Articles

Andreas Lipp*
Thomas Ummenhofer

DOI: 10.1002/stco.201410017

Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength

of circular hollow section joints
Dedicated to Emeritus Professor Dr. Eur.-Ing. Ram S. Puthli on the occasion of his 70th birthday
The current version of the Eurocode for the design of joints does
not include any brace load capacity reduction for welded hollow
section joints with tensile chord preloading as opposed to those
without. However, the more recent 2nd edition of the CIDECT design guides or the ISO standard for welded hollow section joints
includes a strength reduction due to tensile chord stresses. This
paper presents the results of experimental and numerical investigations into how tensile chord stresses influence the capacity of
circular hollow section X-joints. The conclusion of this study is a
new chord load function proposal for circular hollow section
joints subjected to tensile chord stresses.

1Introduction
Circular and rectangular hollow sections (CHS and RHS)
are used as structural elements in bridges, buildings, crane
structures as well as onshore and offshore wind energy
plants. Welded joints are used in many of these structures.
Welding facilitates a direct transfer of section forces and moments between the connected structural elements. For both
economic and aesthetic reasons, stiffening elements, gusset
plates, flange plates, etc. are not used in many instances. The
loadbearing capacity of an unstiffened joint mainly depends
on geometrical and material parameters. In addition, the ultimate brace load capacity depends on axial chord stresses.
Experimental studies of the influence of chord preloading
on the brace load capacity were published as long ago as the
1960s. The results of these early studies were that compressive chord stresses considerably reduce the strength of the
joint. For tensile chord stresses, it was supposed that these
stresses only lead to an insignificant reduction in the ultimate brace load capacity due to stabilization of the chord
wall by tensile stresses. However, placing limitations on
chord deformation at the ultimate and serviceability limit
states were not considered at that time. More recent studies,
considering different deformation criteria, indicate that
there is a limitation on joint strength (due to governing
deformation aspects) when the chord is subjected to tensile
stresses, albeit not as severe as for compressive stresses.

2 Design of hollow section joints

Design equations for chord plastification in standards [2]
and [6] consist of a strength function for the non-dimen*Corresponding author:
andreas.lipp@kit.edu

126

sional joint parameters , , g', one further function for

chord utilization n (or np) and also the angle i, the chord
yield stress fy0 and the thickness t0:

) ( )

Ni,Rd = f , , g f n

fy0 t 02
sin i

/ M

According to the current version of EN 1993-1-8 [2] and the

1st edition of the CIDECT design guide [3] from 1991, the
chord load function for all CHS joints is as follows:
f(np) = 1 0.3 |np| 0.3n p2
for compressive chord stresses (np < 0)
f(np) = 1
for tensile chord stresses (np 0)
whereas the function for CHS joints according to ISO
14346 [6], or rather the 2nd edition of the CIDECT design
guide [4], has the following form:
f(n) = (1 |n|)C1
where:
C1 = 0.45-0.25 for T-, Y- and X-joints with compressive
chord stresses
C1 = 0.25 for gapped K-joints with compressive
chord stresses
C1 = 0.20 for all joint types with tensile chord
stresses
As can be seen above, there are two common definitions
of chord utilization: the external preload ratio np according to EN 1993-1-8 [2] and the maximum utilization n according to ISO 14346 [6]; np is the chord utilization due to
axial stresses without stresses from the force component(s)
of the brace(s) parallel to the chord and n is the maximum
utilization. In addition, there is a further difference between np and n: whereas np is the elastic utilization of the
chord, n is the plastic chord utilization with a linear interaction relationship between axial force and bending moment. In the case of an X-joint with an axially loaded
chord, the preload ratio np is similar to n because no force
components in the braces parallel to the chord are transferred to the chord.
Based on experiments on CHS X-joints with preloaded
chords, Togo [10] already documented in 1967 that com-

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin Steel Construction 7 (2014), No. 2

A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

pressive chord stresses significantly reduce the joint load

capacity. Another conclusion was that the influence of tensile chord stresses on the ultimate brace load capacity has
only a minor effect. Other early studies agreed with this
opinion. However, no limitation to the chord indentation
at the ultimate and serviceability limit states was used at
that time. In the current version of EN 1993-1-8:2010 [2],
which is the version from 2005 incorporating amendments
from 2009, there is also no reduction in the brace loadbearing capacity when the chord is subjected to tensile
preloading. For tensile chord stresses, f(np) is unity.
More recent numerical studies, e.g. by van der Vegte
etal. [13], [14], [15] and Choo etal. [7], [8], state that tensile
chord stresses cause a reduction in joint stiffness and limit
joint strength (governing deformation aspects). It should be
noted that different deformation criteria, e.g. the 0.03d0 deformation limit of Lu etal. [9] or the displacement limit of
Yura etal. [17], have been considered in all recent surveys.
The results of these investigations are discussed in detail in
[11]. Based on numerical studies, the 2nd edition of the
CIDECT design guides for CHS [4] and RHS joints [5] include a reduction in joint capacity due to tensile chord
stresses.

Fig.1. Stub CHS specimens after fracture

3 Experimental research
3.1 General notes
Experimental data on the effect of tensile chord stresses on
hollow section joints is very limited. Two uniaxial pre-tests
on stub CHS specimens (see section 3.2) and eight tests on
CHS X-joints with different preload ratios (see section 3.3)
were performed within the scope of the recent CIDECT
research project 5CC [12]. The non-dimensional geometric
parameters and 2 of the specimens were selected on the
basis of a numerical study carried out by van der Vegte [15].
For CHS X-joints, the reduction with the highest brace
load capacity occurred for = 0.48 and 2 = 25.4. Therefore, these parameters were selected for the experiments.
For all specimens, the chords were made of the identical,
hot-finished circular hollow sections according to [1] in
grade S355. For this reason, all specimens have the same
material properties. Tensile coupon tests were performed
from the chord material. The mean yield stress fy0 of the
test coupons was 458N/mm and the mean tensile
strength fu0 was 603N/mm.

3.2 Pre-tests on stub CHS specimens

Two pre-tests on stub CHS test specimens with the same
end plates and branch plates as the CHS X-joints (see section 3.3) were carried out in order to ensure the defined
tensile preload ratios in the biaxial tests on CHS X-joints.
The test specimens (with a CHS length of 400mm and end
and branch plates 25mm thick) were axially loaded in tension until fracture using a servo-controlled hydraulic jack.
The displacement of the movable crosshead of the testing
apparatus was recorded in pre-tests. Further strains in the
longitudinal direction of the test specimens were measured
with four strain gauges per specimen in the middle of the
CHS.
Fig.1 shows the specimens after testing. Both specimens fractured in a ductile manner in the base material of

Fig.2. Experimental stressstrain curve from one pre-test on

a stub CHS specimen

the circular hollow section approximately in the middle of

the CHS. No cracks in the area of the welds between the
CHS and the end plates or the branch plates were observed
after testing. A plot of the tensile stresses in the CHS against
the longitudinal strains in the centre of one test specimen
is shown in Fig.2. The tensile stresses were calculated with
the measured dimensions of the CHS of the test specimen
and the actual test force. Good agreement was observed
between the stressstrain curves from the tensile coupon
tests and the pre-tests on the stub CHS specimens.

3.3 Tests on CHS X-joints

The experimental programme for CHS X-joints, summarized
in Table1, consisted of eight test specimens divided into
two series (series 1 and series 2).The chords were made of
the same circular hollow section for all eight test specimens. Series 1 consisted of two uniaxial loaded tests with no
tensile preloading of the chord (CHS_X_1 and CHS_X_2).
The braces were axially loaded in compression (loads applied with a hydraulic jack). Series 2 were interaction tests
and involved six test specimens. The specimens were subjected to axial tensile preload forces in the first load step with
chord utilizations of 60% (CHS_X_8), 75% (CHS_X_7),
90% (CHS_X_3 and CHS_X_4) and 100% (CHS_X_5 and
CHS_X_6) of the yield stress of the chord material. In the
second load step, the preload was maintained by the testing apparatus and the braces of the test specimens were
axially loaded in compression using a hydraulic jack.
A testing apparatus with a bending table was used for
the experiments on CHS X-joints (see Fig.3). Sliding carriages were installed on the bending table. Two frames with

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A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

Table1. The experimental research programme, nominal dimensions, material properties and non-dimensional joint parameters
Test
specimen

Load
case

Chord
utilization
[]

Nominal
dimensions
[mm]

Non-dimensional
parameters
[]

d0

t0

d1

t1

2g

Steel grade
EN 10210-1

fy,0
[N/mm2]

CHS_X_1
CHS_X_2

uniaxial

0
0

101.6

51.0

12

0.5

25.4

S355

355

CHS_X_3
CHS_X_4
CHS_X_5
CHS_X_6
CHS_X_7
CHS_X_8

biaxial

0.9
0.9
1
1
0.75
0.6

101.6

51.0

12

0.5

25.4

S355

355

a high bending stiffness were mounted on these sliding

carriages to avoid deflections at the ends of the braces perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the braces. With such
a setup, the ends of the braces were just able to move on
the longitudinal brace axis. Furthermore, the sliding carriages minimized the friction forces between the frames
and the bending table. The branch plates at the ends of the
chord of the CHS X-joint were clamped to the testing apparatus. Therefore, the chord was restrained against rotation around its longitudinal axis. The vertically oriented
chord (CHS with an average diameter of 101.7mm) was
at first loaded axially in tension with a defined preload.
The braces were not connected to the frames yet to avoid
bending of the braces caused by elongation of the chord
due to tensile preloading. Once the defined preload had
been reached, the force was maintained by the servo-controlled hydraulic jack of the test apparatus. The ends of the
braces were then connected to the frames with screws.
After this, the braces (CHS with average diameters of
51.0mm) were loaded in compression using a horizontally
oriented hydraulic jack until reaching the final displacement level.
The measurement of twice the mean indentation of
the chord (= 21,mean) was carried out with two magnetic
position sensors (see Fig.3). One sensor was positioned on
the left, another on the right of the test specimen. The inside width between the chord and the clamps for the sensors was 75 mm when the braces were unloaded. From this

Fig.3. Test rig for tests on CHS X-joints

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Steel Construction 7 (2014), No. 2

configuration it becomes evident that the measured deflections 21,mean also include shortenings of the braces.
However, these deformations are negligible in proportion
to the chord indentations. A load cell was positioned at the
end of the brace, opposite to the horizontally oriented hydraulic jack. This load cell was screwed via an end plate to
the brace (see Fig.3, right brace). Fig.4 shows a severely
deformed X-joint after testing.
During the brace loading procedure, strains were recorded in the chord in the longitudinal direction of the

Fig.4. Test specimen at maximum deflection 21,mean

50mm (CHS_X_7)

Fig.5. Experimental strain vs. chord indentation (CHS_X_3):

L = longitudinal, C = circumferential

A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

Fig.7. Meshing of finite element model

Fig.6. Experimental loaddisplacement curves of CHS
X-joints

chord (strain gauges 1-L and 2-L) and in the circumferential direction of the chord (strain gauges 1-C and 2-C) of
one specimen with a preload ratio of 90% (CHS_X_3).
The strain gauges were attached to the surface of the chord
in the middle between both braces. Fig.5 shows the results
of the strain measurement. The strains are plotted against
indentation of the chord.
Fig.6 shows the loaddisplacement curves for all
CHS X-joint tests. The axial brace load N1 is divided by the
measured yield stress of the chord material fy0 and the
squared thickness of the chord t02. The indentation of the
chord 1,mean has been normalized on the outer diameter
of the chord d0.

4 Simulation of the experiments

Finite element analyses have been carried out to simulate
experiments on uniaxially and biaxially loaded CHS X-joints.
The analyses of the joints were performed using the static
procedure of the program system. Furthermore, geometric
and material non-linearities have been considered in the
finite element analyses.
Three-dimensional 20-node elements with three
translatory degrees of freedom per node and reduced
integration behaviour were used for simulating welded
CHS X-joints. These elements show a quadratic displacement behaviour. Convergence studies were performed to define the mesh size of the numerical model.
Four layers of solid elements were applied over the
thickness of the chord wall and three layers over the
thickness of the brace wall. In the intersection area of
the chord and the brace, the elements of the chord were
approximately cubic. Fig.7 shows the meshing of the
numerical model.
Tensile coupon tests of the chord wall were carried
out within the scope of the research project. The measured
nominal stressstrain curves from the tensile coupon tests
were then converted into true stresslogarithmic strain
curves. The relationship between nominal stress and true

stress, or rather nominal strain and logarithmic strain, is as

follows:
true = (1 + )
ln = ln (1 + )
where and are the measured nominal stress and strain
respectively.
The converted stressstrain curves were used in the
finite element analyses. Therefore, a multilinear isotropic
hardening model was used for large strain analyses of the
CHS X-joints. This model uses von Mises yield criteria
coupled with an isotropic hardening assumption. Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio used in the finite element
models were 210 000 N/mm and 0.3 respectively. The
same material properties were used for the elements of the
weld as for the elements of the hollow section. The weld
geometry was considered in the finite element analysis because of its significant influence on the strength and stiffness of CHS X-joints, as shown by van der Vegte [16]. In
this study, the same 20-node elements were used for the
welds and for the hollow sections. The weld size was modelled according to the mean measured weld size. Fig. 8
shows a comparison of the experimental and numerical
loaddisplacement curves of the non-preloaded (n = 0) and
the fully preloaded (n = 1) joints. The numerical loaddeformation curves of the joints with n = 0 and n = 1 are
clearly in better agreement with the experimental curves
than the curves with n = 0.6, 0.75 and 0.9. Residual stresses
from the welding process occur in the CHS X-joints investigated. Generally, these stresses increase the flexibility of
the loaddisplacement behaviour [16]. This influence is not
included in the numerical models because the welding process before brace loading has not been simulated. The existence of residual stresses may be one reason for the differences between tests and simulations.

5 Conclusion and recommendations

Both experimental and numerical data obtained in CIDECT
research project 5CC [12] show that tensile chord stresses
have a strong influence on the loaddeformation characteristic of the CHS X-joint investigated ( = 0.5 and 2 = 25.4).

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A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

Fig.8. Comparison of experimental and numerical load

displacement curves (n = 0
and n = 1)

This relationship becomes evident in Fig.6. A reduction in

the joint stiffness occurs due to tensile chord preloads that
depend on the preload ratio. Therefore, the order of magnitude of the joint strength limitation heavily depends on
the deformation limit used. Furthermore, experimental
and numerical loaddeformation curves show that tensile
chord stresses do not influence the ultimate brace load
capacity if chord indentations are not considered. All tensile preloaded joints (n > 0) reached the same compressive
axial brace load as those joints without preloading (n = 0).
This observation is in agreement with early experiments on
CHS X-joints carried out by Togo [10] in 1967. However,
the preloaded joints showed large deformations (1 20
25% d0, see Fig.6) and large strains (see Fig.5) in this
loading state. Therefore, the authors of this article recommend using the 0.03d0 deformation limit of Lu etal. [9] in
order to avoid large joint deformations under service loads
and cracking at the ultimate limit state. No cracks were
observed during the experiments, but the tests were carried
out at room temperature and with a nominal chord thickness of 4mm. Numerous parameters, such as low temperature, thick-walled chords and high loading rates, can reduce joint ductility.

The use of the 0.03d0 deformation limit causes a distinctive limitation in joint strength due to tensile chord
stresses. Fig.9 illustrates the effect of tensile chord preloading on the X-joints investigated, based on the 0.03d0
deformation limit, and a comparison with the CIDECT
function from 2008 [4]. Experimental data with n>0 have
been normalized on the mean value of the experimental
data with n=0. Both experimental and numerical joint
strength for a preload ratio n=1 is not zero as characterized by the CIDECT function. For this reason, a new
chord load function f(n) for CHS joints is proposed here.
The design formula for uniplanar CHS X-joints according
to EN 1993-1-8 [2] is based on Togos ring model calibrated with experimental data. Togos ring model simplifies a CHS X-joint to a ring with a diameter d0t0 d0, a
thickness t0 and an effective width we. The brace loads are
applied as line loads at the four saddle points of the joint.
Six plastic hinges (or yield lines, each with a length equal
to the effective width we) with stresses in the circumferential direction arise at the ultimate limit state (see Fig.10).
Tensile and compressive stress blocks of the plastic moment mpl are shown in Fig.11. Using the von Mises or
Tresca yield criterion, yielding of the chord material oc-

Fig.9. Effect of tensile chord preloading on CHS X-joints

with = 0.5 and 2 = 25.4 based on the 0.03d0 deformation
limit of Lu et al. [9]

Fig.10. Togos ring model

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A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

Fig.11. Superposition of longitudinal and circumferential

chord stresses

curs when the longitudinal and also the circumferential

tensile stresses reach the yield stress fy0 (see Fig. 11). Thus,
one half of the chord thickness can still be taken into account for longitudinal tensile chord stresses without reducing the brace load capacity. In light of this, the newly
proposed chord load function f(n) for tensile chord
stresses is a bilinear function with no strength reduction
for n0.5:
f(n) = 1.6 1.2n 1 for tensile chord stresses (n 0)
For full preloading, the brace load capacity is still 40% of
the non-preloaded joint. In general, the function is in good
agreement with experimental and numerical data. It
should be noted that the experimental data points with
preload ratios of 90% are below the proposed function.
This circumstance does not result in joint collapse, but
slight increases to the indentations and strains at the serviceability and ultimate limit states. The new chord load
function has been developed for CHS X-joints but can
also be used for other CHS joint types. This approach is
on the safe side because the effect of tensile chord stresses
is most significant for X-joints, as shown by van der Vegte
in [15].
Notation

CHS circular hollow section

RHS rectangular or square hollow section
mpl plastic moment capacity per length unit (Togos ring
model)
Mpl,i plastic moment capacity of member i (i = 0, 1 or 2)
Ni,Rd design value of joint resistance, expressed in terms of
internal axial force in brace member i (i = 1 or 2)
Npl,i axial yield capacity of member i (i = 0, 1 or 2)
external diameter of CHS member i (i = 0, 1 or 2)
di
fu0 tensile strength of chord
yield stress
f y
fy0 yield stress of chord
g' gap between brace members in a K- or N-joint divided by chord wall thickness
n
plastic stress ratio in chord = N0/Npl,0 + M0/Mpl,0
np elastic prestress ratio in chord = p,Ed/fy0
we effective width of ring (Togos ring model)
external radius of CHS member i (i = 0, 1 or 2)
ri

nominal stress
true true stress

p,Ed maximum compressive stress in chord, excluding

stress due to components parallel to chord axis of
axial forces in braces
chord wall thickness
t0
ratio of mean diameter or width of the brace members to that of the chord

= d1/d0 (for CHS-T, -Y and -X joints)

= (d1+d2)/2d0 (for CHS-K and -N joints)

nominal strain
ln logarithmic strain = ln(1 + )
half external diameter to thickness ratio of chord (2 =
d0/t0)
M partial safety factor for joint resistance
i included angle between brace member i (i = 1 or 2)
and chord

References
[1] EN 10210 (2006): Hot finished structural hollow sections of
non-alloy and fine grain steels Part 1: Technical delivery
conditions & Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional
properties.
[2] EN 1993-1-8 (2010): Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1-8: Design of joints.
[3] Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Packer, J. A., Dutta, D., Yeomans,
N.: Bemessung und Berechnung von Verbindungen aus Rundhohlprofilen unter vorwiegend ruhender Beanspruchung. 1st
ed., CIDECT Handbuch Konstruieren mit Stahlhohlprofilen, part 1, Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, 1991.
[4] Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Packer, J. A., Vegte, G. J. van der,
Zhao, X.-L.: Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS)
joints under predominantly static loading, 2nd ed., CIDECT Series Construction with hollow steel sections, No. 1, CIDECT,
2008.
[5] Packer, J.A., Wardenier, J., Zhao, X.-L., Vegte, G.J. van der,
Kurobane, Y.: Design guide for rectangular hollow section
(RHS) joints under predominantly static loading, 2nd ed.,
CIDECT Series Construction with hollow steel sections,
No. 3, CIDECT, 2009.
[6] ISO 14346: Static design procedure for welded hollow section joints Recommendations, 2013.
[7] Choo, Y.S., Qian, X.D., Liew, J.Y.R., Wardenier, J.: Static
strength of thick-walled CHS X-joints Part I: New approach
in strength definition. Journal of Constructional Steel Research; 59, 2003, pp. 12011228.
[8] Choo, Y.S., Qian, X.D., Liew, J.Y.R., Wardenier, J.: Static
strength of thick-walled CHS X-joints Part II: Effect of chord
stresses. Journal of Constructional Steel Research; 59, 2003,
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[9] Lu, L.H., Winkel, G.D. de, Yu, Y., Wardenier, J.: Deformation limit for the ultimate strength of hollow section joints.
Proc. of 6th International Symposium on Tubular Structures,
Melbourne, Australia, Tubular Structures VI, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1994, pp. 341347.
[10] Togo, T.: Experimental Study on Mechanical Behaviour of
Tubular Joints. Dissertation, Osaka University,1967 (in Japanese).
[11] Ummenhofer, T., Lipp, A.: Comprehensive discussion of the
results of available research on the effect of tensile chord
stresses on the load capacity of unstiffened, welded hollow
section joints. Final report, CIDECT 5CA-7/12, 2012.
[12] Ummenhofer, T., Lipp, A.: New chord load function. Final
report, CIDECT 5CC-6/13, 2013.
[13] Vegte, G.J. van der, Makino, Y., Choo, Y.S., Wardenier, J.:
The influence of chord stress on the ultimate strength of axi-

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A. Lipp/Th. Ummenhofer Influence of tensile chord stresses on the strength of circular hollow section joints

ally loaded uniplanar X-joints, Proc. of 9th International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Dsseldorf, Germany, 2001,
pp. 165174, 2001.
[14] Vegte, G.J. van der, Makino, Y.: The effect of chord stresses
on the static strength of CHS X-joints. Memoirs of the Faculty
of Engineering, Kumamoto University, Japan, vol. 46, No. 1,
2001, pp. 124.
[15] Vegte, G.J. van der, Liu, D.K., Makino, Y., Wardenier, J.:
New chord load functions for circular hollow section joints.
Final report, CIDECT (rev.) 5BK-4/03, 2003.
[16] Vegte, G.J. van der: The static strength of uniplanar and
multiplanar tubular T- and X-joints. Doctoral dissertation.
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, Delft
University Press, 1995, ISBN 90-407-1081-3.
[17] Yura, J.A., Zettlemoyer, N., Edwards, I.F.: Ultimate capacity of circular tubular joints. Journal of the Structural Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1981.

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Keywords: CHS; X-joint; tensile chord stresses;

chord load function

Authors:
Andreas Lipp M.Eng.
KIT Steel & Lightweight Structures,
Research Centre for Steel, Timber & Masonry
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Otto-Amman-Platz 1, 76131 Karlsruhe
andreas.lipp@kit.edu
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Thomas Ummenhofer
KIT Steel & Lightweight Structures,
Research Centre for Steel, Timber & Masonry
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Otto-Amman-Platz 1, 76131 Karlsruhe
thomas.ummenhofer@kit.edu