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Certified that this project entitled ³YV

   


submitted by
  !"#$%
$& '(!"#
$$& )!%* + ,
$- $&$
$&. $&," 
%as a part of course
curriculum for B.Tech.(Electronics & communication Engineering)
Degree of Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, is a record of student¶s
own study carried under my supervision & guidance.

This report has not been submitted to any other university or institution
for the award of any degree.
HOD : Under the guidance of :

Er.Rajnish GargEr. M.K. Soni

HOD ECE(Deptt.) Lect. ECE(Deptt.)

V#/ 

~e feel honored to have worked under the able guidance of our Lect.
Mr. M.K. Soni.
~e are particularly grateful to Mr. Rajnish garg (HOD ECE) & Mr.
Amit Gupta (Sr. Lect. ECE) for there valuable advice and timely
suggestions in helping us overcome all sorts of problems.
~e extend our heartiest thanks to the entire staff members who gave
suggestions during the development of the project.

Ashish Goel(2206020)
Kanwal Singh(2206049)
Krishan Rangi(2206050)
|||||||||

| |
 Y

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|Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with.
It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this
attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed &
evaluated industrial training help a lot in inculcating a professional
attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and industry to
develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based
on board understanding of process & mode of operation of organization.
During this period, the student gets the real, firsthand experience for
working in the actual environment.

The quest for knowledge can never end. The deeper you
dig the greater this unexplored seems to be. No man can honestly say
that he has learned this world has to offer. ~e can¶t achieve anything
worthwhile in any field only on the basis of theoretical knowledge from
books.
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 INTRODUCTION

Pc - based Mobile Robot for Navigation is basically an

electric-powered, three-wheeled vehicle or robot attached with a
PC camera or webcam. It can be used for navigation or as a toy.
The robot can move up to a radial distance of 3.5 meters from the
computer. For longer distance, you need a longer data cable for the
parallel port and USB hub to increase the length of the interface
cable for the camera.
The purpose of this design and implementation is to motivate the
beginners. It cannot be used independently in line following,
obstacle detection and pothole avoidance applications as it is not
intelligent enough to take decision and control by itself. However,
line following, obstacle detection and pothole detection can be
done by constantly monitoring its movement from the live scene
captured by the PC camera. It can be controlled from the PC to
move forward, backward, right and left.
The project provides an educational test bed for understanding the
transition from theory to practice, contest requirements and also
other studies in developing advance applications, creative control,
etc. The working of the circuit, control system, sensory system,
software program, testing and assembly steps for the robot are
described in the succeeding sections. The main components
include two stepper motors, a motor driver circuit, a PC with
parallel port connector and a camera (webcam).
 Circuit description

The interface-cum-driver circuit for the PC-based mobile robot is

shown in Fig. 2. It works off a ¬2V DC Power supply.
MCT2E is the most popular integrated circuit used for isolating
high-voltage circuits from low-voltage circuits. Used to protect the
parallel port from damage, it is an opto-coupler having an internal
phototransistor and an LED. The LED glows when it receives high
output pulse from the parallel port. The transistor conducts when
its base receives light from LED. Resistors R2 through R9 limit the
in order to protect the parallel port.
IC ULN2a03 is used as the driver for rotating the stepper motor. It
is basically a Darlington pair IC used for driving high-current
circuits.
The power supply circuit is shown in Fig. 3. It consists of a 230V
AC to ¬5V AC, ¬A secondary transformer, filter capacitor, bridge
rectifiers and ¬2VDC regulator 7a¬2 (¬C¬0). The regulated ¬2V
DC is connected to ULN2a03 driver IC. In place of the power
supply circuit shown in Fig. 3, you can also use a ¬2V, 4.5Ah
battery to power the main circuit.
 Robot control operation

Two stepper Motors are used for moving and turning the robot.
Stepper motors with various specification are available in the
market. Here we have used 55SIM 25DAYG unipolar stepper
motors rated at ¬2V DC, with step angle of 7.5" per pulse. Each of
these stepper motors has five wires for connecting to the driver
circuit. Out of the five wires, four wires emerge from coils of the
stepper motors and the fifth is the centre-tapped common terminal.
Correct identification and connection of these wires is important
for successful assembly of the stepper motor.

The unipolar stepper motor has two centre-tapped coils. Their

centre-tapped terminals are joined to make one common terminal.
If you have a multimeter, set it in 200-ohm range and check the
resistance between these wires The resistance between the
common terminal and the rest of the coil terminals will be around
36 ohms, while the resistance between two coil terminals will be
around 72 ohms. Connect these coils to the output terminals of the
driver circuit in sequence. To help you in proper connection, the
colour codes of the wires for the 55SIM-25DAYG stepper motor
are listed in Table I. Note that for the same ratings, different
manufacturers may have their own coil specifications.

m
||¬|

| ||
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| |

|

Colour Identification

 
 ¬


 

 
 
The software uses wave-drive 4- step sequence technique for
rotating the motors. To run the motors, specific sequences of
pulses are given to the motor windings. Generally, there are three
types of digital signal sequence given to run the stepper motor. But
here, we have used a 4-step sequence as shown in Table II. The
advantage of this technique is that it consumes the least power.
Only one phase is energized at a time, which assures of positional
accuracy regardless of any winding imbalance in the motor.

m
||||
 ||!
|"
 
Clockwis Step ~indin ~indin ~indin ~indin Counter
-e # -g A L¬ -g B L2 -g C L3 -g D L4 Clockwis
-e
¬ ¬ 0 0 0
2 0 ¬ 0 0
3 0 0 ¬ 0
4 0 0 0 ¬

Since the motor rotates at 7.5 deg per step, it takes a total of 4a
steps to complete one rotation. The higher the step angle, the fewer
the pulses needed for complete rotation of the motor. Hence if the
speed of the robot is desired, use a motor with higher step angle,
and if more accurate position control is desired, you may use a
motor with lower step angle.
Direction control.:
To control the direction of motion, a combination of different
rotational directions of the two motors is used. If the left stepper
motor (SM¬) moves anticlockwise and the right stepper motor
(SM2) moves clockwise, the robot moves in forward direction.
Similarly, if SM¬ moves in clockwise direction and SM2 in anti-
clockwise, the robot will move in backward direction. If SM¬ and
SM2 move in clockwise direction, the robot will turn left. If SM¬
and SM2 move in anti-clockwise direction, the robot will turn
right.

Speed control .:
To control the speed of the robot, timer delays are used. The value
of the delay time for the timer can be increased or decreased by the
slider control provided in the software. The selected speed of the
robot (¬ through 999) is also displayed in the text box as shown in
Fig. 4.

Camera view.:
In this project, a camera is used as the visual sensor to control the
movement of the robot. For live viewing of the scene through the
camera fitted on the robot, a command button is provided in the
software. On clicking the button, the executable file of the camera
is run and the pictures can be viewed in another window. ~e have
used a 'Quantum Hi-Tech' camera. It has l0 level zoom for live
motion picture, special visual effects, night vision, microphone,
snapshot function etc.
 Construction

Constructing this project is very simple. Just assemble the ICs and
resistors on any general-purpose PCB and mount the stepper
motors over any solid base with the help of suitable mechanical
parts. Put the camera on the base and fix it with the help of clam or
nuts and bolts.

The actual-size, single-side PCB layout of the circuit is shown in

Fig. 5 and its component layout in Fig. 6.

Cut the PCB along the straight line shown in the integrated PCB
layout (Figs 5 and 6) to separate the power supply section. The
PCB layout for the power supply section is made separately so
that if you want to use a ¬2v battery you can remove it from the
interface-cum-driver section.

|
|,|# <7| #| | || !|0#|
0||2|

'| 5.|;||| 
 Tips for assembling the robot|

¬.|First, secure the stepper motors into the two side-brackets

2.|Next, fix the wheels on the shaft of the motors. (Each of the
wheel has an amm plastic flange with threads and a metal nut
for securing it in position).

3.|Now, take the chassis or base plate. Identify its front, left, right
and rear sides. Secure the PCB and camera on the chassis plate.

4.|Secure the side-brackets( left and right) on the chassis plate.

5.|Insert the front castor-wheel bolt into the ¬0mm hole on the
chassis and secure it loosely with the help of its nut. Check the
chassis level. Use extra spacers over the threaded portion of
castor-wheel nut after removing the castor wheel. If the leveling
appears alright, tighten the castor wheel to the chassis.

6.|Now, insert the connectors of the two motors in the circuit as

shown in the PCB layout diagram. Connect the ¬2V power
supply connector to the PCB. This completes the mechanical
assembly of your robot and external electrical connections.
(Before connecting the ¬2V supply to the circuit, re-check the
assembly for proper and complete connections.)

7.|Check directions of rotations of the two stepper motors by

clicking 'Move Forward' button in the Mobile robot.exe
program. Both the stepper motors should energies and rotate in
such direction as to move the robot forward. In case one or both
of the stepper motors rotate in reverse direction, identify the
leads by referring the colour codes of the coils for the 55SIM-
25DAYG stepper motor as listed in Table I and connect them
accordingly.
 Testing procedure

¬.|Mount the stepper motors and camera on the base as shown in

Fig. ¬.

2.|After assembling the PCB, check the circuit connections before

switching on the power supply.

3.|Connect the parallel-port cable (with male connector) to the

parallel port female connector available on the back side of the
PC.

4. Run the software to see that the robot is running properly.
















 `
 /
 



OPTO-ISOLATOR OR OPTO-COUPLER

In electronics, an 2
(or 2 
, 2 -2$&

3 + , 2-2
, 2-2
, or 2) is a device that
uses a short optical transmission path to transfer an electronic signal
between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver,
while keeping them electrically isolated²since the electrical signal is
converted to a light beam, transferred, then converted back to an
electrical signal, there is no need for electrical connection between the
source and destination circuits. Isolation between input and output is
rated at 7500 Volt peak for ¬ second for a typical component costing less
than ¬ US$ in small quantities.

The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared

light-emitting diode (LED) and a photodetector such as a photosensitive
silicon diode, transistor Darlington pair, or silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR). The wave-length responses of the two devices are tailored to be
as identical as possible to permit the highest measure of coupling
possible. Other circuitry²for example an output amplifier²may be
integrated into the package. An opto-isolator is usually thought of as a
single integrated package, but opto-isolation can also be achieved by
using separate devices.
Digital opto-isolators change the state of their output when the input
state changes; analog isolators produce an analog signal which
reproduces the input.

Schematic diagram of a very simple opto-isolator with an LED and

phototransistor. The dashed line represents the isolation barrier, over
which there is no electrical contact.

A common implementation is a LED and a phototransistor in a light-

tight housing to exclude ambient light and without common electrical
connection, positioned so that light from the LED will impinge on the
photodetector. ~hen an electrical signal is applied to the input of the
opto-isolator, its LED lights and illuminates the photodetector,
producing a corresponding electrical signal in the output circuit. Unlike a
transformer the opto-isolator allows DC coupling and can provide any
desired degree of electrical isolation and protection from serious
overvoltage conditions in one circuit affecting the other. A higher
transmission ratio can be obtained by using a Darlington instead of a
simple phototransistor, at the cost of reduced noise immunity and higher
delay.

~ith a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to

the intensity of incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be
used in a photovoltaic mode or a photoconductive mode. In photovoltaic
mode, the diode acts as a current source in parallel with a forward-biased
diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load
impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is
connected to a supply voltage, and the magnitude of the current
conducted is directly proportional to the intensity of light. This
optocoupler type is significantly faster than photo transistor type, but the
transmission ratio is very low; it is common to integrate an output
amplifier circuit into the same package.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. ~hen high noise
immunity is required an optical conductive shield can be integrated into
the optical path. The transmitting and receiving elements of an optical
isolator may be contained within a single compact module, for
mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is
often called an 2
or 2
. The photosensor may be a
photocell, phototransistor, or an optically triggered SCR or TRIAC. This
device may in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

Analog optoisolators often have two independent, closely matched

output phototransistors, one of which is used to linearize the response
using negative feedback.

A simple circuit with an opto-isolator. ~hen switch S¬ is closed, LED

D¬ lights, which triggers phototransistor Q¬, which pulls the output pin
low. This circuit, thus, acts as a NOT gate.

APPLICATIONS

Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on ground

loops, block voltage spikes, and provide electrical isolation.
 g| switched-mode power supplies use optocouplers for mains
isolation. As they work in an environment with much electrical
noise and with signals which are not small, optocouplers with low
transmission ratio are preferred.
g| ~here electrical safety is paramount, optocouplers can totally
isolate circuitry which may be touched by humans from mains
electricity.
²| Medical equipment often uses optocouplers.
²| One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument
Digital Interface) standard is that input connections be opto-
isolated.
g| Optocouplers are used to isolate low-current control or signal
circuitry from transients generated or transmitted by power supply
and high-current control circuits. The latter are used within motor
and machine control function blocks.
|














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A ULN2a03 is an Integrated Circuit (IC) chip with a High Voltage/High

Current Darlington Transistor Array. It allows you to interface TTL
signals with higher voltage/current loads. In English, the chip takes low
level signals (TLL, CMOS, PMOS, NMOS - which operate at low
voltages and low currents) and acts as a relay of sorts itself, switching on
or off a higher level signal on the opposite side.

Its features are:

ž|A TTL signal operates from 0-5V, with everything between 0.0
and 0.aV considered "low" or off, and 2.2 to 5.0V being
considered "high" or on. The maximum power available on a TTL
signal depends on the type, but generally does not exceed 25m~
(~5mA @ 5V), so it is not useful for providing power to something
like a relay coil. On the output side the ULN2a03 is generally rated
at 50V/500mA, so it can operate small loads directly.
ž|Alternatively, it is frequently used to power the coil of one or more
relays, which in turn allow even higher voltages/currents to be
controlled by the low level signal. In electrical terms, the
ULN2a03 uses the low level (TTL) signal to switch on/turn off the
higher voltage/current signal on the output side.
 Its features are summarized below:
ž|Output current (single output) 500mA MAX.
ž|High sustaining voltage output 50V MIN.
ž|Output clamp diodes.
ž|Inputs compatible with various types of logic

Y 




The ULN2a03 comes in an ¬a-pin IC configuration and includes eight
(a) transistors.

g| Pins ¬-a receive the low level signals,

g| pin 9 is grounded (for the low level signal reference).
g| Pin ¬0 is the common on the high side and would generally be
connected to the positive of the voltage you are applying to the
relay coil.
g| Pins ¬¬-¬a are the outputs (Pin ¬ drives Pin ¬a, Pin 2 drives ¬7,
etc.).



  

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current
to flow through it in only one direction. A diode is
specifically made to allow current to flow through it in
only one direction.
Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here.
A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC to DC for a power
supply device.
Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.
Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram
|Rectification / Switching / Regulation Diode
The stripe stamped on one end of the diode
shows indicates the polarity of the diode.
The stripe shows the cathode side.
The devices shown in the picture are diodes
used for rectification. They are made to handle
relatively high currents. The device on top can
handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can
safely handle up to ¬A.
However, it is best used at about 70% of its
rating because this current value is a maximum rating. This diode is
typically used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes.
|Light Emitting Diode ( LED )

Light emitting diodes must be chosen according to how they will

be used, because there are various kinds.
|
 The diodes are available in several
colors. The most common colors are red
and green, but there are even blue ones.
The device on the far right in the
photograph combines a red LED and
green LED in one package. The
component lead in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the
remaing two leads, one side is for the green, the other for the red
LED. ~hen both are turned on simultaneously, it becomes orange.








 

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This

symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as
a schematic. Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm."
There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable
resistors. They are also classified according to the material from which
they are made.
|Fixed Resistors
A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.
ž|Carbon film resistors
This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of
the resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of ¬/a~, ¬/4~ and ¬/2~ are
frequently used. Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to
be electrically noisy. The physical size of different resistors are as
follows.||

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 ž|Metal film resistors
Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate
value) is needed. They are much more accurate in value than carbon
film resistors. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. They have about
±0.05% tolerance. Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used for the
material of resistor. The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits,
filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.

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|Variable resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used.
¬.|One is the variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the
volume adjustment of Radio.
2.|The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be| adjusted by
anyone but a technician.| Semi-fixed resistors are used to
compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a
circuit
The rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees.
Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the whole
range of resistance they offer.These are called "Potentiometers" or
"Trimmer Potentiometers."
 |In the photograph| 7| the four
resistors at the center of the
photograph are the semi-fixed type.
The two resistors on the left are the
trimmer potentiometers.This
symbol is used to represent
variable resistor in circuit diagram

|Resistor colour code

V-
 -  -2
 
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Black 0 0 -
Brown ¬ ¬ ±¬
Red 2 2 ±2 Example ¬
(Brown=¬),(Black=0),(Orange=3)
Orange 3 3 ±0.05 ¬0 x ¬03 = ¬0k ohm
Tolerance(Gold) = ±5%
Yellow 4 4 -
Green 5 5 ±0.5
Blue 6 6 ±0.25
Violet 7 7 ±0.¬
Gray a a -
~hite 9 9 -
Gold - -¬ ±5 Example 2
(Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2
Silver - -2 ±¬0 )
2
470 x ¬0 = 47k ohm
None - - ±20
Tolerance(Brown) = ±¬%
 V
Y
V

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The

capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and
blocking direct current (DC).
This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.||
The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing eachother,
but separated by an insulator. ~hen DC voltage is applied to the
capacitor, 


 

is stored on each electrode. ~hile the
capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully charged.||
The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called
the Farad ( F ). The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so
units such as the microfarad ( ¬0-6F ), nanofarad ( ¬0-9F ), and picofarad
(¬0-¬2F ) are used.
Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor.
For example, when the code is [¬03], it indicates ¬0 x ¬03, or ¬0,000pF
= ¬0 nanofarad( nF ) = 0.0¬ microfarad( µF ).


# /


~hen using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage
which can be used. This is the "

 # ! 
." The breakdown
voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric
(insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. ~hen this
happens, the failure can be catastrophic.
The types of capacitors used in our project are:

Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors)

ž|Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization
membrane.
ž|Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with
the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is very thin.
ž|The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that
they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative
electrode.[Polarised]
ž|If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working
voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst.

Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive

side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol.
Electrolytic capacitors range in value from
about ¬µF to thousands of µF. Mainly this
type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a
power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass
low frequency signals, etc.



 
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|Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium

acid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not
constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high frequency
 applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high
frequency signals to ground.
These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is
comparatively small.

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Ceramic capacitors have no polarity. Ceramic capacitors should not be

used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal.
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 Stepper motor

A  22
 *
(or  2*
) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that

can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be
controlled precisely, without any feedback mechanism. Stepper motors are similar
to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping motors with a
reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

-$3* $2
$

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate
when voltage is appliedto their terminals. Stepper motors, on the
otherhand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged
around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller

|
To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power,
which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the
electromagnet's teeth. ~hen the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first
electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So
when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the
gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the
process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with
an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor
can be turned by precise angle.


 22
*



¬. Stepper motors are constant power devices.

2. As motor speed increases, torque decreases.

3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers

and increasing the driving voltage.

4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete
step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another.

5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the
motor to lose torque.

6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the

problem speeds range, physically damping the system, or using a micro-
stepping driver.

7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother

operation than those with fewer phases.

,2 

There are three main types of stepper motor.

¬.|Permanent Magnet Stepper

2.|Hybrid Synchronous Stepper
 3.|Variable Reluctance Stepper

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and
operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the
stator electromagnets. Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron
rotor and operate based on the principle of that minimum reluctance
occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward
the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are named because they
use use a combination of PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum
power in a small package size.

%2  22
*


There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils
in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.

2
 


A unipolar stepper motor has two windings per phase, one for each
direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole
can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the
commutation circuit can be made very simple (eg. a single transistor) for
each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is
made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical
two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined,
so the motor has only five leads.

A microcontroller or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the

drive transistors in the right order, and this ease of operation makes
unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest
way to get precise angular movements.

|
|

.#|!..|5|#!|

A quick way to determine if the stepper motor is working is to short

circuit every two pairs and try turning the shaft, whenever a higher than
normal resistance is felt, it indicates that the circuit to the particular
winding is closed and that the phase is working.

›
 

Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a

winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the
driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an H-bridge
arrangement. There are two leads per phase, none are common.

Static friction effects using an H-bridge have been observed with certain
drive topologies.

Because windings are better utilised, they are more powerful than a
unipolar motor of the same weight

 22
*

A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the
number of poles (on both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that
they have no common denominator. Additionally, soft magnetic material
with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of
poles (reluctance motor). Modern steppers are of hybrid design, having
both permanent magnets and soft iron cores

.
To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their
full rated current during each step. ~inding inductance and reverse EMF
generated by a moving rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so
that as the motor speeds up, less and less time is spent at full current --
thus reducing motor torque. As speeds further increase, the current will
not reach the rated value, and eventually the motor will cease to produce
torque.

Y 
 


This is the measure of the torque produced by a stepper motor when it is

operated without an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor
can synchronise itself with an applied step frequency, and this Pull-In
torque must overcome friction and inertia.

Y   


The stepper motor pull-out torque is measured by accelerating the motor

to the desired speed and then increasing the torque loading until the
motor stalls or "pulls out of synchronism" with the step frequency. This
measurement is taken across a wide range of speeds and the results are
used to generate the stepper motor's dynamic performance curve. As
noted below this curve is affected by drive voltage, drive current and
current switching techniques. It is normally recommended to use a safety
factor of between 50% and ¬00% when comparing your desired torque
output to the published "pull-Out" torque performance curve of a step
motor.

 


Synchronous electric motors using permanent magnets have a remnant

position holding torque (called 


4
, and sometimes included in
the specifications) when not driven electrically. Soft iron reluctance
cores do not exhibit this behavior.


 22
*

$&$32 $
Stepper motors nameplates typically give only the winding current and
occasionally the voltage and winding resistance. The rated voltage will
produce the rated winding current at DC: but this is mostly a
meaningless rating, as all modern drivers are current limiting and the
drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage.

A stepper's low speed torque will vary directly with current. How
quickly the torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding
inductance and the drive circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving
voltage.

Steppers should be sized according to published torque curve, which is

specified by the manufacturer at particular drive voltages and/or using
their own drive circuitry. It is not guaranteed that you will achieve the
same performance given different drive circuitry, so the pair should be
chosen with great care.

22$

Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms

of positioning systems. They are typically digitally controlled as part of
an open loop system, and are simpler and more rugged than closed loop
servo systems.

Industrial applications are in high speed pick and place equipment and
multi-axis machine CNC machines often directly driving lead screws or
ballscrews. In the field of lasers and optics they are frequently used in
precision positioning equipment such as linear actuators, linear stages,
rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts. Other uses are in
packaging machinery, and positioning of valve pilot stages for fluid
control systems.
Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed
scanners, computer printers, plotters, slot machines, and many more
devices.




/ 8*

A typical low-cost webcam used with many personal computers

A % 8* is a video capture device connected to a computer or

computer network, often using a USB port or, if connected to a network,
ethernet or ~i-Fi.

Their most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a computer to

act as a videophone or video conferencing station. This can be used in
messenger programs such as ~indows Live Messenger, Skype and
Yahoo messenger services. Other popular uses, which include the
recording of video files or even still-images, are accessible via numerous
software programs, applications and devices.

They are well known for their low manufacturing costs and flexibility.
Some, for example those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive,
rugged professional-grade hardware.

~ith video interpreting, sign language interpreters work remotely with

live video and audio feeds, typically at a relay call centre, so that the
interpreter can see the deaf or mute party, and converse with the hearing
party at the same time, and vice versa. Much like telephone interpreting,
video interpreting can be used for situations in which no on-site
interpreters are available. However, video interpreting cannot be used
for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone.

~ebcams are also employed for security purposes. Software is available

to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound,
recording both when they are detected; these recordings can then be
saved to the computer, e-mailed or uploaded to the Internet. In one well-
publicized case. a computer e-mailed out images as the burglar stole it,
allowing the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face
even after the computer had been stolen.

~ebcams typically include a lens , an image sensor, and supporting

circuitry.
~ebcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, and some support
electronics. Various lenses are available, the most common being a
plastic lens that can be screwed in and out to set the camera's focus.
Fixed focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also
available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small imager
formats and is greater for lenses with a large f/number (small aperture),
the systems used in webcams have sufficiently large depth of field that
the use of a fixed focus lens does not impact image sharpness much.
Image sensors can be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for
low-cost cameras, but CCD cameras do not necessarily outperform
CMOS-based cameras in the low cost price range. Most consumer
webcams are capable of providing VGA-resolution video at a frame rate
of 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce video in
multi-megapixel resolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such
as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320×240 video at ¬20 frames
per second.
|
 Y/0YY4

The term power supply is more commonly abbreviated to PSU

To provide a useable low voltage the PSU needs to do a number of

things:-

g| Reduce the Mains AC (Alternating current) voltage to a lower

level.
g| Convert this lower voltage from AC to DC (Direct current)
g| Regulate the DC output to compensate for varying load (current
demand)
g| Provide protection against excessive input/output voltages

 3-$
V$

This is achieved by using a device known as a 
$
*
" an

electromagnetic device consisting of an ferrous iron core which has a
large number of turns of wire wound around it, known as the Y
*
,
/$3$&9The ends of these turns of wire being connected to the input
voltage (in this case Mains AC).

A second number of turns of

wire are wound around the Y
*
,/$3$&, this set being known as
the  $3
,/$3$&.

The difference between the number of turns provides us with a way of

reducing (in our case) a high AC voltage to a lower one.
|
V$+
$
V V
To convert our now low AC voltage to DC we use a  
 3 
connected to the  $3
,/$3$&.

This is a silicon diode, only allows current to flow in one direction)

As our low AC voltage will be working at a frequency of 50Hz (Mains

AC frequency) it is desirable to reduce the inherent hum on this to a
lower level.

This is achieved by a technique known as *$& (³Ironing´ out the

bumps in the AC).

A simple way to reduce the hum is to use -/+  $9

 

 

 &-$-2-&

In a simple PSU the easiest way to provide regulation to compensate for

varying load conditions is to use a pair of relatively high value
 
,V2
.

Their values in this case being in the region of 470uF to 2000uF .

|

|
One of these capacitors is connected across the DC output of the rectifier
diode(s) or bridge, this capacitor also providing an extra degree of
smoothing the output waveform.

The second capacitor is connected via a low value, medium to high

wattage resistor, which assists in limiting the current demand.

| |

&  &-

Regulator, usually having three legs, converts varying input voltage and
produces a constant regulated output voltage. They are available in a
variety of outputs.

The most common part numbers start with the numbers 7a or 79 and
finish with two digits indicating the output voltage. The number 7a
represents positive voltage. The 7aXX series of voltage regulators are
designed for positive input.
The LM7aXX series typically has the ability to drive current up to ¬A.
The component has three legs: Input leg which can hold up to 36VDC
Common leg (GND) and an output leg with the regulator's voltage. For
maximum voltage regulation, adding a capacitor in parallel between the
common leg and the output is usually recommended.

| |

|
 YV V`

Etching is the process where the excess copper is removed to leave the
individual tracks or traces as they are sometimes called.
Many different chemical solutions can be used to etch circuit boards.
Ranging from slow controlled speed etches used for surface preparation
to the faster etches used for etching the tracks. Copper etching is
normally exothermic. Almost all etching solutions liberate toxic
corrosive fumes, extraction is highly recommended. All etchants are
corrosive and toxic, mainly due to the high metal content.


V
3 
It is an old favorite chemical very good at staining fingers, clothing, etc
brown. Etch rate can be very high but is dependant on solution
movement over the surface of the board and temperature. At 70C using
Spray etching, ¬oz copper is removed in a little under a minute, normal
etching temperature is more likely to be 45C.
~hen up to 5% of HCL is added, it increases etch rate, helps to stop
staining, and reduces the risk of the solution sludging. Ferric especially
with extra HCL makes a very good stainless steel etchant.
The basic etching reaction takes place in 3 stages. First the ferric ion
oxidizes copper to cuprous chloride, which is then further oxidized to
cupric chloride.
¬.|FeCl3 + Cu > FeCl2 + CuCl
2.| FeCl3 + CuCl > FeCl2 + CuCl2
As the cupric chloride builds up at further reaction takes place,
3.|CuCl2 + Cu > 2CuCl
The etch rate quickly falls off after about ¬7oz/gallon (¬00g/l of copper
has been etched for a typical solution containing 5.3lb/gallon (530g/l) of
ferric chloride.

















  
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined
together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler
metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is
characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below
400 °C (a00 °F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.

In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing

the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to
bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal
cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have
adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many
uses. Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible and there
is evidence that it was employed up to 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia.

The only tools that are essential to solder are a soldering iron and some
solder. There are, however, lots of soldering accessories available

 


  



|
|
 The software

The software program for the user interface to control the robot
(Mobile robot.exe) is designed in Visual Basic 5.0. The core file
used by software is 'inpout32.dll,' which can be downloaded from
'www.logix4u.net' for free. The .dll file uses a kernel-mode driver.
Therefore this software works as good with NT-based ~indows
OS as with ~in XP and ~in 2000. A separate program module for
the inpout32.dll is used along with the main program of the mobile
robot For details about the .dll file, visit 'www.logix4u net'.
The software uses timer controls to produce delay in between the
counting sequence that controls the speed of the stepper motors.
The value of timer delay can be increased or decreased with the
help of timers defined in the source code. Data port (D0 through
D7) of parallel port LPT¬ with base address of 0x037a is used to
connect the PC to the motors. The base address is defined in the
source Program.
Install the webcam/camera driver software in your system and
ensure that the camera executable file is located under 'C' drive.
Here, for Quantum Hi-Tech camera, the executable file is
'amcap.exe.'
Run the Mobile robot.exe program. On clicking the 'View Picture'
button the program will get connected to *re executable file of the
webcam and run automatically. If you have any other webcam,
change the path and filename in the source code and make the
executable file of the same for running the application. Current
date and time and present status of the buttons pressed (move
forward and backward and turn right and left) are also displayed on
the screen at software runtime.

|||||||
||||||||||
 m|# 
|$ ||
|% 
|&
|&
&m|||||||||||||||||||
&|  m&|||'(|
|
|
Private Sub Commandl _Click ( )

Unload Me

End sub

Private Sub Command2 _C¬ick ( )

Label4.caption = ³Turn Left´

Timerl . Interval = sliderl . Value

Timerl.Enabled = True

Timer2.Enabled = False

Timer3.Enabled = False

Timer4.Enabled = False

End sub

Private Sub Command3 _Click ( )

Label4.caption = ³Move Forward´

Timer2.Interval = slider¬. Value

Timerl.Enabled = False

Timer2.Enabled = True
Timer3.Enab¬ed = False

Timer4.Enabled = False

End sub

Private Sub Command4_ Click ( )

Label4.caption = ³Move Backward´

Timer3 . Interval = slider¬. Value

Timer¬.Enabled= False

Timer2.Enabled = False

Timer3.Enabled = True

Timer4.Enabled = FaIse

End sub

Private Sub Command5_ Click ( )

Label4.caption = ³Turn Right´

Timer4 . Interval = slider¬. Value

Timer¬.Enabled= False

Timer2.Enabled = Fa¬se

Timer3.Enabled = Fa¬se

Timer4.Enabled = True
End sub

Private Sub Command6 _Click ( )

Label4.caption = ³Robot is Stopped´

Timer¬.Enabled= False

Timer2.Enabled = Fa¬se

Timer3.Enabled = Fa¬se

Timer4.Enabled = Fa¬se

End sub

Private Sub Command7 _Click ( )

Dim aks as Integer

aks = S h e l l ( "C:\~INDO~ \Amcap.exe´, vbMaximizedFocus )

End sub

Private Sub Commanda_ Click ( )

frmAbout . Show

End Sub

Private Sub Sliderl_ Click ( )

Timerl. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer2. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer3. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer4. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Text¬.Text = ¬000 - Sliderl . value

End Sub

Private Sub Sliderl _scroll ( )

Timerl. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer2. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer3. Interval = Sliderl . Value

Timer4. Interval = Sliderl . Value

End Sub

Private sub Timerl _Timer ( )

Static a As integer

b=2 ^ a

Out &H37a, ¬7 * b

a=a+¬

If a > 3 Then

a=0

End if
End Sub

Private sub Timer2 _Timer ( )

Static a As integer

b=2 ^ a

If b = ¬ Then

Out &H37a , 24

ElseIf b = 2 Then

Out &H37a , 36

ElseIf b = 4 Then

Out &H37a , 66

ElseIf b = a Then

Out &H37a , ¬29

End If

a=a+¬

If a > 3 Then

a=0

End if

End Sub
Private sub Timer3 _Timer ( )

Static a As integer

b=2 ^ a

If b = a Then

Out &H37a , 24

ElseIf b = 4 Then

Out &H37a , 36

ElseIf b = 2 Then

Out &H37a , 66

ElseIf b = ¬ Then

Out &H37a , ¬29

End If

a=a+¬

If a > 3 Then

a=0

End if

End Sub

Private sub Timer4 _Timer ( )

 Static a As integer

b = 2 ^ ( 3-a )

Out &H37a, ¬7 * b

a=a+¬

If a > 3 Then

a=0

End if

End Sub

Private sub Timer5 _Timer ( )

Label9.caption = Times

Label¬3.caption = Dates

End sub
|

|
 Y 
V 

. Non availability of IC data sheets

. Burning of components

. Burning of PCB tracks

. Voltage fluctuations

. Fault in PCB layouts

. Non availability of capacitors & Resistors of exact values

. Improper functioning of web camera.


 V
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