes, including the resting cellularmembrane potential and the propagation of action potentials in neuronal, muscular,
and cardiac tissue, along with hormone secretion and action, vascular tone, systemic blood-pressure control, gastrointestinal motility, acidbase homeostasis,
glucose and insulin metabolism, mineralocorticoid action, renal concentrating
ability, and fluid and electrolyte balance.1-3
The importance of potassium homeostasis is underscored by the well-recognized
finding that patients with hypokalemia or hyperkalemia have an increased rate of
death from any cause.4,5 In addition, derangements of potassium homeostasis have
been associated with pathophysiologic processes, such as progression of cardiac
and kidney disease and interstitial fibrosis.1,3,6
The need for tight regulation of the extracellular level of potassium is illustrated by the potential for derangements in the level during the ingestion of a
normal meal. An average adult has approximate levels of 60 to 80 mmol of total
extracellular potassium and levels of 20 to 25 mmol of total plasma potassium.
Meals may contain more potassium than the total plasma potassium content, but
because of rapid clearance by renal and extrarenal mechanisms, the variations in
the plasma potassium level during the course of a day are commonly no greater
than 10%.7 Renal potassium excretion also has a circadian rhythm independent of
food intake and modulates other mechanisms that control potassium excretion.
Here we review the mechanisms that regulate potassium homeostasis and describe
the important role that the circadian clock exerts on these processes.
From a clinical perspective, the importance of the circadian clock is illustrated
by the benefits of timed drug administration. For example, the time of drug administration can affect the therapeutic benefit.8,9 Aldosterone and cortisol have an
endogenous circadian secretion pattern, so sampling at specific times will reduce
variability and improve clinical assessment. Moreover, the action of these hormones is influenced by the circadian clock.10 The substantial daily variation in
urinary potassium excretion justifies caution in the use of random urine sampling
to evaluate hypokalemia or hyperkalemia. Without consideration of the time of
collection, random measurement of urinary potassium may either underestimate
or overestimate the 24-hour rate of potassium excretion. Finally, the time of day
affects the adaptation to a potassium load and can be important in emergency
potassium-replacement therapy.11

P o ta ssium Homeos ta sis


Potassium homeostasis denotes the maintenance of the total body potassium content and plasma potassium level within narrow limits in the face of potentially
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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

wide variations in dietary potassium intake. It


involves two concurrent processes external
and internal. External potassium homeostasis
regulates renal potassium excretion to balance
potassium intake, minus extrarenal potassium
loss and correction for any potassium deficits.
Internal potassium regulation controls the asymmetric distribution of total body potassium with
the greater part (approximately 98%) intracellular and only a small fraction (approximately 2%)
extracellular.2 Much evidence supports the role
of the circadian clock in external homeostasis,
and some evidence indicates a role in internal
homeostasis.7,12-14

E x ter na l P o ta ssium B a l a nce


External potassium balance involves three control systems (Fig.1A). Two systems can be categorized as reactive, whereas a third system is
considered to be predictive. A negative-feedback system reacts to changes in the plasma
potassium level and regulates the potassium
balance. Potassium excretion increases in response to increases in the plasma potassium
level, leading to a decrease in the plasma level.
A reactive feed-forward system that responds to
potassium intake in a manner that is independent of changes in the systemic plasma potassium level has been recognized.2,15 Currently, the
component mechanisms remain under study and
are incompletely delineated. Because oral potassium intake was seen to produce a marked kaliuresis in the absence of effective increases in the
plasma potassium level, investigators postulated
that potassium receptors reside in the gut, hepatic portal vein, or liver.2,15 Experiments with the
use of vagotomy and hypophysectomy support
the role of vagal afferents and the pituitary as
components of this system.16,17 Evidence in animal models shows that an oral potassium load
leads to kaliuresis, but aldosterone, vasopressin,
-melanocytestimulating hormone (-MSH),
-MSH, and peptides such as glucagon-like peptide 1, guanylin, uroguanylin, and other candidate substances do not appear to be responsible.18 The nature of the kaliuretic factors requires
further investigation.
A predictive system appears to modulate the
effect of reactive systems, enhancing physiologic
mechanisms at the time of day when food intake
characteristically occurs typically, during the
day in humans and at night in nocturnal ro-

dents.7 This predictive system is driven by a circadian oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nucleus
of the brain and is entrained to the ambient
lightdark cycle. The central oscillator (clock)
entrains intracellular clocks in the kidney that
generate the cyclic changes in excretion. When
food intake is evenly distributed over 24 hours,
and physical activity and ambient light are held
constant, this system produces a cyclic variation
in potassium excretion.7,13,19
After the ingestion of a meal, the feed-forward
system induces kaliuresis.20-22 If the quantity of
potassium is sufficient to increase the plasma
potassium level, the feedback system is activated.20-22 Intake can vary widely throughout the
day. Although the circadian clock and potassium
intake from meals alter potassium excretion
rapidly (24 hours), potassium excretion responds
appropriately with intake. For example, under
normal conditions in persons who consume four
equal meals at 6-hour intervals, meal-induced
kaliuresis is greater during the day than at
night.23 However, balance studies show that with
large, prolonged step increases or decreases in
potassium intake, potassium balance may not be
fully achieved for several days.

In ter na l P o ta ssium Homeos ta sis


Internal potassium homeostasis is the maintenance of an asymmetric distribution of total
body potassium between the intracellular and
extracellular fluid. This occurs by the balance of
active cellular uptake by sodiumpotassium adenosine triphosphatase, an enzyme that pumps
sodium out of cells while pumping potassium
into cells (called the sodiumpotassium pump
rate), and passive potassium efflux (called the
leak rate). Case 1 illustrates the dramatic effect
of derangements in the proper coupling between
potassium pump and leak rates (Box 1).
Little increase in the plasma potassium level
occurs during potassium absorption from the gut
in normal persons owing to potassium excretion
by the kidney and potassium sequestration by
the liver and muscle (Fig.1A). Between meals,
the plasma potassium level is nearly constant, as
potassium excretion is balanced by the release of
sequestered intracellular potassium (Fig.1B).
Potassium depletion primarily involves a loss of
potassium from muscle, although it may be reflected in reductions in the plasma potassium
level. When the potassium loss is corrected,

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A Meal-Driven Potassium Excretion


Circadian regulation
Potassium
intake

Ambient
lightdark cycle

Potassium
sequestration in
liver and skeletal
muscle

Brain-originated
circadian rhythm
Splanchnic
sensors activated

Plasma
potassium

Decreased
level

Brain-to-kidney
entrainment, creating
tubule-cell circadian rhythm

Negative feedback
regulation

Feed-forward
regulation

Increased
level
Signals from
vagus nerve

Signals from gut

Meal-driven kidney
potassium excretion

Gut kaliuretic
factors?
Brain kaliuretic
factors?

B Fasting Potassium Excretion


Circadian regulation
Potassium
intake

Ambient
lightdark cycle

Release of sequestered
potassium from liver and
skeletal muscle

Brain-originated
circadian rhythm

Splanchnic
sensors activated

Plasma
potassium

Brain-to-kidney
entrainment, creating
tubule-cell circadian rhythm

Feed-forward
regulation

Signals from
vagus nerve

Signals from gut

Between-meal fasting
potassium excretion

Gut kaliuretic
factors?
Brain kaliuretic
factors?

Figure 1. Overview of Potassium Homeostasis.


Shown are the known mechanisms that regulate external potassium balance and the pathways for net potassium
movement associated with meal-driven potassium intake (Panel A) and with between-meal fasting (Panel B). Mealdriven potassium intake initiates both an increase in potassium excretion and sequestration of potassium in liver and
skeletal muscle. Increased excretion is driven by reactive mechanisms, which can be either dependent on the plasma
potassium level (negative-feedback regulation) or independent of the plasma potassium level (feed-forward regulation)
initiated at splanchnic receptors. The circadian rhythm drives a predictive regulation of the tubule mechanisms responsible for potassium excretion, generated by a central clock and transmitted to circadian clocks in the tubule cells responsible for variations in potassium excretion. This rhythm enhances excretion during the active daylight phase and diminishes it during the inactive nighttime phase. In combination, these components provide maintenance of total body
potassium levels within narrow limits without appreciable changes in the plasma potassium level. Between periods
of meal intake, potassium is released from intracellular stores (primarily liver and skeletal muscle) for excretion.

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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

Box 1. Case 1.
Case 1 illustrates the dramatic effect of derangements in the proper coupling between potassium-pump rates and potassiumleak rates.
An 11-year-old boy was admitted for evaluation of hypokalemia and muscle weakness. He awoke at 3:00 a.m. with
paralysis of the lower limbs and severe weakness in both upper limbs, with a muscle-strength grade of 1, on a scale of 0
(lowest) to 5 (highest). His mother called for an ambulance. The patient had a history of having similar episodes approximately three to four times per year, frequently in the early morning. Most attacks were less severe than this one, but a recent episode had prompted admission for near paralysis and hypokalemia. The attacks were characterized by weakness,
principally in the thighs with occasional involvement of the upper limbs. None were associated with loss of consciousness.
On admission (5:00 a.m., 2 hours after the beginning of the episode), the patients plasma potassium level was 1.6 mmol
per liter, and he promptly received 40 mmol of potassium chloride by mouth. After approximately 90 minutes without
relief of the paralysis, 40 mmol per liter of potassium chloride was infused in 0.9% saline intravenously over 2 hours.
However, this treatment did not substantially increase the plasma potassium level (1.7 mmol per liter). The patient received an additional 100 mmol of potassium chloride by mouth at the completion of the intravenous potassium chloride
infusion. His muscle strength improved, and the plasma potassium level increased to 2.2 mmol per liter by 11:45 a.m.
His strength improved progressively. The plasma potassium level increased to 5.4 mmol per liter at 2:40 p.m. but decreased to 4.0 mmol per liter by 4:15 p.m. Subsequent plasma potassium values remained between 3.7 and 4.8 mmol per
liter, and by 11:00 p.m. (20 hours after the beginning of the episode), the patient had recovered most of his strength and
his symptoms had largely abated. The results of subsequent laboratory testing for levels of triiodothyronine and free thyroxine were normal. The patient was prescribed acetazolamide and potassium chloride tablets and a high-potassium diet.
This case illustrates one form of periodic paralysis with profound hypokalemia. Although quite rare, this disease provides substantial insight into the principal factors that dictate the plasma potassium level.24 In the absence of exogenous
potassium administration, the plasma potassium level fell precipitously during an attack as cellular potassium uptake
exceeded potassium leak from cells, principally skeletal muscle. In such cases, cautious use of potassium is generally
recommended because the hypokalemia does not reflect potassium deficiency but rather transcellular potassium redistribution.25 During attacks, the balance between cellular pump potassium uptake and potassium efflux is shifted to an
increase in cellular potassium uptake relative to potassium efflux. As this case illustrates, during the peak of the attack
(between 3:00 a.m. and 8:00 a.m.), plasma potassium values may remain depressed despite substantial potassium administration.
Periodic paralysis encompasses cases associated with episodic muscle weakness or paralysis.26,27 Many of these cases
are hereditary, typically with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern hence the designation of familial periodic
paralysis. Both hypokalemic and hyperkalemic forms of familial periodic paralysis exist, although the increase in the
plasma potassium level is typically small and may not exceed the normal range in the latter.
Hypokalemic familial periodic paralysis typically presents in the first two decades of life, with attacks typically lasting
several hours; the attacks may be brief or last for several days. Factors that are implicated in the precipitation of attacks
include stress, strenuous exercise, and carbohydrate-rich meals. Two genetically distinct mutations account for the majority of the familial cases and are due to a mutation in the gene encoding either skeletal muscle calcium channel 1 subunit
(CACNA1) or skeletal muscle sodium channel voltage-gated type IV subunit (SCN4A).
Hyperkalemic familial periodic paralysis usually presents earlier in life than hypokalemic familial periodic paralysis,
frequently in infancy or early childhood, with episodes of transient paralysis. Factors that are implicated in the precipitation of attacks include exposure to cold temperature, fasting, rest after exercise, and potassium ingestion. Mutations in
SCN4A are known to produce this condition.
Thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis is an uncommon manifestation of thyrotoxicosis that is characterized by
abrupt development of hypokalemia and episodes of muscular weakness. Its incidence is substantially greater in Asians
than in non-Asians, and most patients present in their 20s or 30s.28 Although there is a higher incidence of hyperthyroidism in women than in men, the development of periodic paralysis associated with hyperthyroidism is more frequent in
men. A recent study indicates that loss of function of the skeletal musclespecific potassium channel Kir2.6 may contribute to this disorder.29
The differential diagnosis of hypokalemic paralysis should include nonperiodic paralysis and periodic paralysis that
can be familial or sporadic. Other more common conditions should be considered in patients presenting with hypokalemia and paralysis, including renal tubular acidosis. In one series, renal tubular acidosis was the most frequent cause of
hypokalemia with paralysis.30,31 This is particularly the case if there is substantial potassium depletion or if provoked by
high-carbohydrate caloric sources.32 Autoimmune disorders such as Sjgrens syndrome and pernicious anemia should
also alert the clinician to the possibility of renal tubular acidosis and potassium depletion as potential causes of hypokalemic paralysis.31,33

potassium retention from intake replaces the


deficit.2,15
Insulin, catecholamines, and mineralocorticoids stimulate potassium uptake into muscle
and other tissues. Absorption of meal-derived
glucose stimulates insulin secretion with a consequent insulin-driven potassium uptake in muscle. The effectiveness of insulin in the treatment
of hyperkalemia depends on its capacity to drive

potassium into skeletal muscle, thereby decreasing the plasma potassium level. In the absence
of a change in the total body potassium content,
severe hypokalemia may result from a minor
increase in intracellular potassium as a result of
a resetting of pumpleak kinetics.34 The pump
leak kinetics are not altered by short-term elevations in aldosterone but are reset by chronic
mineralocorticoid stimulation, which reduces

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Box 2. Case 2.
Case 2 illustrates the importance of glucose and insulin to extrarenal potassium homeostasis and to maintenance of the plasma
potassium level.
A 35-year-old woman presented with nausea, vomiting, and muscle weakness for the past several days. Before this
episode, she had had a good appetite. Her medical history was unremarkable except for a previous diagnosis of nephrolithiasis. She had a 15-year pack-history of smoking tobacco and reported taking no prescription medicines, diuretics, or
nonprescription or other drugs, including laxatives.
Her blood pressure was 108/88 mm Hg, and the heart rate was 110 beats per minute; respirations were unlabored,
and she was afebrile. The chest and cardiovascular examination was normal. Muscle strength was initially judged to be
modestly reduced, with a score of 3 out of 5. The results of initial laboratory tests were as follows: a normal differential
blood count; sodium, 137 mmol per liter; potassium, 1.6 mmol per liter; chloride, 108 mmol per liter; bicarbonate, 16 mmol
per liter; anion gap, 13; blood urea nitrogen, 10 mg per deciliter (3.6 mmol per liter); creatinine, 0.8 mg per deciliter (71 mol
per liter); arterial blood pH, 7.32; and partial pressure of carbon dioxide, 25 mm Hg. On urinalysis, the urine pH was 7.5,
specific gravity 1.005, with no leukocytes, protein, blood, or nitrites. Electrocardiography revealed prominent U waves.
Nephrocalcinosis was confirmed on renal ultrasonography and intravenous pyelography.
She was treated with intravenous potassium (40 mmol per liter) in 5% glucose and oral potassium (40 mmol). Severe
muscle weakness (grade 1 out of 5) ensued, and a repeat plasma potassium level was 1.2 mmol per liter. The patient
was admitted to the intensive care unit for close observation and electrolyte replacement. Potassium replacement was
continued intravenously as 40 to 60 mmol of potassium chloride per liter in normal saline, and the plasma potassium
level increased to 3.6 mmol per liter. The patients muscle strength rapidly returned to normal. Subsequent evaluation
confirmed the diagnosis of hypokalemic (type I) distal renal tubular acidosis. On hospital discharge, she was prescribed
25 ml of potassium citrate and citric acid oral solution four times daily. At a follow-up visit 2 weeks later, she had no
symptoms and had normal plasma electrolytes.
This case illustrates a potentially life-threatening complication that can ensue from administration of intravenous
glucose solutions (despite potassium-replacement therapy) to patients with potassium depletion.32 The glucose-enhanced
insulin secretion results in rapid stimulation of cellular potassium uptake. Life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias and worsening muscle weakness can develop during the infusion of potassium with glucose in the treatment of hypokalemia. The
infusion of glucose reduces the plasma potassium level in both healthy persons and in those with hypokalemia, but the
complications can be more serious when hypokalemia or potassium depletion is present. In the correction of potassium
depletion, oral administration of potassium is recommended if practicable. If intravenous potassium repletion is used,
it should be in glucose-free solutions, to avoid neuromuscular paralysis or cardiac arrhythmias.

the plasma potassium level in the absence of


discernable changes in the total body potassium
content.34-36 Such actions contribute largely to
the reductions in plasma potassium associated
with increased secretion or administration of
aldosterone. Nevertheless, supraphysiologic rates
of aldosterone secretion, as in primary hyperaldosteronism, may be associated with potassium
depletion. Case 2 illustrates the importance of
extrarenal potassium homeostasis to the maintenance of the plasma potassium level (Box 2).

A ber r a n t P o ta ssium
Homeos ta sis
The concurrent activities of the external and internal systems act to maintain the plasma potassium
level within narrow limits. However, in clinical
practice, clinicians often encounter deviations
from normal levels when potassium intake is
greatly altered. Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia
frequently occur as the result of nonhomeostatic
processes that are not regulated by changes in
the potassium balance. These processes increase
or decrease potassium excretion but not in response to changes in potassium intake (e.g.,
64

action of diuretics, alterations in acidbase balance, or impaired kidney function) or limit the
capacity of the kidney to compensate (e.g., in
chronic kidney disease).

R ena l P o ta ssium H a ndl ing


The healthy kidney has a robust capacity to excrete potassium, and under normal conditions,
most persons can ingest very large quantities of
potassium (400 mmol per day or more) without
clinically significant hyperkalemia.23,37 Potassium
that is filtered at the glomerulus is largely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and the loop of
Henle. Consequently, the rate of renal potassium
excretion is determined mainly by the difference
between potassium secretion and potassium reabsorption in the cortical distal nephron and
collecting duct. Both of these processes are
regulated potassium ingestion stimulates
potassium secretion and inhibits potassium reabsorption.2,38 Factors that regulate potassium
secretion and reabsorption can be divided into
those that serve to preserve potassium balance
(homeostatic) and those that affect potassium
excretion without intrinsically acting to preserve

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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

Table 1. Factors Regulating Potassium Secretion and Potassium Reabsorption.


Change

Potassium Secretion
Homeostatic

Potassium Reabsorption

Contra-homeostatic

Homeostatic

Contra-homeostatic

Increases
effect

Potassium loading
Aldosterone in the
presence of
hyperkalemia

Increased luminal flow rate


Increased luminal sodium delivery
Decreased luminal chloride
Exogenous mineralocorticoid agonists, fludrocortisone, diuretics
Metabolic alkalosis

Potassium restriction
and depletion
Progesterone

Acidosis
Exogenous mineralocorticoid agonists (e.g.,
fludrocortisone)

Decreases
effect

Potassium restriction
and depletion

Decreased luminal flow rate


Decreased luminal sodium delivery
Drugs that inhibit sodium absorption (e.g., amiloride, triamterene, trimethoprim, pentamidine, digitalis)
Inhibitors of reninangiotensin
aldosterone system (RAAS)*
Potassium-channel inhibitors and
other mechanisms, including
metabolic acidosis, cyclooxygenase inhibitors (nonsteroidal
antiinflammatory drugs), and
calcineurin inhibitors

Potassium loading
Tissue kallikrein

Inhibitors of reninangiotensinaldosterone
system (RAAS)

* RAAS inhibitors include those that affect aldosterone synthesis (e.g., heparin); those that affect aldosterone regulation, including the inhibition
of renin secretion (e.g., beta-blockers, cyclooxygenase inhibitors), direct renin inhibitors (e.g., aliskiren), angiotensin-convertingenzyme inhibitors (e.g., captopril), and angiotensin IIreceptor blockers (e.g., losartan); and those that affect aldosterone action, including mineralocorticoid receptor blockers (e.g., spironolactone, eplerenone).

potassium balance (contra-homeostatic) (Table1).


Examples of the latter include flow rate in the
renal tubular lumen and the luminal sodium
level. The acidbase balance also affects potassium excretion. The predominant effect of acidosis is to inhibit potassium clearance, whereas
the predominant effect of alkalosis is to stimulate potassium clearance. Cases 3 and 4 illustrate the evaluation of hypokalemia from renal
and extrarenal causes (Box 3).
The mechanisms for potassium secretion and
reabsorption in the collecting duct are shown in
Figure2. Apical cellular sodium entry through
the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) promotes active basolateral cellular
potassium uptake in exchange for sodium extrusion by the sodiumpotassium pump. Apical
sodium entry through ENaC depolarizes the
apical membrane, which stimulates potassium
secretion through apical potassium channels.
Functional cotransport of potassium chloride also
effects potassium secretion and is particularly
important when the luminal chloride level is
substantially reduced, as in the administration
of a non-reabsorbable anion or during chloridedependent metabolic alkalosis.2

Active potassium reabsorption is driven by


an apical membrane protonpotassium pump
(Fig.2). The activity of this pump is pH-sensitive
and activated by acidosis,42-44 potassium restriction,45 and mineralocorticoids.34 The mineralocorticoid effect may explain the lack of substantial renal potassium loss with chronic
mineralocorticoid stimulation.34-36,46 Thus, mineralocorticoids can enhance potassium reabsorption or secretion depending on the potassium
balance.

The Circ a di a n Cl o ck
in Cel lul a r Ph ysiol o gy
In vertebrates, a central clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain and peripheral clocks
that are present in virtually all cells regulate
circadian rhythms.47 Although ablation of the
suprachiasmatic nucleus disrupts many circadian
rhythms, particularly those related to activity,
the circadian rhythm of potassium excretion is
preserved, presumably due to continued activity
of renal-cell clocks. Indeed, this rhythm persists
after adrenalectomy and requires no environmental stimuli.7,48,49

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Box 3. Cases 3 and 4.


Cases 3 and 4 illustrate the approach to hypokalemia of renal and extrarenal origin and the response to therapy.
In Case 3, a 32-year-old man was referred to the nephrology clinic because of persistent hypokalemia. The patient was a construction
worker who had no known medical illnesses until a job-related laceration required medical attention. In the emergency department, blood
was obtained for type and cross-matching, complete blood count, and measurement of electrolytes. Hemostasis was obtained, but the laboratory reported a panic value for the plasma potassium level of 1.8 mmol per liter, and the patient was transferred to the intensive care unit
for intravenous potassium replacement.
Over the next 72 hours, the patient received approximately 500 mmol of potassium. The plasma potassium level increased initially to 2.1
to 2.2 mmol per liter and remained essentially constant thereafter at 2.5 to 2.7 mmol per liter, despite intravenous infusion of more than 180
mmol of potassium chloride for 72 hours. The failure to correct the plasma potassium level suggested a renal cause of the hypokalemia. The
patient was prescribed 80 mmol of potassium chloride per day and a high-potassium diet and was referred to the nephrology unit.
The patient had minimal symptoms and reported having only mild muscle cramps and weakness during the summer months, which usually did not interfere with his work or activities. The blood pressure was 108/72 mm Hg, the pulse 68 beats per minutes and regular, and the
respiratory rate 14 breaths per minute and unlabored; the patient was afebrile. The patient was a muscular man with no abnormalities on
physical examination. Electrolytes values were as follows: sodium, 141 mmol per liter; potassium, 2.8 mmol per liter; chloride, 95 mmol per
liter; bicarbonate, 31 mmol per liter; creatinine, 0.7 mg per deciliter (62 mol per liter); blood urea nitrogen, 14 mg per deciliter (5.0 mmol
per liter); glucose, 92 mg per deciliter (5.1 mmol per liter); calcium, 9.2 mg per deciliter (2.3 mmol per liter); phosphorus, 4.6 mg per deciliter
(1.5 mmol per liter); and magnesium, 1.1 mg per deciliter (0.45 mmol per liter). Urinalysis and renal ultrasonography were normal. The 24hour creatinine clearance was 102 ml per minute. He was prescribed a potassium-rich diet, oral potassium chloride (at a dose of 200 mmol
per day), and magnesium oxide (400 to 800 mg as tolerated).
A 24-hour urine collection showed a potassium excretion consistent with his prescribed regimen and the absence of detectable diuretics
on multiple clinic visits, but the plasma potassium level ranged from 2.7 to 2.9 mmol per liter. Gitelmans syndrome was diagnosed. The addition of amiloride (5 mg per day) had a marginal effect on increasing the plasma potassium level. Spironolactone (25 mg per day) was added to his regimen with only a small effect on the plasma potassium level, which ranged from 3.1 to 3.3 mmol per liter, but was discontinued
because of unacceptable side effects. The patient has been followed for more than 25 years with normal renal function and plasma potassium
values of 2.9 to 3.2 mmol per liter.
This case illustrates that the phenotype of Gitelmans syndrome can be relatively mild. The diagnosis of Gitelmans syndrome is usually
made in the third decade of life and typically later than the diagnosis of Bartters syndrome. Muscle cramps and weakness associated with a
variable degree of impairment in daily activities are the most common symptoms. However, debilitating muscle weakness and cramps,
symptoms related to hypotension, paresthesia, and frank paralysis are known to occur.39,40
In contrast to the hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia that can be seen with diuretic use, in which case correction of the hypomagnesemia
may allow for correction of the hypokalemia, both the hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia were resistant to correction by oral supplementation. The effect of increasing potassium intake in this patient is in clear distinction to that of the fourth patient, in whom the origin of the hypokalemia was extrarenal.
In Case 4, a 58-year-old woman was admitted for treatment of hypokalemia. She had seen her physician earlier and received a message to
seek medical attention because her plasma potassium level was 2.0 mmol per liter. The patient had no history of abnormal blood electrolytes
until approximately 3 years earlier, when she was noted to have intermittent hypokalemia. In the emergency department, the patient reported
fatigue but otherwise was in no acute distress. She reported no use of laxatives, diuretics, or nonprescription medicine except for occasional
ibuprofen for back pain, but she had not taken it during the past week.
Renal and electrolyte laboratory tests in the emergency department were as follows: sodium, 142 mmol per liter; potassium, 2.1 mmol
per liter; chloride, 104 mmol per liter; bicarbonate, 29 mmol per liter; blood urea nitrogen, 15 mg per deciliter (5.4 mmol per liter); creatinine,
1.5 mg per deciliter (133 mol per liter); glucose, 77 mg per deciliter (4.3 mmol per liter); calcium, 8.5 mg per deciliter (2.1 mmol per liter);
and magnesium, less than 0.4 mg per deciliter (<0.16 mmol per liter). Repeat electrolyte measurements confirmed the presence of hypokalemia (potassium, 2.1 mmol per liter) and hypomagnesemia (magnesium, <0.4 mg per deciliter).
Potassium chloride was administered (60 mmol orally and 40 mmol intravenously), along with 16 mmol of magnesium sulfate. On repeat
measurement, the potassium level was 2.5 mmol per liter, and magnesium was 3 mg per deciliter.
The nephrology department was consulted for the possibility of Bartters or Gitelmans syndrome. The physical examination was unremarkable. Renal ultrasonography showed normal-sized kidneys and no obstruction. Determination of the rate of urine potassium excretion
and continued potassium replacement was recommended.
The urinary potassium excretion over a 24-hour period was approximately 12 mmol. She received 60 mmol of potassium chloride orally
and 50 mmol of potassium chloride intravenously. Over the subsequent 24 hours, she received an additional 30 mmol of potassium chloride
intravenously and 160 mmol orally. The urine potassium excretion increased to approximately 42 mmol during a 24-hour period, the plasma
potassium level increased to 3.7 mmol per liter, and the plasma magnesium level was 2.7 mg per deciliter. She subsequently admitted that
she had been using laxatives as a weight-control measure for several months. She was discharged with normal plasma potassium and magnesium levels, and her renal function had returned to its baseline value.
This case illustrates the challenges confronting the physician in the diagnosis of hypokalemia. The use of laxatives and diuretics and surreptitious vomiting are frequent causes of unexplained hypokalemia, and the patient may be reluctant to disclose this information. The concurrent hypomagnesemia also suggests the possibility of the use of diuretics or laxatives as an explanation for the hypokalemia. Under normal conditions, renal adaptation to a potassium-poor diet will result in urinary potassium excretion of less than 20 mmol per 24 hours, and
the collection on the first hospital day provides strong evidence that the source of the hypokalemia is not of renal origin. Chloride excretion
among patients consuming a typical Western diet will usually reflect sodium chloride intake. In contrast, patients with surreptitious vomiting
often have low urinary chloride excretion (typically, <20 mmol per 24 hours and frequently <10 mmol per 24 hours), a finding rarely seen under normal conditions unless the intake of sodium chloride is drastically reduced.41
If prompt and substantial potassium replacement occurs before the measurement of urinary potassium excretion, the rate of potassium
excretion may exceed 20 mmol per day and could lead to the misinterpretation that the hypokalemia is of renal origin. The correction of the
hypokalemia in the present case with moderate potassium administration makes Gitelmans or Bartters syndrome unlikely.

66

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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

Epithelial
Na+ channel

Na+
DUCT LUMEN

3Na+

K+/Cl transporter

Na+/K+ATPase

Cl
PRINCIPAL CELL

K+ channel

K+

K+

2K+

K+ channel

K+

H-ATPase

H+

H+

Cl

H+/K+ATPase

Cl channel

K channel
+

K+
3Na+

-INTERCALATED CELL

K+ channel

Na+/K+ATPase

K+

VESSEL LUMEN

HCO3

HCO3/Cl exchanger

Cl

2K+

Cl channel

Cl
Figure 2. Model of the Major Cell Types of the Cortical Collecting Duct.
Shown are important potassium ion (K+) transport proteins of the principal cell and the -intercalated cell, illustrating the mechanism of active potassium secretion and active potassium reabsorption. In principal cells, potassium is
actively pumped into the cell from the peritubular fluid by basolateral sodiumpotassium adenosine triphosphatase
(Na+/K+ -ATPase, also called sodiumpotassium pump) and is secreted at the apical membrane by potassium channels and by functional potassium chloride (K+/Cl ) cotransporters. (The sodiumpotassium pump moves out three
sodium ions [3NA+] and moves in two potassium ions [2K+], thus removing one positive charge.) In the -intercalated
cell, potassium is actively absorbed from the lumen and can exit the cell apically during potassium-replete states or
basolaterally during conditions of potassium deficiency. The collecting duct is part of the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron, which also includes the distal convoluted tubule and connecting segment. These segments also have
the capacity for substantial net potassium secretion.

Among the many physiologic functions in


humans that show circadian rhythms, few are
more consistent and stable than the circadian
rhythm of urinary potassium excretion.7,50 Increasing potassium intake magnifies the amplitude of this rhythm, but the intrinsic circadian
periodicity is retained (Fig. 3).23 For example,
after transatlantic air travel, the circadian rhythm
of renal potassium excretion adjusts slowly over
several days and finally resynchronizes to the
local daynight cycle.7,51
The magnitude of the daily change in the
clock-driven rate of renal potassium excretion
n engl j med 373;1

can be substantial. For example, during human


consumption of a high-potassium diet (400 mmol
per day), potassium excretion can increase by a
factor of approximately 1.6 from nadir to maximum within a 24-hour period, even though
similar meals may be evenly spaced throughout
the day. Greater variations by a factor of 2 to 4
may be present during normal potassium
intake.23
This circadian rhythm of potassium excretion
can serve to minimize the change in the potassium content of extracellular fluid. For example,
in one study, intravenous administration of po-

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67

The

n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l

m e dic i n e

400 mmol/day

25

Urinary Potassium Excretion


(mmol/hr)

of

100 mmol/day

Noon

Noon

100 mmol/day

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Noon

Time

Figure 3. Circadian Rhythm of Urinary Potassium Excretion in Humans during Two Levels of Potassium Intake.
Shown is the approximate hourly rate of urinary potassium excretion (based on urine collections every 6 hours) in
multiple patients receiving four identical meals every 6 hours, with a normal amount of potassium (100 mmol per day)
for the first 2 days, a high-potassium diet (400 mmol per day) for the next 6 days, and a normal amount of potassium
for the next 4 days. Rapid renal potassium adaptation occurs in response to either an increase or a decrease in potassium intake. The hourly rate of potassium excretion over a 24-hour period varies from noon, when the largest rate of potassium excretion typically occurs (midpoint of the white bar on the x axis), to midnight, when it is typically the least
(midpoint of the black bar). This circadian variation is approximately 40% in persons consuming a high-potassium
diet and by approximately 300% in persons consuming a normal level of potassium. This circadian rhythm occurs
despite evenly spaced meals every 6 hours during a 24-hour period. Data are adapted from Rabelink et al.23

tassium at noon (when clock-driven potassium


excretion was near its maximum and food intake
typically occurs) resulted in a smaller increase in
the plasma potassium level than when the same
amount of potassium was administered at midnight (when clock-driven potassium excretion
was minimal).11 Potassium homeostasis, therefore, is not merely due to input-mediated systems but is also modulated by the central and
peripheral circadian clocks.
The molecular mechanism that produces these
rhythmic oscillations remained unknown until
seminal work in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, showed that mutations in a single gene
could affect circadian activity.52 Subsequent work
by many investigators over nearly three decades
established that core circadian-clock genes encode transcription factors.47,53-55 These proteins
control a transcription-translation feedback
loop that is the core component of the circadian
clock (Fig.4).53,56 Control of the circadian clock
is robust and redundant so that the disruption
of single genes may have little effect on clock
activity.57,58
Mutations in critical clock proteins in vertebrates can also influence the circadian behavior
in animals. In the golden hamster, the tau mutation in the gene encoding casein kinase 1 epsi68

lon causes profound disturbances in activity and


sleepwake patterns when the animals are
housed in total darkness. This mutation results
in a defective casein kinase 1 epsilon, a kinase
that is known to alter the period of the circadian
oscillator.59,60 Thus, the circadian clock has posttranslational mechanisms that affect the circadian cycle (Fig.4).47
The molecular components that regulate the
core elements of the circadian clock are remarkably similar in widely differing organisms, from
drosophila to humans, both in terms of structure and function (Table S1 in the Supplementary Appendix, available with the full text of this
article at NEJM.org).55,58,60,61 Such similarity across
highly diverse species indicates that the circadian clock serves a critical physiologic role.62,63 In
mammals, as in drosophila, BMAL1 (brain and
muscle Arnt-like protein 1) and its cognate binding partner CLOCK (circadian locomotor output
cycles kaput) bind to specific DNA sequences,
referred to as E-box response elements, that are
critical for circadian clockmediated gene transcription. Several studies have suggested that
nearly 50% of tissue-specific gene expression
has a circadian variation.64-67 The circadian clock
also modulates the activity of genes that regulate potassium homeostasis.64,68-71 In particular,

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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

P
PER

PER

NR1D1
CSNK1E
RORA
BMAL1
PERs/CRYs

RORB

CLOCK

BMAL1
CLOCK

RORA/B

PER13
CRY12

NR1D1

Figure 4. Molecular Mechanism of the Mammalian Circadian Clock.


The core cycle is shown on the right, with an increase in the amount of period circadian clock proteins 1 through 3
(PER13) and cryptochrome proteins 1 and 2 (CRY12) throughout the day, which acts to suppress their transcription.
The red diamonds represent repressor proteins, and the blue ovals, activator proteins. Both activators and repressors are transcription factors or transcription regulators. The rectangles represent genes that encode the respective
proteins. CSNK1E encodes casein kinase 1 epsilon, a kinase that is known to alter the period of the circadian oscillator through the phosphorylation (P) of core clock proteins, as shown. CSNK1E (also called CK1) is shown in gray
because it is neither a transcriptional activator nor a repressor. BMAL1 (also called ARNTL) denotes aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like protein 1, CLOCK clock circadian regulator, NR1D1 (also called REV-ERB)
nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 1, and ROR retinoic acid receptorrelated orphan receptor.

mice that are deficient in the gene encoding


CLOCK have substantial disruption in normal
circadian rhythms for renal potassium and sodium excretion and the plasma aldosterone level.71
Since the CLOCK knockout was global, cellspecific disruption of the protein will be necessary to determine the cell types that sustain the
circadian pattern of potassium excretion, sodium
excretion, and plasma aldosterone. Other core
clock proteins also affect these rhythmic oscillations. For example, mice that are deficient in the
genes encoding two cryptochrome proteins,
CRY1 and CRY2, have salt-sensitive hypertension
owing to excessive aldosterone synthesis, which
supports the role of the circadian clock in steroidogenesis.72

n engl j med 373;1

Cl o ck S y nchroni z at ion
a nd Hor mone Signa l ing
The timing signals from the central clock to the
peripheral clocks remain uncertain, but adrenal
corticosteroids and agents from other loci have
been proposed or identified.10,73 Circadian rhythm
can also influence the action of both aldosterone
and cortisol on renal function. Mills and coworkers found that aldosterone consistently enhanced sodium retention and that cortisol consistently enhanced potassium excretion regardless
of the time of day. However, aldosterone increased potassium excretion modestly in the
afternoon and had no substantial effect in the
morning or at night.10 Thus, in these studies, a
kaliuretic effect of aldosterone was apparently
dependent on the phase of the circadian cycle.
Although the action of cortisol in promoting
potassium excretion would suggest a direct

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69

The

n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l

(nonclock) hormonal effect, studies by MooreEde and colleagues indicate that cortisol serves
as a clock synchronizer.73 Specifically, the squirrel monkey has a prominent circadian pattern of
urinary potassium excretion that is unaffected
by adrenalectomy. Adrenalectomized animals
receiving a single morning infusion of cortisol
had a significant increase in potassium excretion that was similar to that in intact animals,
but when the cortisol was administered 8 hours
later, a gradual shift in the time of peak potassium excretion occurred over 72 hours. These
early observations are consistent with molecular
observations that glucocorticoids can act as a
zeitgeber (time giver, or synchronizing signal).74
In one study, cortisol was shown to act in the
synchronization of some peripheral clocks, including those in the kidney, with the suprachiasmatic nucleus central clock.75 Dexamethasone
transiently changed the phase of circadian gene
expression in liver, kidney, and heart.76 Cortisol
acts as a strong synchronizing signal for most
peripheral circadian oscillators, including the
kidney.74 These studies provide a molecular basis
for the observations by Moore-Ede et al.12,73 and
suggest that glucocorticoids serve as an important signal that coordinates the central and
specific peripheral clocks.
Aldosterone also affects certain circadian
clocks and, in particular, acutely induces the expression of period circadian clock 1 (PER1) in the
kidney. PER1 stimulates the expression of the alpha subunit of ENaC (ENaC), a finding that
isconsistent with the effect of aldosterone in
enhancing sodium retention and, consequently,
sodium balance.77 Underscoring this effect, PER1null mice have a substantially lower systemic
blood pressure than wild-type controls.78 The
molecular mechanisms that are responsible for
circadian rhythms have been studied in mice that
are deficient in core clock genes. These studies
have identified a substantial number of renally
expressed potassium channels and transporters
as potential candidate genes that contribute to the
circadian variation of potassium excretion.69
The effects of cortisol (or its analogues) and
aldosterone on circadian-clock genes can be
blocked by glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoidreceptor antagonists, respectively, indicating that
they act through their respective nuclear hormone receptors. Other members of the nuclear

70

of

m e dic i n e

hormone receptor superfamily also appear to be


connected to the circadian clock.79,80 For example,
the clock-controlled gene ATP12A (also called
HK2) is also under control of the progesterone
receptor.81 Intriguingly, one regulator of the
circadian clock is adenosine monophosphate
kinase,66 and activation of this kinase produces
substantial hypokalemia that is largely due to
redistribution.82 Whether this effect involves the
circadian clock deserves further investigation.15
Finally, potassium depletion produces striking pathological changes in the kidney, including interstitial fibrosis.83,84 The tau mutation in
the golden hamster reduces life span and produces profound cardiorenal disease associated
with scarring and fibrosis in heterozygotes, but
not homozygotes, when maintained on a 24-hour
lightdark cycle.85 Surprisingly, when the animals
were subjected to their endogenous 22-hour
lightdark cycle, longevity was restored without
cardiorenal disease. Future studies should examine how clock mutations may contribute to
chronic cardiac or renal disease.

C onclusions
Circadian clocks are involved in many fundamental cellular processes and exert important
control over physiologic functions. A striking
degree of conservation of the core elements of
the circadian clock exists from bread mold to
fruit fly and from mice to humans.
In humans, there are marked, transient, mealrelated increases in renal potassium excretion
that depend on rapid changes in active potassium
secretion and reabsorption in the distal nephron. These reactive responses are superimposed
on a predictive enhancement of these transport
mechanisms that occurs at the time of day when
meal intake conventionally occurs. This predictive component of potassium homeostasis involves circadian rhythms generated by tubulecell circadian clocks, which are synchronized
with the central circadian clock in the brain.
Much remains to be learned about both reactive
and predictive mechanisms of potassium homeostasis and their integration.
Dr. Wingo reports receiving consulting fees from ZS Pharma.
No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was
reported.
Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with
the full text of this article at NEJM.org.

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an integr ated view of potassium homeostasis

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