Theenglishprofilebooklet PDF

Introducing the CEFR
for English
Version 1.1
August 2011
EnglishProfile
IntroducingtheCEFRforEnglish

This booklet is aimed at ELT professionals, including curriculum planners, materials writers and teachers. It will
help you make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning, teaching or assessing at
eachleveloftheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference(CEFR;CouncilofEurope2001).

Section 1 explains what English Profile is whilst sections 2, 3 and 4 describe how Grammar, Functions and
Vocabulary are being researched in English Profile, together with a summary of the latest findings in all three
research strands. Section 5 suggests how you can use these resources and section 6 describes where the
information in English Profile comes from and how reliable it is. Section 7 explains where you can access more
information and resources and how you can get involved with the ongoing development of English Profile,
followed by the key references for English Profile research to date and a list of current English Profile Network
members.
Contents
Page
Section1 WhatisEnglishProfile? 2

Section2 TheEnglishGrammarProfile 9

Section3 TheEnglishFunctionsProfile 36

Section4 TheEnglishVocabulary Profile 53

Section5 HowtousetheEnglishProfile 57

Section6 WhatisEnglishProfilebasedon? 58

Section7 HowtogetinvolvedwithEnglishProfile 59

Section8 References 60

Section9 TheEnglishProfileNetwork 63

Acknowledgements:ThispublicationhasbeencompiledfromexistingresourcesbyEnglishProfileteammembers
at Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, aided by contributions from academic consultants at other
institutions.TheproductionofthisbookletwassupportedbyagrantfromTheBritishCouncil.
UCLES/CUP 2011
1WhatisEnglishProfile?

TheaimsofEnglishProfileare:
x To set up and manage a collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research to produce Reference Level
DescriptionsforEnglishlinkedtothegeneralprinciplesandapproachesofCEFR.
x ToprovideacoresetofreferencetoolsforpractitionersworkinginEnglishlanguageeducation.

EnglishProfileisalongterm,collaborativeprogrammeofinterdisciplinaryresearchwhosegoalistotransposethe
Common European Framework of Reference for the English language (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) and for
teachingandassessmentpurposeswhereEnglishisthelanguagebeinglearned.Theintendedoutputisaprofile
of English language learners in terms of the six proficiency bands of the CEFR A1 to C2 (see Saville & Hawkey
2010). The English Profile Programme will do this by providing Reference Level Descriptions for English to
accompanytheCEFR.ThesedescriptionscoverwhatlearnersknowandcandoinEnglishateachofthesixCEFR
levels.EnglishProfileisregisteredwiththeCouncilofEuropeandismanagedbyacoregroupofcollaboratorsat
theUniversityofCambridge.

TheresearchbeingcarriedoutattheheartoftheEnglishProfileProgrammeisinnovative,providingmeasurable,
evidencebasedanswerstoimportantquestionsabouthowpeopleacquireEnglishandhowtheycanimprovetheir
skills. As well as adding to our understanding of language learning, the English Profile Programme is producing
practical outcomes that can be used in the development of curricula, course materials, teaching guides and
assessment systems. This publication traces progress and outcomes in three main current areas of research for
English Profile: the grammatical, functional and lexical features of learner English. But English Profile will also
describelearnerEnglishateachCEFRlevelinotherlinguisticareas,includingaspectsofspokenlanguagesuchas
pronunciation.

AninnovativefeatureofEnglishProfile,distinguishingitfrompreviousworkinthisfield,isthatresearchisbased
on electronic corpora of learner data, including the largest annotated corpus of English language learner test
outputintheworld:theCambridgeLearnerCorpus.Thisapproachisproducingresultswhichcanbeempirically
measured and which are not predictable from current language learning theories alone. Researchers are also
startingtofocusontheimpactofdifferentfirstlanguages,learningcontextsandtheeffectsoflanguagetransfer
onlearningatthedifferentCEFRlevels(A1toC2).

A steadily growing number of academics, government advisors and educationalists make up the English Profile
Network.NetworkPartnerscontributedirectlytothedevelopmentofEnglishProfilebyprovidingaccesstodataor
contributingtoworkinprogressthroughparticipationinworkshopsandseminars.

Insummary,EnglishProfileprovidesessentialinformationforcurriculumplanners,teachers,materialswriters,test
developers and researchers. The English Profile Programme aims to provide these ELT professionals with
resources,informationandevents,including:

x EnglishVocabularyProfile(EVP)arichonlinevocabularydatabasebyCEFRlevel
x EnglishGrammarProfileadatabaseofgrammaticalstructuresbyCEFRlevel(underdevelopment)
x EnglishFunctionsProfileadatabase ofrealEnglishexamplesforvariousfunctionsindifferent contextsby
CEFRlevel(underdevelopment)
x EnglishProfileGlossaryanonlineglossaryincludingconcisedefinitionsofkeyEPterminology
x EnglishProfileJournalononlinepeerreviewedjournalforEPrelatedresearch
x TheEnglishProfileStudiesserieslaunchedin2011thisseriesisdedicatedtoreportingdifferentaspectsof
researchanddevelopmentrelatedtotheEPProgramme
x WordoftheWeekemailupdatesbasedontheEVP
x EnglishProfileNetworkcommunitywebsite,www.englishprofile.org
UCLES/CUP 2011
x
x
Presentations at international education, applied linguistics and language testing conferences, e.g. IATEFL,
AILA,LTRC
RegularEPResearchSeminars(annuallyinCambridge),EPNetworkSeminars(twiceayearoutsidetheUK)and
otherworkshops.

ForthelatestinformationaboutEnglishProfileandnewsoffutureevents,workshopsandpublications,see
www.englishprofile.org
WhohasdevelopedEnglishProfile?

Thefoundingpartnersare:

ResearchisledbyCambridgeESOLandCambridgeUniversityPress,withcontributionsfromtheResearchCentre
forEnglishandAppliedLinguisticsandtheCambridgeComputerLaboratory.1

Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL are the main funding partners in English Profile. In addition,
English Profile has a growing number of Network Partners, including universities, schools, language training
centresandgovernmentdepartments,aswellasindividualresearchersandspecialists(seeSection9).
ThedevelopmentoftheCEFR

TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguagesisacommonframeworkoflanguageabilitydivided
intosixmainlevelsrangingfrombeginnertoadvanced.Itappearedinitspublishedformin2001,tenyearsafter
theRschlikonConferenceof1991whichconcludedthata"commonframeworkofreference"ofthiskindwould
beusefulasaplanningtooltopromote"transparencyandcoherence"inlanguageeducation.Inthedecadesince
itspublicationthisambitionhasbeenachievedtoalargeextentandthedocumentitselfhasbeentranslatedinto
37 languages, widely disseminated in Europe and in parts of Asia and Latin America (see Little 2007 for an
overview). It is important to remember, however, that the CEFR in that format was intended to be "a work in
progress"ratherthanthefinishedarticle.

The CEFR was therefore envisaged as a planning tool which could provide a common language for describing
objectives, methods and assessment in language teaching, as put into practice in diverse contexts for many
different languages. It was to facilitate the development of syllabuses, examinations, textbooks and teacher
training programmes, and in particular, to stimulate reflection and discussion. As the CEFR authors themselves
emphasiseintheirNotesfortheuser:

WehaveNOTsetouttotellpractitionerswhattodoorhowtodoit.Weareraisingquestionsnotanswering
them.ItisnotthefunctionoftheCEFtolaydowntheobjectivesthatusersshouldpursueorthemethodsthey
shouldemploy.(CouncilofEurope2001:xi)
PartoftheDepartmentofTheoreticalandAppliedLinguisticsfromAugust2011.
UCLES/CUP 2011

The six reference levels have been particularly influential and have generated a great deal of discussion in the
fieldsofcurriculumdevelopment,languageteaching,andespeciallyinassessment(seeCoste2007).Thelevelsare
describedthroughthesixlevelGlobalScale(A1toC2)andtheIllustrativeDescriptorsthatcanbeappliedtothe
learningandteachingofanylanguage.Table1presentstheGlobalScaledescriptorsforthesixmainCEFRlevels,
showinghowtheCEFRisageneraldocumentthatneedstobefurtherspecifiedandcontextualisedforeacharea
ofuse.

Table1:GlobalScaledescriptorsforCEFRlevels(CouncilofEurope2001:24)
ProficientUser
C2
C1
IndependentUser
B2
B1
BasicUser
A2
A1
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments
and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously,
very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more
complexsituations.
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit
meaning.Canexpresshim/herselffluentlyandspontaneouslywithoutmuchobvious
searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social,
academicandprofessionalpurposes.Canproduceclear,wellstructured,detailedtext
on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors
andcohesivedevices.
Canunderstandthemainideasofcomplextextonbothconcreteandabstracttopics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a
degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native
speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed
textonawiderangeofsubjectsandexplainaviewpointonatopicalissuegivingthe
advantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousoptions.
Canunderstandthemainpointsofclearstandardinputonfamiliarmattersregularly
encounteredinwork,school,leisure,etc.Candealwithmostsituationslikelytoarise
whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple
connected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describe
experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and
explanationsforopinionsandplans.
Canunderstandsentencesandfrequentlyusedexpressionsrelatedtoareasofmost
immediaterelevance(e.g.verybasicpersonalandfamilyinformation,shopping,local
geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can
describeinsimpletermsaspectsofhis/herbackground,immediateenvironmentand
mattersinareasofimmediateneed.
Canunderstandandusefamiliareverydayexpressionsandverybasicphrasesaimed
atthesatisfactionofneedsofaconcretetype.Canintroducehim/herselfandothers
andcanaskandanswerquestionsaboutpersonaldetailssuchaswherehe/shelives,
people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided
theotherpersontalksslowlyandclearlyandispreparedtohelp.

The CEFR reference levels and illustrative descriptors (exemplified in Table 1) were intended to be used for the
organisationoflearningandteachingwithineducationalsystems.Theselevelsanddescriptorsweretoprovidea
communication tool to assist ELT practitioners in practical ways, having been selected and synthesised from
existing scales which had been developed and operationalised in many diverse contexts. The CEFR itself,
representingfortyormoreyearsofworkbytheCouncilofEuropeModernLanguagesDivision,buildsonearlier
studiesoflevelsoflanguagecompetencessuchasThresholdLevel(vanEk1975;vanEk&Trim1998b),Waystage
andVantageLevels(vanEk&Trim1998a;2001).
UCLES/CUP 2011
However, although the CEFR is an intuitively helpful descriptive scheme for researchers, curriculum designers,
teachers,teachertrainers,andlanguagetesters,inmanycasestheexistingscalesandrelateddescriptorshavenot
provedtobeoperationallyadequateastheystand.Thedetailsarenotspecificenoughtohelptheseprofessionals
make decisions about language teaching and testing. So, while the CEFR can act as a focal point for reference
purposes, it must remain open to further development. In other words, the CEFR is not the finished article but
needstobeadaptedordevelopedfurtherforeachspecificcontextinwhichitistobeused.JohnTrim,oneofthe
fathers of the CEFR, and now Council of Europe observer to the English Profile Programme and an active
memberofthegrowingEPteam,summarisesthissituationsuccinctly:

Overall,theapparatusofleveldescriptionintheCEFRisrichandwelldifferentiatedfordifferentpurposesand
users.Evenso,experienceoverthepastdecadehasshownthatforhighstakespurposes,particularlythevalid
and reliable calibration of qualifications and the tests and examinations leading to their award, the CEFR
cannotbeusedasastandalonedocument.Indeed,itisprobablyimpossibleforanysuchdocumenttobeso
used.(prefacetoGreen2011:xi)

Importantly the CEFR is neutral with respect to the language being learned. This means that the users have to
decidewhatactuallygetstaughtorassessedintermsofthelinguisticfeaturesofaspecificlanguageateachofthe
common reference levels. To ensure that the framework is used appropriately and can be adapted to local
contexts and purposes, the Council of Europe has encouraged the production of instruments and support
materialstocomplementtheCEFR.Theseinstruments(sometimesknownastheCEFRtoolkit)includeReference
LevelDescriptions(RLDs)fornationalandregionallanguages.RLDsseektoprovidelanguagespecificguidancefor
usersoftheFramework;theaimistotransposetheFrameworkdescriptorsthatcharacterisethecompetences
ofusersorlearnersatagivenlevelintothelinguisticmaterialwhichisspecifictoagivenlanguage(i.e.grammar,
lexical items etc.) and considered necessary for the implementation of those competences. In providing a
description of the language across all six levels, the grammatical and lexical progression which is central to the
learningofthatlanguagecanbeaddressedmorepreciselywithintheFrameworkconcept.TheRLDsrepresenta
newgenerationofdescriptionswhichidentifythespecificformsofanygivenlanguage(words,grammar,etc.)at
eachofthesixreferencelevelswhichcanbesetasobjectivesforlearningorusedtoestablishwhetherauserhas
attainedthelevelofproficiencyinquestion.

To assist the teams in developing RLDs for their own languages, the Language Policy Division of the Council of
EuropeproducedageneralGuidefortheproductionofRLDswhichwasdiscussedataseminarheldinStrasbourg
in December 2005 (see Council of Europe website for details). Projects representing seventeen languages were
presented, including a proposal for English put forward by the University of Cambridge (represented at the
meetingbyCambridgeESOL).ThisproposalsubsequentlybecameknownastheEnglishProfileProject,which,in
turn,becametheEnglishProfileProgrammein2008.
UCLES/CUP 2011
TheEnglishProfileProgrammetheCEFRforEnglish

AmajorobjectiveoftheEPProgrammeistoanalyselanguageproducedbylearnersofEnglishinordertothrow
lightonwhattheycanandcan'tdowiththelanguageateachoftheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference
levels,forexample,inusingthegrammarandlexisattheirdisposal.ThefoundermembersoftheEPPfirstmetin
Cambridge in mid2005 to discuss the possibility of setting up an RLD project for English. Participating in those
discussions were several departments of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge ESOL, Cambridge University
Press, the Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics and the Computer Laboratory), together with
representatives from the British Council, English UK, and the University of Bedfordshire (Centre for Research in
EnglishLanguageLearningandAssessment).

Asaresultofthosemeetings,theEnglishProfileProjectwasestablishedbyacoregroupofpartnerorganisations
in 2005 to with the aim of making the CEFR more specifically explicit with regards to English language learning,
teachingandassessment.ThecoregroupwasextendedtocreateanEnglishProfileNetworkfrom2008onwards
(seepages6364foralistofEPNetworkPartners).CoordinationoftheProgrammeisbasedattheUniversityof
Cambridgeandinvolvesinterdisciplinarycollaborationbetweendifferentdepartments.

From an early stage the English RLDs were intended to be innovative with an emphasis on empirical research
rootedindata(suchaslearnercorpora),andthecollectionofrepresentativesamplesoflearnerlanguagewhich
couldbeusedtoexplorelanguagedevelopmentacrossthereferencelevels.Thishasinvolvedcollaboratorsfrom
the EP Network in different parts of the world who can supply samples of speaking and writing produced by
learners.ItisanaspectoftheprojectwhichhasreceivedexternalfundingbytheEuropeanCommissionandisnow
well underway (see the EUfunded English Profile Network project members on page 64).2 It has also required
technicalresourcesindevelopingnewelectroniccorporaandanalyticaltechniquessothatthesamplesoflearner
languagecanbestored,accessedandanalysedeffectively.

Giventheinterdisciplinarynatureoftheresearchbeingundertaken,researchteamsareengagedinparalleland
simultaneous investigations on a set of related research questions, observing them from different angles. This
English Profile publication brings together findings from three areas of investigation grammar, language
functionsandvocabulary(seeSections24).

Profile is a suitable name for the intended outputs of this
Definingcriteriality:
programme of research. A profile is dictionarydefined as a vivid

outline of the most outstanding characteristics of the subject
Criterialitymeansthatthelanguage
(Websters). English Profile does indeed seek to specify the
featuresconcernedserveasabasisfor
distinguishingoneproficiencylevelfrom
outstandingcharacteristicsor,inourterms,thecriterialfeatures
another.
validated by empirical research that distinguish each proficiency

level of learner English, from A1 to C2. Criterial features are
'TheunitsofcurrencyforEnglishProfile
linguistic properties that are distinctive and characteristic of each
descriptionsofthelanguagelevelswillbe
ofthelevels.Theyarenotmeanttocapturealllanguagefeatures
grammatical,lexicalandfunctional
thatalearnerusesatacertainlevelbuttodistinguishalevelfrom
exponentsderivedempiricallyascriterial
adjacent higher and lower levels. Criterial features describe
forthelevelsconcerned'.
changes from one level to the next, and hence are important for
(Saville&Hawkey2010:4)
bothpractitionersandtheoreticianstoknowabout.Thisapproach

isdealtwithcomprehensivelyinHawkinsandFilipovi(2011)and
EnglishProfileGlossary
also in Hawkins and Buttery (2009, 2010) and Salamoura and
Saville(2009,2010).
TheEPProgrammeisendorsedbytheCouncilofEurope,andhasbeenfundedbytheEuropeanCommission.
UCLES/CUP 2011

Theempiricalapproachmakesuseoflearnerdata,especiallysamplesofwritingandspeechproducedbylearners
atdifferentlevelsofproficiency.Theanalysisofthesedatahasproducedinformativeresultsaboutthelanguageof
learners and has added to our understanding of how the grammar and lexis of English is learned by different
groupsoflearners.Inadditiontoafocusontraditionalgrammaticalandlexicalfeatures,psycholinguisticfactors
have also been taken into account, including the effects of language transfer (i.e. the impact of different first
languages and learning contexts) on language learning. It is worth noting that some of the results would not
always be predicted from language acquisition theories or anticipated by researchers using experience and
intuitionalone,provingthevalidityandusefulnessofanempiricalapproachthathasrealdataatitscore.

TheCambridgeLearnerCorpus(CLC)hasbeencentraltothisworktodate.TheCLCconsistsoflearners'written
EnglishfromtheCambridgeESOLexaminationscoveringtheabilityrangefromA2toC2,togetherwithmetadata
(includinggender,ageandfirstlanguage)andevidenceofoverallproficiencybasedontheirscoresfortheother
skillscomponents(typicallyreading,listeningandspeaking)whichcurrentlycontainsaround45millionwords.The
tablebelowshowsthesixCEFRlevelsA1C2andtheirlinktotheCambridgeEnglishsuiteofexamstestingGeneral
EnglishwhichhavebeenattheheartofEPresearchtodate.3

The demographic information about the learners within the CLC allows researchers to compare different L1
learnerswithrespecttotheEnglishthattheyproduce.Whilelexicalanalysishasbeencarriedoutformanyyears
by researchers in Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, error coding and parsing of the corpus have
extended the kinds of analysis which can be carried out and have allowed the research teams to investigate a
wider range of English language features (see Nicholls 2003 on the errorcoding system which has informed EP
research).AcomputationalstrandofresearchwasintroducedintotheEPPattheoutsetandtheCLChasbeen
taggedandparsedusingtheRobustAccurateStatisticalParser(RASP)byresearchersintheComputerLaboratory
underthesupervisionofProfessorTedBriscoe(Briscoe,Carrol&Watson,2006).Theerrorcodingandtheparsing
means that sophisticated kinds of grammatical analysis are also possible and are an exciting current focus of
research.SeetheEnglishGrammarProfilesectionforafullerdescriptionoftheCLC.

Inadditiontodescribingthe"reallanguage"usedbylearners,EnglishProfilehassoughttoinvestigatethelearning
dimensionandtoconnecttheempiricalworkwithrelevantSLAandlinguisticresearch.InparticularEPresearchers
areinterestedin"howlearnerslearnEnglish"andhowdifferentlearningfactorsinteractundervariouscontextual
conditions.Theyhavebeguntoaddressquestionssuchas:

x Howdothedifferentkindsofcriterialfeatures(lexicalsemantic,morphosyntactic,syntactic,discourse,
notional,functional,etc.)interrelateandclustertogethertodefinelearnerprofilesinEnglish?Whichlinguistic
featuresrealisewhichlanguagefunctionsacrosstheCEFRlevels?
Seewww.CambridgeESOL.org/examsforarangeofexamstomeetdifferentneeds,includingprofessionaland
academicpurposes.
UCLES/CUP 2011
x
x
x
x
x
x
HowdoestheprofileofthelearnervarydependingontheirL1?Whatarethepedagogicalimplicationsofsuch
L1effectsforthelearning,teachingandassessmentofEnglish?
Whichcriterialfeaturescanbeusedasdiagnosticsofproficiencyattheindividuallearnerlevel?
WhatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenadultandyounglearnersofEnglishdevelopmentallyandat
eachstageoflearning?
Howdoeslearningtospeakdifferfromlearningtowrite/type?Whatdeterminescommunicativesuccessand
comprehensibilityinthesetwolanguagemodes?
Whatistheroleoflearnerandlearningstrategies?
Howdoallthepreviousfactorsinteractduringlanguagelearning?Howdotheypredictlikelyversuslesslikely
patterns of learner output? What type of learning model can accommodate these multifactor interactions
thatunderpinlanguagelearning?

Theemergingperformancepatternsareinformativeforourunderstandingofsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA),
e.g. the order of acquisition of linguistic features and the interaction of factors such as frequency and transfer
fromthefirstlanguage.JustasEPfindingscancontributetonewaspectsoftheoryandprovideusefulinsightsfor
developingamodelofL2acquisition,SLAandotherlinguistictheoriesinformEPresearchinthisandotherareas.

Insummary,EnglishProfilehasbegunasystematicandempiricallybasedapproachtospecifyingmorepreciselyhow
theCEFRcanbeoperationalisedforEnglish,andthisinturnwillleadtobetterandmorecomprehensiveillustrative
descriptors.InthiswaytheCEFRwillbecomethereallyusefultoolthatitwasintendedtobe(Milanovic2009:5).
DescriptionorPrescription?

Can English Profile provide a definitive set of RLDs that should be learnt, taught or assessed at each level? The
answerisnoasthisisnottheintentionoftheProgramme,whichseekstodescriberatherthanprescribe.The
exactchoiceoflanguagepointsthatsuitaparticularcourseofstudyorotherpurposewilldependonarangeof
factors,suchas:

x thelevelandrangeoflevelsoflearnersontheprogramme
x theageandeducationalbackgroundofthelearners
x theirreasonsforlearningEnglish
x theirareasofinterest
x theirfirstlanguage
x theirexperienceoflearningEnglishsofar
x othersourcesofinputandopportunitiestopractiseEnglish.

TheELTprofessionalwillneedtoweighthesefactorsupinmakingdecisions aboutwhattoincludein acourse.
EnglishProfileaimstoprovideresourcestohelpthosedecisions,includingexamplesofcurriculathathavebeen
drawnupusingEPresources.
HowcanteachersandlearnersbenefitfromEnglishProfile?

ThereislikelytobeawidespreadimpactonEnglishlanguageteachingandlearningingeneralthroughthesupport
EnglishProfilewillgivetothosepeoplewhoplancurricula,producelearningmaterialsanddesignEnglishlanguage
tests.EnglishProfileaimstohelpthemtojudgebetterwhatlanguagetoincludeateachleveloflearning.These
improvements should increase the relevance and efficiency of language learning. Individual teachers can access
EnglishProfileresourcesdirectlyiftheywanttogetmoreinformationaboutwhatissuitablefortheirlearnersat
eachCEFRlevel,seeSection5forsomeideasandexamples.

WepresentbelowthemainfindingsfromresearchtodateintheareasofGrammar,FunctionsandVocabulary.
UCLES/CUP 2011
2TheEnglishGrammarProfile

AsmentionedaboveinthesectiononthedevelopmentoftheCEFR,theCEFRdistinguishessixlevelsofproficiency
in terms of functions, that is the different uses to which language can be put and how learners learn to use
language in different ways as they master a second (or subsequent) language. The CEFR does this by providing
illustrativedescriptorsintheformofCanDostatements(giveninTable1above),forexample,A2levellearners
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance
whereas at the next level up, B1, learners Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar
mattersregularlyencounteredinwork,school,leisure,etc.

These illustrative descriptors do not provide any languagespecific details about the grammar and lexis that are
characteristicofeachproficiencylevelastheCEFRsauthorsintendedittobeneutralwithrespecttotheL2being
acquired so as to be widely compatible across European languages, for example allowing a given level of
proficiency in L2 German to be comparable with a corresponding level in L2 French or English. The CEFR is
thereforedeliberatelyunderspecifiedwithrespecttokeylinguisticfeaturesthatteachersorassessorslookforin
alearnersL2productionwhentheyseektoassignaparticularproficiencylevel(seeMilanovic2009).Learnerscan
perform any of the functions in the CEFRs illustrative descriptors by using a wide variety of grammatical
constructionsandwords,andtheabilityto"do"thetaskdoesnotindicatepreciselyhowalearnerdoesitorwith
whatgrammaticalandlexicalpropertiesofEnglish(orofanothertargetlanguage).

With respect to grammar the EP Programme aims to provide reference level descriptions (RLDs) that include
grammaticalandlexicaldetailsofEnglishtoextendtheCEFRsfunctionalcharacterisationofthedifferentlevels,
primarily using the Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC). This is done via criterial features, defined on page 6 and
further exemplified below, which is central to the approach taken within the EP Programme to specify the
referencelevelsforEnglish.

The basic idea behind the criterial features concept is that there are certain linguistic properties that are
characteristic and indicative of L2 proficiency at each level, on the basis of which teachers and examiners make
theirpracticalassessments(alongsidetheextenttowhichalearnerfulfilsthecommunicativefunctionsrequired
bytheactivityundertaken).Intheareaofgrammar,EnglishProfileaimstoestablishwhichgrammaticalfeatures
distinguishlearnersateachleveloftheCEFR,inotherwordswhatstructuresareused,forexample,bystudentsat
B1levelbutarenotfullyacquiredbylearnersatA2leveland,similarly,whatstructuresdoB1learnersnotappear
tomasteruntiltheyhaveprogressedtoB2level.Theexplicitidentificationofthesedistinguishingpropertiesfor
grammarandlexiswilladdthenecessaryspecificationoflinguisticfeaturestotheCEFR'sfunctionaldescriptorsfor
each of the levels. For grammar this will have considerable practical benefits for the learning, teaching and
assessmentofEnglish,togetherwithassociatedmaterialsdevelopmentandcurriculumplanningactivities.

Inwhatfollows,weprovideadescriptionaboutwhatlearnersknowintermsofgrammaratA2,B1,B2,C1andC2
levelsonthebasisofalistoflinguisticfeatureswehaveidentifiedasbeingcriterial,i.e.indicativeoftheselevels.
Weshouldnotethatcriterialfeaturesarelinguisticpropertiesthatarenotmeanttocapturealllanguagefeatures
thatalearnerusesatacertainlevelbutdistinguishalevelfromadjacenthigherandlowerlevels.Intheareaof
grammar,wefocusontwotypesofcriterialfeatures(Hawkins&Buttery2009,2010;Hawkins&Filipovi2011):
(i)correctlinguisticpropertiesofEnglishthathavebeenacquiredatacertainlevelandthatgenerallypersistat
higherlevels(seeTables27)
(ii)incorrectpropertiesorerrors,thatoccuratacertainlevelorlevelsandwithacharacteristicfrequency(see
Tables811).
Both the presence or absence of the errors, and especially their characteristic frequency, can be criterial for a
level.Itshouldalsobeemphasized,though,thatnosinglefeaturecanbecriterialordistinctiveforawholelevel;
onlyclustersoffeatureshavethepotentialtobecriterialforalevel.
UCLES/CUP 2011
ThedetailsoftherelationshipsbetweenstructuresandCEFRlevelhavebeenidentifiedbycarefulanalysisofthe
Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC),which has, so far, been the most important data source for English Profile
Grammar researchers. The CLC is a large collection of exam scripts written by students taking Cambridge ESOL
English exams around the world and has been collected since the early 1990s in a collaborative project by
Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL. It grows each year by around 3 million words, and currently
contains:

x over45millionwordsfrommorethan200,000learners
x over333,000examresponses
x allCEFRlevels
x 138firstlanguages
x Englishfromlearnersin203countries.

TheCLChassomeimportantfeatureswhicharenotfoundinotherL2learnercorpora,includingthenatureofits
rawdata,itssizeandstructure,andhowthematerialhasbeenerrorcoded,taggedandparsed.Theexamscripts
have been systematically categorised by their CEFR level according to reliable information captured during the
examinationprocesstogetherwithalargeamountofdemographicinformationaboutthelearners,includingtheir
L1, age and language learning motivation. This background information about the learners captured alongside
theirresponses(and the questionstheyresponded to)allowsresearcherstocomparedifferentL1learnerswith
respecttotheEnglishthattheyproduce.

HalfofthecorpushasbeenpainstakinglycodedforerrorsbyanexpertteamatCambridgeUniversityPressand
the corpus has been tagged and parsed by computational linguists at the University of Cambridge Computer
Laboratory.Uniquely,over21millionwordsoftheCLChavebeencodedforerrorsusingacodingsystemdevised
byCambridgeUniversityPress(seeNicholls2003).Theseerrorcodesareaddedtothecorpusmanuallybyateam
of language specialists who have been working with and refining the system for over 15 years. The CLC error
coding system is therefore one of the most comprehensive and precise systems available, which means that
researcherscanquicklyandaccuratelyanswerquestionslike:

x How often do students make a particular type of mistake? Frequency information tells us whether a
particulartypeofmistakeiscommonsothatwecantellwhicharethemostproblematicareasforstudents.

x Which students make which mistakes? We have a lot of information about the learners backgrounds in
Englishlanguagelearning,includinginformationabouttheirfirstlanguage.Thisallowsresearcherstoworkout
which areas of English are particularly problematic, for example, for speakers of Spanish, as opposed to
Chinese or Russian speakers, so that our profile of English can accurately reflect the particular needs of
learnerseverywhere.

In addition to being searchable lexically and by error type, the CLC is, to the best of our knowledge, the only
learner corpus of English that can also be searched syntactically, i.e. for specific grammatical relations and
patterns.ThisispossiblebecausetheCLChasbeensyntacticallyanalysedusingRASP(RobustAccurateStatistical
Parser),astateoftheartautomatictextparsingsystemdevelopedattheUniversityofCambridgeComputerLab
(Briscoe, Carroll & Watson 2006) and further advanced within the context of English Profile Programme (see
Hawkins & Buttery 2009). Combining grammatical information and statistical patterns, the RASP system assigns
partofspeech tags to individual words, groups words into phrases by creating parse trees and extracts the
grammatical relations between these phrases. The application of RASP to the CLC by a team of computational
linguistsenablesdetailedandhighlyaccuratesyntacticanalysesoflearnerEnglish,allowingamappingoflearner
syntaxanderrorpatternsacrosstheCEFRlevels.

The findings reported here are mostly from Hawkins & Filipovi (2011) but also from OKeeffe & Mark (in
preparation),definedinpedagogictermsandenrichedwithCLClearnerexamplesbytheCambridgeEnglishProfile
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team. These findings reflect the CLC as it currently stands. Since English Profile is a longterm programme of
research, the list of criterial features presented here will be enhanced and amended as more examination and
nonexaminationlearnercorpusdatabecomeavailabletotheProgramme(seeSection6forfurtherdetails).
Grammaticalcriterialfeatures
Thissectionprovidesacomprehensiveinventoryofallgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesidentifiedthusfarandgives
fourtypesofinformation:

a) asummaryofgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesthatdistinguisheachlevel,withexampleutterancesfromlearner
English(Table2),followedbyamorecomprehensivedescriptionateachlevel

b) examplesofmoredetailedgrammaticalReferenceLevelDescriptors(Tables37)

c) examplesoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovebetweenadjacentlevels(Tables811)

d) an example of how a grammatical feature develops in learner language across the CEFR levels (OKeeffe &
Markinpreparation)(Table12).
a.Grammaticalcriterialfeaturesthatdistinguisheachlevel

Table2:KeydistinguishingfeaturesoflearnerEnglishbyCEFRlevel
Level
A2
Somekeyfeatures
x Simplesentences
x Sentenceswithclausesjoinedbythat
x Descriptivephrasesintroducedbyapast
participle
x Simpledirectwhquestions
x Simplesentencesusinginfinitives
x Otherinfinitives
x Somemodals
ExamplesfromtheCLCattheappropriatelevel
x Wecamebackandwenttobed
x Iknowthatyouhaveanewhousetoo
x Therearebeautifulpaintingspaintedbyfamous
Iranianpainters
x Whatareyougoingtowear?
x Iwanttobuyacoat
x somethingtoeat
x Wemustbethereat7oclockinthemorning.

B1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
ingclauses
Whoserelativeclauses
Indirectquestions
Clauseswithwhatassubject/object
Verb+object+infinitive
easy+infinitive
Somecomplexauxiliaries
Additionalmodaluses
x
x
x
x
x
ingclausebeforethemainclause
It+verb+infinitivephrase
Whclauseassubjectofmainclause
Reportedspeech
Lexicallyspecificverbs/adjectives+infinitive
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Mariasawhimtakingataxi
thisfamouspainterwhosepicturesIlikeso
much
Guesswhereitis?
ThisiswhatIthink
Iorderedhimtogathermymen.
Thetrainstationiseasytofind.
wouldrather,hadbetter
Ihaveinvitedallhisfriends,soweshouldbe28
people.

B2

x
x
x
x
x
Talkingaboutsparetime,Ithinkwecouldgoto
theArtMuseum
Itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyourgroupaswell.
Whatcameafterwaswhatreallychangedmy
summer!
ItoldhimIlovedhissongs.
provedtobewrong,turnedouttobe,
expectedto
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C1
C2
x
x
x
Lexicallyspecificverbs+object+infinitive
Mightforpermission
Fewergrammaticalerrorswithagreement,
countabilityorwordformation
Somenewlexicallyspecificverbs+object+
infinitive
Longerutteranceswithgreateraccuracy
Ibelievehertobethiscountrysbest
representative.
MightItellyouwhatwe[should/will]discuss?
Theydeclaresomeproductstobethehitsofthe
season

So what language features could be said to criterial, i.e. distinguish a learner at each level? The features listed
below are most but not all of the structural features that the corpusinformed research has shown to be
significantforeachlevel,fromA2C2level(forafullerinventoryofgrammaticalcriterialfeaturesidentifiedthus
farseeTables37below).Thefocusisongrammarratherthanvocabularyalthoughtheuseofspecificlexicalitems
isalsomentioned.WedonotprovidecriterialfeaturesforA1level,asinvestigationofthislevelisunderway;our
initialresearchsuggeststhatsomebasicstructuresarealreadyattestedatthislevel.Currently,themostcomplete
descriptionoftheA1levelforEnglishisprovidedbyBreakthrough(Trim2009),availableontheEPwebsite.
Structuralfeaturesthataresignificantforeachlevel(fromA2C2levels)

A2

By the time the learner reaches A2, certain language features are emerging as being criterial, distinct
characteristics. The average length of utterance is 7.9 words (based on learner data from the Cambridge
Learner Corpus). These consist usually of simple sentences such as We came back and went to bed (see
examplesin A2.1inthetablebelow),Imetalotofinteresting people(A2.2), orIcangive youmyguitar
(A2.3).MorecomplexsentencesproducedbyA2learnersareofthetypeIknewthatyouhaveanewhouse
or I think the zoo is an interesting place. As these examples show, the that which may be used to join
clausesinsentencesofthistypemaybeincludedoromittedbylearnersatthislevel(A2.4).Usersatthis
level are also able to write sentences such as There are beautiful paintings painted by famous Iranian
painters where there is a descriptive phrase introduced by a past participle (A2.8). However, similar
descriptive phrases introduced by a present participle are a characteristic of a B1 rather than an A2 user
(B1.3).

A2 learners are able to produce simple direct wh questions as well as statements (A2.6). For example,
Whatareyougoingtowear?HowdidyouknowIlikedskateboards?Theyarealsoabletoproducesimple
sentencesusinginfinitivesIwanttobuyacoatorIwouldliketosellabook,forexample(A2.5).Infinitives
arealsofoundtobeusedcorrectlybyA2usersinphraseslikesomethingtoeat(A2.7).

A2 users also have gained the ability to use some modals in some of their basic senses. They can for
instanceusemay,canandmightforpossibility(A2.10),mustforobligation(A2.11)andshouldforadvice
(A2.12).

InotherwordsanA2levelofEnglishischaracterisedbytheuseofbasicandrelativelysimplestructures.
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B1

AsfarasB1isconcerned,itcanfirstofallbenotedthatlearnerstypicallycontinuetowritesteadilylonger
sentencesastheygoupthelevels.ThemeanlengthofaB1utteranceis10.8wordsincomparisonwith7.9
atA2leveland14.2atB2level.Onereasonfortheincreasinglengthisthatlearnersareabletocopewith
morecomplexsentences.Forexample,theyproducesentencescontainingingclauses,whichfollowand
complement the direct object of a main clause: Maria saw him taking a taxi (B1.2) or which function as
adverbs and follow the main clause they modify: He was sitting there, drinking a coffee and writing
something(B1.11).Interestingly,placingtheingclausebeforethemainclauseasinTalkingaboutspare
time,IthinkwecouldgototheArtMuseum,isafeaturethatcharacterisesB2usersofthelanguage(B2.1).

There are a number of other types of complex sentence that appear to be criterial at B1 level. While
learnersmaycopewellwithsimplerelativeclausesusingwhoandwhichatlowerlevels,theuseofwhose
asarelativepronounistypicalofthislevele.g.ImetaveryniceboywhosenamesJohn(B1.6).Indirect
questions similarly appear to be a marker of B1 language e.g. Guess where it is, I dont know what to do
(B1.89). Simple clauses beginning with what (what I think, What I saw) acting as either the object or
subjectofamainsentencearealsosuccessfullyusedbylearnersatthislevel,forexample,ThisiswhatI
think,WhatIsawwassoamazing(B1.7).

B1 learners are getting more confident in using the infinitive in more complex structures. While A2 level
students cope well with verb + infinitive (e.g. I would like to buy or I want to sell A2.5), at B1 level
studentsmakeuseofstructuresconsistingofverb+object+infinitive,withorwithouttoe.g.Iwouldlike
youtocome,Iwantyoutodoit,Ihelpedhimbakethecake(B1.1).Inaddition,thereareanumberofother
usesofinfinitiveslinkedwithspecificvocabularyitemsthatseemtofeatureastypicalfeaturesofalearner
havingreachedB1(B1.1214).Thelevelsignificantwordineachcaseisboldedinthefollowingexamples:
Monica seems to be good. I was supposed to go to the English class (B1.12). Your friends expect you to
spendanamazingholidaywiththem.Iwouldlikeyoutospendaweekendatmyhouse.Iwantyoutosayhi
[to]everybody(B1.13).Thetrainstationiseasytofind(B1.14).

Differentauxiliaryandmodaluseshelptomapalearnersprogressfromoneleveltoanother.AsfarasB1is
concerned,thecomplexauxiliarieswouldratherandhadbetteraretypicalfeaturesofaB1learner(B1.10).
Soalsoarecertainmodalusessuchasmayforpermission(MayIborrow.),mustforlogicalnecessity(He
is having a great time and must be really happy there) and should for probability (I have invited all his
friends,soweshouldbe28people)(B1.1618).Thenumberoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovefrom
A2toB1isfairlymodest,andimprovementsfocusontheuseofquantifiers(e.g.some,alotof,any,several,
other,everyetc.).

To sum up, the B1 language user has mastered the basic structures of the language and is beginning to
attempttoproducemorecomplexlanguage.
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B2

The mean length of a B2 user's utterance is 14.2 words, an increase of 3.4 words on B1. This can be
explained in part by the fact that increasingly complex sentences are used as the learner progresses
throughthelevels.

B2 language use typically, for example, may include sentences beginning with an adverbial clause
introducedbyaningword(B2.1)e.g.Talkingaboutsparetime,IcouldgototheArtMuseum.

AnotherexampleofamorecomplexstructurewhichcharacterisesaB2userisasentenceintroducedbyIt
andfollowedbyaninfinitivephrasee.g.Itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyourgroupaswell(B2.2).Yetanother
B2structureisasentencebeginningwithaWhwordintroducingaclauseactingasthesubjectofthemain
clauseofthesentence(B2.3)e.g.Whatattractedmethemostwasthepossibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe
sameinterests.AthirdexampleofastructurecharacterisingaB2leveluserisamainsentencewithadirect
object followed by a subordinate complement clause with or without that (B2.4), for example, I told him
(that)Ilovedhissongs.

AsatB1level,therearecertainverbsandadjectiveswhich,whenassociatedwithinfinitivestructures,can
be seen as characteristic of the level (B2.69); examples of some of these are given below with the
significantwordshighlightedinbold:
Myworriesprovedtobewrong.
UnfortunatelyformethesituationturnedouttobeoppositetowhatIthoughtitwas.
Andwhenevermoneyisinvolved,someproblemsarelikelytohappen.
Youaresuretoarriveatworkontime.
Iwouldprefermyaccommodationtobeinlogcabins.
HowmanyhoursadayshouldIbeexpectedtowork?
Yourtheatreisknowntopresentexcellentspectacles.
Sozooscouldbetheonlyplacewherepeoplecouldspendtheirtimeavoidingthepollutionweareobligedto
livewitheveryday.
Woodsisthoughttostandforallofwhitepeopleandthisbookcouldhaveaninfluenceonthem.
Thegrammarandvocabularyareabithardtolearn.

TherearenoinstancesofmodalusewhichcanbeseenasbeingcriterialforaB2leveloflanguage.Likein
B1,thenumberoferrortypesthatappeartoimprovesubstantiallyatthislevelremainssmall.
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C1

AtC1leveltheaveragelengthofutterancecontinuestoincrease,risingfromB2s14.2to17.3words.

ItisnoticeableoncelearnersmoveintoClevelsthatthecriterial,distinguishingfeaturesoftheirlanguage

areacombinationoflexisandstructure.Learnersusestructuresmasteredatearlierlevelsbutwithamuch

widerrangeofvocabularyandinmoreaccurateways.Verbssuchaschance,believe,find,suppose,take,
assume, discover, feel and prove used in complex structures which include an infinitival clause are
characteristicofthelanguageofaC1levellearner(C1.13).Herearesomeexamples(seeTable6formore):
x Ichancedtoknowaboutyourcompetitionfromaninternationalmagazine.
x BeingbornandraisedinMexico,Ibelievehertobethecountrysbestrepresentativeintheworld.
x Icanassureyouthatthestrikeisntasworryingasyousupposeittobe.
x Secondly,thelowcostofmembershipandentrywasassumedtobeanadvantageaswell.
x Theinternetisavaluabletool,whichcanbeprovedtobethemostimportantaspectinthelearning
process.

The only strictly grammatical features which might be seen as criterial, new features of language as the
learnermovesfromB2toC1,aretheuseofadoublesgenitivestructure(e.g.thebridesfamilyshouse)
(C1.4)andtheuseofmighttoconveytheideaofpermission(MightItellyouwhatwediscussed?)(C1.5).

Ingeneral,however,itisnotmainlythecasethattheC1learnerismasteringnewgrammaticalfeatures,it
ismorethatheorsheisusingthosethatwerealreadyavailableatB2levelinamuchmoreaccurateway.
Farfewergrammaticalerrorswith,say,agreement,countabilityorwordformoccuratC1thanatB2level.

C2

ThetrendsnotedatC1continueintoC2inthatwhatmarksoutC2usersofthelanguageisthefactthat
theyhaveagreatergrammaticalaccuracyandawiderlexicalrangethanC1users;inotherwordsthereare

nospecificnewstructuresappearingatthislevel.C2 usersalsocontinuethetrendofproducingalonger

averageutterancethanatlowerlevels;themeanlengthofutteranceforC2is19wordsasopposedto17.3
atC1.

Lexical range in relation to specific structures continues to expand. For example declare, presume,
rememberandtheadjectivetoughareusedwiththefollowingcomplexinfinitivecomplementsatC2level
(C1.13):
They declare some products to be the hits of the season, thus creating fashion and few of us want to be
unfashionable.
x Hepresumedworktobethewaytolive.
x Notonlymeetingswithnewpeoplearepresumedtogivenewexperiences.
Sherememberedherfathertobealively,tallandbroadshoulderedmanwithabeardthattickledwhenhe
bentdowntokisshergoodnight.
x Whatsheknewwouldbereallytoughtolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.

Atthesametime,theC2levelseesthehighestnumberofsignificantgrammaticalerrorimprovementsofall
CEFRlevels.LikeinC1,therearesignificantreductionsoferrorratesformostoftheerrortypesidentifiedin
theCambridgeLearnerCorpus.Overall,itcanbesaidthatitisattheClevelswherelearnersappeartobe
masteringandaccuratelyusingthemajorityofgrammaticalfeaturesinEnglish.

Tosumup,aslearnersprogressfromlevelA1throughtoB2,theygraduallyacquirenewstructureswhichcanbe
identifiedascharacteristicofeachlevel.OncetheyreachClevels,learnersprogressischaracterisedbyincreased
structuralaccuracyandbygreaterlexicalaccuracyandrangeratherthanbytheadditionofnewstructurestotheir
repertoire.
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A2.7
A2.6
A2.5
A2.4
A2.3
A2.2

A2.1

x Iwanttobuyacoat.
x Iwouldliketosellabook.

x Iknewthatyouhaveanewhousetoo.
x Ithinkthezooisaninterestingplace.

x Icangiveyoumyguitar.
x Illgiveittoyou
ExamplesfromtheCLC(A2level)

x Canyoucometomyhouseat2pmon
Saturday?
x Youcangettherebytrain.

x Imetalotofinterestingpeople.
x NowIwriteapostcardforyou

x Whatareyougoingtowear?
x Sowhenareyoucelebratingyour
birthday?

Pronoun+infinitive

ThesearephrasesbeginningwithaPronoun(e.g.something)followedbyaVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb)(e.g.something x Youcanbringsomethingtoeatifyou
Structure/feature
Simpleclauseswithoutobject
[Intransitiveclauses,NPV]
ThesearesimpleclausesconsistingofaNounPhraseandanintransitiveVerb,i.e.averbthattakesnoobject(e.g.go,
arrive).TheNounPhraseisthesubjectoftheintransitiveVerb.TheintransitiveVerbcanbefollowedbyaparticle(e.g.
Wecameback),anadverb(e.g.Youcangetthere)oraprepositionalphrase(e.g.YoucangotoYiltePark).
Clauseswithadirectobject
[Transitiveclauses,NPVNP]
TheseareclausescontainingaNounPhrasefollowedbyaVerbandanotherNounPhrase(e.g.helovedher).TheNoun
PhraseprecedingtheVerbisthesubjectandtheNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbisthedirectobject(i.e.heisthesubject
andheristhedirectobjectoftheverbloved).TheNounPhraseservingastheobjectoftheVerbcanbefollowedbya
prepositionalphrase(e.g.NowIwriteapostcardforyou).
Clauseswithadirectandindirectobject
[Ditransitiveclauses(i)NPVNPNP&(ii)NPVNPPP(P=to)]
(i)TheseclausescompriseaNounPhrase,aVerbandtwoNounPhrasesaftertheVerb(e.g.Icangiveyoumyguitar).The
NounPhraseprecedingtheverbisitssubject(e.g.I).ThefirstNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbistheindirectobject(e.g.
you)andthesecondNounPhrasethedirectobject(e.g.myguitar).
(ii)Intheseclauses(Illgiveittoyou)theVerbisfollowedbyaNounPhrasewhichisthedirectobject(e.g.it)anda
prepositionalphrasewithtowhichistheindirectobject(e.g.toyou).
Verb+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat
[VerbwithafinitecomplementclauseNPVS]
ThesestructurescompriseonemainclausecontainingaNounPhraseandaVerbandasubordinatecomplementclause
withafiniteVerb(i.e.averbinflectedforpersonandtense)(e.g.theythoughtthathewasalwayslate).thatatthe
beginningofthesubordinateclausecanbeovertorcanbeomitted(e.g.Ihope(that)youarewell).
Verb+infinitive
[Verbwithsubjectcontrolledinfinitivalcomplements,NPVVPinfin]
TheseareclausescomprisingaNounPhraseandamainVerb,whichisfollowedbyanotherVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb)
(e.g.Iwantedtocome).TheinfinitivalVerbisthecomplementofthemainVerb.TheNounPhraseisthesubjectofboth
themainVerbandoftheinfinitivalVerb.
DirectWHquestions
ThesearequestionsbeginningwithaWHword(e.g.what,who,where)followedbyanauxiliary(e.g.have,do)oracopula
(e.g.be),aNounPhrase(e.g.you,thepark),andaVerb(e.g.Whatdoyoulike?).

Table3:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforA2level
b.GrammaticalReferenceLevelDescriptorsforEnglish
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17
ModalSHOULDintheAdvice(deontic)sense
ThemodalverbshouldisusedtodenoteAdvice(e.g.Youshouldseeadoctor).
A2.12
ModalMUSTintheObligation(deontic)sense
ThemodalverbmustisusedtodenoteObligation(e.g.Youmustnotdrivesofast).
Noun+descriptivephraseintroducedbypastparticiple
[Postnominalmodificationwithed]
ThesearephrasescomprisingaNounPhrasefollowedbyaPastParticipleendingined(e.g.theboydeprivedofhisice
cream).
Doubleembeddedgenitivewith(of(of))
[An[of[of]]doubleembeddingofpostnominalgenitives]
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.thebeginning)followedbyanofgenitivephrase(e.g.ofthe
end),whichcontainsanotherofgenitivephrase(e.g.thebeginningoftheendofcivilization).
ModalsMAY,CANandMIGHTinthePossibility(epistemic)sense
Themodalverbsmay,canandmightareusedtodenotePossibility(e.g.Itmayrainthisafternoon).
A2.11
A2.10
A2.9
A2.8
todrink).

x Thenwemaygosightseeing.
x thepaintmightmakeourtshirts
dirty.

x Wemustbethereat7oclockinthe
morning.

x Youshouldwearoldclothesbecausewe
willgetdirty.

x Ilikethecoloursofthebackofthe
mobilephone
wantto.
x Imgoingtoafarmthisweekendand
theresnothingtodo.

x Therearebeautifulpaintingspainted
byfamousIranianpainters
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It+Verb+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat
[ItExtrapositionwithfiniteclauses]
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingonemainclausebeginningwithItandaVerbPhrase,followedbyasubordinate
complementclausestartingwiththatandcontainingafiniteVerb(i.e.averbthatisinflectedforpersonortense)(e.g.It
doesntmatterthatsheisnothere).Theuseofthatisoptional(e.g.Itisapity(that)theycannotcome).
Verb+PrepositionalPhrase+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat
[VerbswithaPPplusfinitecomplementclause,NPVPPS]
ThesearecomplexclausesbeginningwithaNounPhrasefollowedbyamainVerbthattakesascomplementsa
PrepositionalPhraseandasubordinatecomplementclausestartingwiththatandcontainingafiniteVerb(i.e.averbthat
isinflectedforpersonortense)(e.g.Theyadmittedtotheauthoritiesthattheyhadenteredillegally).ThePrepositional
PhrasetomeistheindirectobjectofthemainVerbadmittedandthesubordinateclauseisthedirectobjectoftheVerb.
thatatthebeginningofthesubordinateclausecanbeovertorcanbeomitted(e.g.Theyadmittedtotheauthorities
(that)theyhadenteredillegally).
Relativeclauseswithwhose
[Relativeclausesformedonagenitiveposition]
Thesearerelativeclausesbeginningwithwhose(i.e.WHwordinthegenitive)andarefollowedbyanotherNounPhrase
(e.g.whosepictures).
WHword+NounPhrase+Verbclausesusedassubjectorobject
[Pseudocleftstype(i)WHNPVP]
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandaVerb(e.g.whatI
like).TheWHwordisthedirectobjectoftheVerbinthisclause(i.e.whatistheobjectoflike).ThePseudoclefttype(i)
structuretypicallyappearswithinanothersentenceasasubject(WhatIlikeiswatchingfootball)orasanobject
(complement)aftertheVerbbe(ThisiswhatIlike)
B1.4
B1.7
B1.6
B1.5
B1.3
B1.2
Structure/feature
Verb+object+infinitive
[VerbswithobjectcontrolledinfinitivalcomplementsNPVNPVPinfin]
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingamainclausewithaVerbfollowedbyaNounPhraseandacomplementclause
withaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)withorwithoutto(e.g.Ihelpedher(to)bakethecake).TheNounPhraseheristhe
directobjectofthemainverbandthelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerb.
Verb+object+Verbendingining
[VerbswithobjectcontrolledingcomplementsNPVNPVPing]
TheseareclausesbeginningwithaNounPhraseandaVerbfollowedbyanotherNounPhraseandaVerbendingining
(e.g.Icaughthimstealing).TheNounPhrasehimisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbandthelogicalsubjectoftheVerb
endingining.
Noun+descriptivephraseintroducedbypresentparticiple
[Postnominalmodificationwithing]
ThesearephrasesconsistingofaNounPhrasefollowedbyaPresentParticipleendingining(e.g.theboywalkingdown
theroad).

B1.1
Table4:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB1level

x abiographyofthisfamouspainter
whosepicturesIlikesomuch

x WhatIabsolutelydislikeisgo
shopping,althoughIreallylikenew
clothes.
x IopenedthedoorandwhatIsawwas
soamazing.

x Hesaidtomehewouldliketocome
backsoon.
x AsIwasdesperateIputan
advertisementinthenewspaperasking
ifsomeonehadit,butnooneanswered
me.

x ItstruethatIdontneedaringto
makemerememberyou.

x Mariasawhimtakingataxi.
ExamplesfromtheCLC(B1level)

x Icalledmyassistantandorderedhim
togathermymentothehall.
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IndirectWHquestions
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandafiniteVerb,i.e.a
verbinflectedforpersonandtense(e.g.heaskedwhatheshoulddo).
IndirectWHquestionswithinfinitive
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHword(e.g.what)followedbyaNounPhraseandaninfinitivalVerb
(to+Verb)(e.g.heexplainedhowtodoit).
ComplexauxiliariesWOULDRATHERandHADBETTER
ThesearecomplexauxiliariesthatconsistofaSimpleAuxiliaryandanAdverb(e.g.wouldrather,hadbetter)andare
followedbyaVerb(e.g.Ihadbetterimprovemygame).
Adverbialsubordinateclauseswithingthatfollowtheclausetowhichtheyareattached
Thesearesubordinateclauseswithverbsendingining(e.g.walkingdowntheroad).Thesesubordinateclauseshavean
adverbialfunctionandcanfollowthemainclause(e.g.hepumpedintoalamppostwalkingdowntheroad).
seem,supposed(adjective)+infinitive
[SubjecttoSubjectRaising,NPVVPinfin]
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandfollowedbytheVerbseem(e.g.
Johnseems)ortheVerbbeandtheAdjectivesupposed(e.g.Johnissupposed)andasubordinateclausewithaninfinitival
Verb(to+Verb)(e.g.Johnseems/issupposedtobegood).IntheSubjecttoSubjectRaisingconstructions,thesubjectof
themainVerbisalsothelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitssubjectpositionwithinthe
subordinateclausetobecomethesubjectofthemainclause(henceSubjecttoSubjectRaising).
expect,like,want+object+infinitive
[SubjecttoObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsexpect,likeorwant(e.g.
Johnexpects),followedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Johnexpects
hertocometotheparty).TheNounPhraseheristhedirectobjectofthemainVerbandthelogicalsubjectofthe
subordinateinfinitivalclause,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthesubjecttobecomethedirectobjectofthemain
clause(henceSubjecttoObjectRaising).

B1.8
B1.9
B1.10
B1.11
B1.12
B1.13

x Guesswhereitis.
x IdontknowhowIcouldhavedoneit.

x Ididnotknowwheretolookforit
anymore.
x Idontknowwhattodo.

x Theywon'tbeveryhappyifyougoon
holidaywiththemandthenyouarebad
temperedallthetimebecauseyou
wouldratherbewithyourfriends.
x Ifyoudon'tliketogowiththemyou
hadbettertellthemwhyyoudon't
wanttocome.

x Hewassittingthere,drinkingacoffee
andwritingsomething.

x Monikaseemstobegood,intelligent
teacher,butIhaveabadfeelingabout
Paula.
x ItlookslikeIhavearehearsalforthe
YamahaConcertatthesametimeI
wassupposedtogototheEnglishclass.

x Saratoldmeshewouldcome,butI
didn'texpecthertocomesoearly.
x Iamdoingfine,Iexpectedittobemore
difficult,butitisnotsohard.
x FinallyIwantyoutosayhi[to]
everybodyandIamlookingforwardto
seeingyou.
20
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ModalMUSTintheNecessity(epistemic)sense
ThemodalverbmustisusedtodenotelogicalorphysicalNecessity.
ModalSHOULDintheProbability(epistemic)sense
ThemodalverbshouldisusedtodenoteProbability.
B1.17
B1.18
B1.16
B1.15
easy+infinitive
[ToughMovementwiththeadjectiveeasy]
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhrase,theVerbbeandtheadjectiveeasy
(e.g.thebookiseasy)followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thebookiseasytoread).In
ToughMovementstructuresthesubjectofthemainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,which
hasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.toreadthebook)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Thebookis
thelogicalobjectofreadingandthiswholeevent(readingthebook)isclaimedtobeeasy,notnecessarilythebookitself
(e.g.thebookcouldbeeasytoreadbuthardtocarry).TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovementconstructionscan
occupyothernonsubjectpositionsinthesubordinateclausee.g.Thestudentiseasytostudywith
Doubleembeddedgenitivewith(of(s))
(An[of[s]]doubleembeddingofansgenitivewithinanofgenitive)
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.thebeginning)followedbyanofgenitivephrasewhich
containsansgenitive(possessive)phrase(e.g.thebeginningoftheprofessorsbook).

ModalMAYinthePermission(deontic)sense
ThemodalverbMAYisusedtodenotePermission.
B1.14

x MayIborrowyourbicycleforthis
weekend?

x Thismoviemustbegreat.Mysistertold
methatshewasamazed[when]she
[saw]thefilmsoIthinkit'sreallygood.
x Heishavingagreattimeandmustbe
reallyhappythere.

x Ihaveinvite[d]allhisfriends,[so]we
shouldbe28people.

x Iamabigfanoftheworldsmost
famousBritishsecretserviceagent.

x Thetrainstationiseasytofind.
x Theproblemyouhaveisnotveryeasy
tosolve.
UCLES/CUP 2011
21

B2.6
B2.5
B2.4
B2.3
B2.2

B2.1
Structure/feature
Adverbialsubordinateclauseswithingthatprecedetheclausetowhichtheyareattached
Thesearesubordinateclauseswithverbsendingining(e.g.walkingdowntheroad).Thesesubordinateclauses
precedethemainclauseandactlikeadverbsmodifyingthemainclause(e.g.Walkingdowntheroad,hepumpedinto
alamppost).
It+Verb+infinitive
[ItExtrapositionwithinfinitivalphrases]
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingonemainclausebeginningwithItandaVerb,followedbyasubordinate
complementclausewithaVerbintheinfinitive(to+Verb)(e.g.Itislikelytoraintomorrow).
WHword+VerbPhraseclausesusedassubjectorobject
[Pseudoclefttype(ii)WHVP]
ThesearesubordinateclausesbeginningwithaWHword(e.g.what)followedbyaVerbandoftenaNounPhrase(e.g.
whatinterestsme).TheWHwordisthesubjectoftheVerbinthisclause(i.e.whatisthesubjectofinterest).The
Pseudoclefttype(ii)structuretypicallyappearswithinanothersentenceasasubject(Whatinterestsmeispolitics)or
asanobject(complement)(Iknowwhatinterestsme).

Verb+object+subordinateclausewithorwithoutthat
[VerbswithanNPplusfinitecomplementclause,NPVNPS]
ThesearecomplexclausescomprisingonemainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandaVerbfollowedbyaNoun
Phraseandasubordinatecomplementclause(e.g.hetoldmethattheaudiencewasleaving).Thesubordinate
complementclausecanbeoptionallyintroducedbythat.
Verb+object+adjective
[Secondarypredications,NPVNPAdjP]
TheseareclausescomprisingaNounandaVerb,whichisfollowedbyaNounPhraseandanAdjective(e.g.hepainted
thecarred).TheNounPhrasefollowingtheVerbisthedirectobject(thecar)andtheadjective(red)complements
thatobject.InSecondaryPredicationconstructions,thedirectobjectoftheverb(thecar)alsocontractsasecondary
relationwiththefollowingpredicate(isorbecomesred).
theverbsappear,cease,fail,happen,prove,turnout,andtheadjectivescertain,likely,sure,unlikely+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandfollowedbytheVerbsappear,
cease,fail,happen,prove,turnout(e.g.Thenoiseceased)ortheVerbbeandtheAdjectivescertain,likely,sure,
unlikely(e.g.Johnislikely)andasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalverb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thenoiseceasedtogeton
hisnerves).IntheSubjecttoSubjectRaisingconstructions,thesubjectofthemainVerbisalsothelogicalsubjectof
theinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitssubjectpositionwithinthesubordinateclausetobecomethesubjectof
themainclause(SubjecttoSubjectRaising).
Table5:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB2level

x Tomyregret,theeveningtotally
failedtoliveuptomyexpectations.

x Butifyoudontwanttotakeanyrisks,
justgoandpaintthehousesyellow
andblue

x Whatattractedmethemostwasthe
possibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe
sameinterests.
x Butwhatcameafterwaswhatreally
changedmysummer!

x ItoldhimIlovedhissongs
x Shetoldmethatshehadworkedfor
summercampforchildren

x itwouldbehelpfultoworkinyour
groupaswell.

x Talkingaboutsparetime,Ithinkwe
couldgototheArtMuseum
22
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B2.10
B2.9
theverbsexpected,known,obliged,thought(inPassivevoice)+infinitive
[SubjecttoObjectRaisingplusPassive,NPVVPinfin]
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsexpect,know,oblige
orthinkinthepassiveform(e.g.Smokingisknown),followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb
(to+Verb)(e.g.Smokingisknowntocausecancer).TheNounPhraseSmokingisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause
thathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.smokingasinWeknowsmokingtocausecancer)(hence
SubjecttoSubjectRaising).Itisthenfurtherpromotedtosubjectpositioninthemainclausebytheoperationofthe
Passive.
difficult,good,hard+infinitive
[ToughMovementconstructionswiththeadjectivesdifficult,good,hard]
These are complex clauses comprising a main clausebeginning with aNoun Phrase,the Verb beand the adjectives
difficult,goodorhard(e.g.Applesaregood)followedbyasubordinateinfinitivalclause(e.g.Applesaregoodtoeat).
InToughMovementstructuresthesubjectofthemainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,
whichhasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.toeatapples)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Apples
isthelogicalobjectofeatingandthiswholeevent(eatingapples)isclaimedtobegood,notnecessarilytheapples
themselves.TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovementconstructionscanoccupyothernonsubjectpositionsinthe
subordinateclausee.g.Thestudentiseasytostudywith.

Doubleembeddedgenitivewith((of)s)
(An[[of]s]doubleembeddingofanofgenitivewithinansgenitive)
x AfterthatIwenttoafriendofmines
ThesearecomplexphrasescontainingaNounPhrase(e.g.war)precededbyansgenitive(possessive)phrasewhich
housewhereIspentoneweek.
containsanofgenitivephrase(e.g.thekingofEnglandswar).
B2.8

x YouweresokindandfriendlythatI
hadneverimaginedmyselftohave
visitedfarforeigncountry,Alaska.
x Iwouldprefermyaccommodationto
beinlogcabins,becauseIamallergic
tosomeinsectsthatmightgointhe
tent.

x Yourtheatreisknowntopresentexcelle
spectacles.
x Sozooscouldbetheonlyplacewhere
peoplecouldspendtheirtime
x avoidingthepollutionweareobligedto
livewitheveryday.

x ThefirstRestaurantis"Mexico",itis
situatednearthemetrostationandis
notverydifficulttofind.
x Thegrammarandvocabularyarea
bithardtolearn.
imagine,prefer+object+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsimagineorprefer
(e.g.Iwouldprefer),followedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.I
wouldprefermyaccommodationtobeinlogcabins).TheNounPhrasemyaccommodationisthedirectobjectofthe
mainVerbandthelogicalsubjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthe
subjectofthesubordinateclausetobecomethedirectobjectofthemainclause(SubjecttoObjectRaising).
B2.7
UCLES/CUP 2011
23
C1.5
C1.4
C1.3
C1.2

C1.1
Structure/feature
theverbchance+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbchance(e.g.Ichance),
followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.IchancedtoknowaboutyourCompetitionfrom
an international magazine). In the SubjecttoSubject Raising constructions, the subject of the main Verb is also the
logicalsubjectoftheinfinitivalVerbandithasmovedoutofitspositionasasubjectofthesubordinateclausetobecome
thesubjectofthemainclause(henceSubjecttoSubjectRaising).
believe,find,suppose,take+object+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsbelieve,find,supposeor
takefollowedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithan infinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Ifindthistobemore
interestingthanthewalkingroutetoLakeHawksmere).TheNounPhrasethisisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbfind
and the logical subject of the subordinate infinitival clause, and it has moved out of its position as the subject of the
subordinateclausetobecomethedirectobjectofthemainclause(SubjecttoObjectRaising).
assumed,discovered,felt,found,proved(inPassivevoice)+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbsassumed,discovered,
feltorfoundinthepassiveform,(e.g.Thechildrenstorieswerefelt),followedbyasubordinateclausewithaninfinitival
Verb(to+Verb)(e.g.Thechildrenstorieswerefelttobethebestideaforkids).TheNounPhraseThechildrenstoriesis
thesubjectofthesubordinateclausethathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.Wefeltthechildrenstories
werethebestideaforkids)(SubjecttoObjectRaising).Itisthenfurtherpromotedtosubjectpositioninthemainclause
bytheoperationofthePassive.
Doubleembeddedgenitivewith((s)s)
(An[[s]s]doubleembeddingofansgenitivewithinansgenitive)
ThesearecomplexphrasesconsistingofaNounPhrase(e.g.house)precededbyansgenitive(possessive)phrasewhich
containsanothersgenitive(possessive)phrase(e.g.thebridesfamilyshouse).
ModalMIGHTinthePermission(deontic)sense
ThemodalverbmightisusedtodenotePermission.
Table6:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC1level

x MightItellyouwhatwediscuss?

x Afterspendingthefirstdayoftheir
marriageinthebridesfamilyshouse

x Ifindthistobemoreinterestingthan
thewalkingroutetoLakeHawksmere.
x OverallIfoundthistobepretty
satisfyingasitdoesfulfillmostofthe
students'wishes.

x Thechildrenstorieswerefelttobethe
bestideaforkids,afterofcoursethe
ponyrides.
ExamplesfromtheCLC(C1level)

x DearSirs,Ichancedtoknowaboutyour
Competitionfromaninternational
magazine.
24
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C2.3
C2.2

C2.1
Structure/feature
declare,presume,remember+object+infinitive
These are complex clauses containing a main clause beginning with a Noun Phrase and the Verbs declare, presume or
rememberfollowedbyaNounPhraseandasubordinateclausewithaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.Hepresumedwork
tobethewaytolive.).TheNounPhraseworkisthedirectobjectofthemainVerbpresumedandthelogicalsubjectofthe
subordinateinfinitivalclausetobe,andithasmovedoutofitspositionasthesubjectofthesubordinateclausetobecome
thedirectobjectofthemainclause(SubjecttoObjectRaising).
theverbpresumed(inPassiveVoice)+infinitive
ThesearecomplexclausescontainingamainclausebeginningwithaNounPhraseandtheVerbpresumedinthepassive
form, (e.g. Not only meetings with people are presumed), followed by a subordinate clause with an infinitival Verb
(to+Verb)(e.g.Notonlymeetingswithpeoplearepresumedtogivenewexperiences).TheNounPhrasemeetingsisthe
subjectofthesubordinateclausethathasbeenraisedintothehigherobjectposition(e.g.Wepresumemeetingstobe)
(SubjecttoObject Raising). It is then further promoted to subject position in the main clause by the operation of the
Passive.
tough+infinitive
[ToughMovementconstructionswiththeadjectivetough]
ThesearecomplexclausesbeginningwithaNounPhrase,theVerbbeandtheAdjectivetough(e.g.ourteamwastough)
followedbyaninfinitivalVerb(to+Verb)(e.g.ourteamwastoughtobeat).InToughMovementstructures,thesubjectof
themainclauseisthelogicalobjectofthesubordinateinfinitivalclause,whichhasmovedfromtheobjectposition(e.g.to
beatourteam)tothepositionofthesubjectofthemainclause.Ourteamisthelogicalobjectofbeatandthiswholeevent
(beatingourteam)isclaimedtobetough,notnecessarilyourteamitself.TheraisedNounPhraseinToughMovement
constructionscanoccupyothernonsubjectpositionsinthesubordinateclausee.g.Whatsheknewwouldbereallytough
tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath
Table7:GrammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC2level

x Whatsheknewwouldbereallytough
tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.

x Theydeclaresomeproductstobethe
hitsoftheseason,thuscreatingfashion,
andfewofuswanttobeunfashionable
x Plus,Iremembermyclassestobevery
participative,anddynamic.

x Notonlymeetingswithpeopleare
presumedtogivenewexperiences.
UCLES/CUP 2011
25
MissingAdverb
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadverbforcompletenessandthat
adverbhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdverberror.
MissingConjunction(LinkWord)
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaconjunction/linkword(orwords)for
completenessandthatwordhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingConjunctionerror.
MissingQuantifier
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaquantifierforcompletenessandthat
quantifierhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingQuantifiererror.
InflectionofQuantifier
Whenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonvalidinflectedformofthe
quantifier.
4.
5.
6.
8.
7.

amonthagoIboughtanhandheld.(a)
Thisisainterestingplace!(an)

Here'realotofkindsofanimals.(lotofdifferentkinds)
Theweatherisfantastic,we[allhave]reallyfun(reallygoodfun)

Ithinkwewill[]haveagoodtime[.]Hopetoseeyou(seeyousoon)
Youcangetbycar.(getthereby)

You[want]thispleasecallme.(Ifyou)
IhopeIgobytrainsoIwillarriveat5o'clock,especiallyIwanttoplay[]yournew
videogame(especiallybecauseIwant)

Iwillbuynewtrousersandapairofshoes.(buysomenew)
ExamplesfromtheCLC(A2level)

It'sthreeyearsoldandheworksverywell,butIwouldlikeanewcomputer.(it)
Ihavealotof[books].Iboughtoneyearsago.(them)

Ithinkthatwecangoforawalk,rideabike,playfootballandotherssports.(other)
Iboughta[pairof]trouser[s]andsomes[Tshirts].(some)

ReplaceQuantifier

Whenavalidquantifierwordinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpart Iwanttosellmanydolls.(alotof)
ofspeechbutnotthecorrectquantifier,itisaReplaceQuantifiererror.
IwillmovetoothercitysoIwanttosellit.(another)

MissingAdjective
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadjectiveforcompletenessandthat
adjectivehasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdjectiveerror.
3.
2.
Errortype
AnaphorAgreement
Whentheanaphorwordiscorrectandtheformoftheanaphorisvalidbutwrongin
thecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan
AnaphorAgreementerror.
FormofDeterminer
Whenthearticlesaandanareconfused.

1.

Table8:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenA2toB1levels

Keytofourerrortypestables811:bold=error,(word)=correction,[word]=errorhasbeencorrected,[]=unnecessarywordremoved
c) Examplesoferrortypesthatsignificantlyimprovebetweenadjacentlevels
26
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UnnecessaryQuantifier
Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect,itisan
UnnecessaryQuantifiererror.

6.
5.
4.
3.
2.

1.

I'mreallyglad,becauseyouwanttovisitminecountry.(my)
Youaskedmeaboutthebestplacetospendyoutime...(your)

Ididn'tdoanything,accept[put]anewbedinmybedroom.(except)
Now,I'mmoreattentiveinreadingletters...(when)

Myhobbiesaresuchassinging,dancinganddrawing.
IwanttosellthistablebecauseIhaveanewothertable!

Thefilmhasanhappyend...(a)
Sendmeaemail(an)

InflectionofDeterminer

When the learner has created a feasible but nonvalid inflected form of the It was really interesting to hear about all the different people and theirs
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein [backgrounds].(their)
numberwiththenounwhichitprecedes.
InflectionofQuantifier

When the learner has created a feasible but nonvalid inflected form of the Ifyouhaveothersquestionspleasecontactme!(other)
quantifier.
I think I will go [to] the park, near the zoo, where severals sports are [played].
(several)

InflectionofVerb

Whenthelearnerhasmadeafalseassumptionaboutwhetheraverbisregularor allthewallsarewhiteandI'vehanged[a]fewpaintingsonthem.(hung)
irregular and inflected it accordingly. Most commonly, the error is caused by Afterthefilmwehaddinnerandwechatedaboutthefilm(chatted)
puttingregularinflectionsonirregularverbs.
Errortype
DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)
Whereaconjunction/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidwordbut
hasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,it
isaDerivationofConjunctionerror.
DerivationofDeterminer
Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa
DerivationofDeterminererror.
FormofDeterminer

Table9:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenB1toB2levels
9.
UCLES/CUP 2011
27
CountabilityofDeterminer
Whenadeterminerformisusedwhichisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityof
thenountowhichitrefers,itisaCountabilityofDeterminererror.
DerivationofAnaphor
Whereananaphorresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidwordbuthasbeen
incorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa
DerivationofAnaphorerror.
DerivationofConjunction
Whereaconjugation/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidword
buthasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrect
affix,itisaDerivationofConjunctionerror.
DerivationofDeterminer
Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas
InflectionofDeterminer
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein
4.
5.
7.
8.
6.
3.
2.
Errortype
Agreement
Whenthewordiscorrectandtheformofthewordisvalidbutwronginthe
contextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan
Agreementerror.
NounAgreement
Whenthenouniscorrectandtheformofthenounisvalidbutwronginthecontext
becauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisaNoun
Agreementerror.
ArgumentStructure
Wherethestructureofasentenceorphrasecontravenesrulesofbothgrammar
andwordorderitisanargumentstructureerror.

1.
Table10:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenB2toC1levels

Ithinkthisexperiencewouldbeuseful[on]yourscampsites.(your)
Ithinkanimalshelpuswithunderstandingnotonlytheirsbutalsoourown
[behaviour].(their)

youareabletotakebooksanywhereyouwantto[,]eventhebookistooheavy.
(unless)
Idon'tthinktelevisioncanreplacebooks,aswellasIdon'tbel[ie]vebookscan
replacetelevision.(and)

PeoplerelyonmeasIalwayskeepmepromises.(my)
Claralookedathewatch.(her)

ButpleasetellmehowistheweatherinScotlandatthistime.(whatistheweather
like)
Therefore,Ithinkyoushouldpaysomemoneybackforme.(paymesomemoney
back)

Whydoyougivethoseinformationinanadvertis[e]ment?(this)
justtofindthatperfecttinofbeansoratoothpaste.(some)

Itwasverykindofyourstoinviteustoyourhome.(you)

Ifyouworkedwithmewewouldspendagoodsummerholidaystogether.(holiday)
Thishasbeenthemainreasontobanthesekindofplacesnowadays.(kinds)

Iknowthatthiskindofjobsarewellpaid...(thesekinds)
youcantrytheclothesyouchooseonandbesurethatitfitsyou.(theyfit)
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19. MissingDeterminer
18. MissingConjunction(LinkWord)
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaconjunction/linkword(orwords)for
completenessandthatwordhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingConjunctionerror.
17. MissingAdjective
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadjectiveforcompletenessandthat
adjectivehasbeenomitted,itisaMissingAdjectiveerror.
16. InflectionofQuantifier
quantifier.
14. InflectionofAdjective
adjective.Thiscodealsocoversinstanceswherelearnersmistakenlymake
adjectivesagreewiththenounstheymodify.
15. InflectionofAnaphor
pronoun.
13. FormofVerb
Wheneitherofthebase,ingandto+infinitiveformsoftheverbhavebeenused
whereanotherformisrequired.
12. FormofQuantifier
Whenavalidformofthequantifier(singularorpluralform)hasbeenusedbutis
thewrongforminthecontext.
11. FormofNoun
Whenthesingularformofanounisusedwherethecontextdemandsaplural,or
viceversa.
FormofAdjective
Whenavalidformoftheadjective(positive,comparative,orsuperlative)hasbeen
usedbutisthewrongforminthecontext.
10. FormofAdverb
Whenavalidformoftheadverb(positive,comparative,orsuperlativeform)has
beenusedbutisthewrongforminthecontext.
9.

This[choice]doesn'tgivemanyartiststhe[opportunity]to[express]themself.
(themselves)
eachfriendofmines(mine)

we[can]findfews[in]thenewspaper.(afew)
Imadeseveralsphonecalls(several)

Aretheyatadiscount,too?(theyavailableata)
Iftherearemanycarsinacity,youwasteyourtime[]standing.(standingstill)

SoitwouldbebetterI[wrote]aletter(betterifI)
Thatwasmybestdayever,theoneIsharedamealwithPaulMcPartney.(onewhen
Ishared)
Herneighboursweremakingnoiseagain.(makinganoise)
Well,inmyopinionmythirdchoiceisthebetter.(best)
Ihadtheworsetime[of]mylife.(worst)

[the]solution[that]better[satisfies]ourneeds.(best)
ButIwouldliketolivenearest,andtogotherebybicycle.(nearer)

She'sonholidaysnext15thofJuly.(holiday)
mostofuswouldneverhavehadthechancetoseesomekindofanimals.(kinds)

inmoreofthecases(inmostcases)
The[I]nternetmakesusabletofollowsportsevents,concertsandpoliticalspeeches
whicharethousandofmilesawayfromus.(thousands)

Ifyouhaveanymorequestionsdon'thesitateaskingme!(toask)
Yourideaaboutfindajobbeforestartingcollegeisgreat.(finding)

Ialsoknowthatyouorganiseconferencesanddifferentsactivities.(different)
Themosteasiestway...(easiest)
UCLES/CUP 2011
29
28.
27.
26.
25.
24.
23.
22.
21.
Playingfootballisgoodforhealth.(foryourhealth)

Ilookforwardhearingfromyou.(forwardtohearing)
OnethingIdon'tknowisthepay.(knowaboutis)

MissingQuantifier

Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaquantifierforcompletenessandthat
TheorganisergavemearadioandIhadtoadvisetheotherstaffmembersincaseof
quantifierhasbeenomitted,itisaMissingQuantifiererror.
disorder.(caseofanydisorder)
Inthelastyears,therehasbeenagreatimprovement...(lastfewyears)

MissingVerb

Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaverbforcompletenessandthatverb
Afterthatwewillbackhome.(willcomeback)
hasbeenomitted.
Whilebeforeitwouldenoughtoknow(wouldhavebeenenough)

UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)

Whenanunnecessaryextraconjunction/linkwordhasbeenusedinasentenceor Iwasalsoworkingwithchildreninmytown,becauseinordertogetmoremoney.
Shethoughtonlymagicthatcouldhelpherbutitwasimpossible.
constructioninsuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect.

UnnecessaryPreposition

Whenanunnecessaryextraprepositionhasbeenusedinasentenceor
Iamlookingforwardtohearingaboutyouranswer.
Goingforshoppingisagoodthing


Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction That'swhyIdon'tagreewithsomepeoplewhothinkthatkeepinganimalsiscruel
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect,itisan
andunnecessary.
Yourfriendswillwithoutnodoubt[]trytohelpyou,anddon'tforgetitisnottoo
UnnecessaryQuantifiererror.
lateyet.

UnnecessaryVerb

Whenanunnecessaryextraverbhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstructionin
Couldyoutellmeabouthowmuchdoyouwanttogetperhour...
suchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect.
Wealldecidedtogotohaveadaybytheseaside...

NegativeFormation

Whenanattempttoconstructanegativeresultsinaninvalidconstruction.
Ihadn'tagoodtime!(didnthave)
Icouldnothardlybelieveit.(hardly)

ComplexError

Whereanungrammaticalandincomprehensiblestringofwordsarewrittenanditis Iwishyoutospendyourstayasmoreexcitingasyoucan.
impossibletocorrectthem,itisaComplexError.
Withoutstatesofminds,shesucceededinmakingmefeelthatlifewasgoingon.
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresadeterminerforcompletenessandthat
determinerhasbeenomitted.
20. MissingPreposition
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaprepositionforcompletenessandthat
prepositionhasbeenomitted.
30
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8.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.

1.

IwasexpectingtomeetafriendofminewhichlivesinSt.Andrews(who)
Thesetwocomputergamesarecurrentlyoneofthebestfootballgame[s][]madein
thisdecade.(two)

DeterminerAgreement

Whenthedetermineriscorrectandtheformofthedeterminerisvalidbutwrong
Despitethelengthofthejourneytherewasnotanytoiletavailable[on]thecoach.
(a)
inthecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisa
Fashionwasa[general]word,meaningthetwotypesofclotheswhichwerewornin
DeterminerAgreementerror.
thatdays:...those)

VerbAgreement

Whentheverbiscorrectandtheformoftheverbisvalidbutwronginthecontext Somethingwhichgrowsinpopularityarethesolarcells.(is)
becauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisaVerbAgreement Theworldhavechanged.(has)
error.
ArgumentStructure

Wherethestructureofasentenceorphrasecontravenesrulesofbothgrammar
Idemandanapologytobepublishedinyournewspaper...(demandthatanapology
andwordorderitisanargumentstructureerror.Theseerrorsareoftencalquesor be)
Thenintheadvertisementitiswrittensomethingaboutasocialprogrammewhich
directtranslationsofL1structures.
istotallyabsent.(somethingiswritten)

CountabilityofDeterminer

Whenadeterminerformisusedwhichisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityof
Ihopeyouwillbeabletoimprovetheprogrammewiththese[information]...(this)
thenountowhichitrefers,itisaCountabilityofDeterminererror.
wearequitesurethatyouwillfindasuitableaccommodation()

CountabilityofNoun

Whenanouncantakeonlyoneformbecauseitisuncountable,butaninvalid
[However]wehaveanicegarden,whereinsummerourstudentsoftenspendtheir
pluralizedformhasbeenused,itisaCountabilityofNounerror.
breakordotheirhomeworks.(homework)
Itisknownthatradiationscomingfromamobilephonecan be[heartdamaging].
(radiation)

CountabilityofQuantifier

Whenaquantifierisincorrectbecauseofthecountabilityofthenountowhichit
thegroupsshouldhaveincludedlesspeople.(fewer)
refers,itisaCountabilityofQuantifiererror.
Notonlyhaditsmalllegroombutalsothesafetybeltswereoutoforder.(little)

DerivationofAdjective

Whereanadjectiveresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidadjectivebuthas
Tosumup,thetourwasacompletelydisaster.(complete)
DerivationofAdjectiveerror.
Errortype
AnaphorAgreement
Whentheanaphorwordiscorrectandtheformoftheanaphorisvalidbutwrongin
thecontextbecauseitdoesnotagreegrammaticallywithitscoordinates,itisan
AnaphorAgreementerror.
Table11:ErrortypesthatimprovesignificantlybetweenC1toC2levels
UCLES/CUP 2011
31

inoneword,everythingissosimple.(inaword)
Asrecentastenyearsago,...(recently)

It'sapleasuretoworkwithyourforanotheryear.(you)
AlltogetherIwouldliketostressthattheconferencewasveryusefultomyand
helpedmeinmycareer.(me)

11. DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)

Whereaconjunction/linkwordresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidword
Bythetimemygrandparentswereyoung,thereweresomanynormsandrulesand
restrictionsabouthowyoushouldlook:(When)
buthasbeenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrect
peopleseemnottohaveenoughtimetohavesomerest,noteventocook!(or)
affix,itisaDerivationofConjunctionerror.

12. DerivationofDeterminer

Whereadeterminerresembles,orincludesthestemof,avaliddeterminerbuthas Youreportintentionallyhurtourfeelings(Your)
beenincorrectlyderived,usuallybecauseithasbeengivenanincorrectaffix,itisa Itnameis"Superstar".(Its)

13. DerivationofPreposition

Whereaprepositionresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidprepositionbuthas Notlikealotofotherbankswhichhurried[into]lau[n]chingtheirownproduct...
(Unlike)
Relatedtothegym,it[cannot]beclosed.(Regarding)
DerivationofPrepositionerror.

14. DerivationofQuantifier

Whereaquantifierresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidquantifierbuthas
AlthoughIlikecomputersthecompanywhichIusedtoworkfordidn'tgiveaspecial
[training](any)
apparentlythesedaystherewasnoneshowprepared.(no)
DerivationofQuantifiererror.

15. FormofAdjective

Whenavalidformoftheadjective(positive,comparative,orsuperlative)hasbeen Theysaidthatitwastheworsestrikeeverandthatitwouldlastalongtime.(worst)
usedbutisthewrongforminthecontext.
Thisisthemostsimplewayforourcompanytoreachthetop.(simplest)

16. FormofAnaphor

Whenavalidformofthepronoun(uninflectedorinflectedform)hasbeenusedbut Everyonewantstoachievehighermarksthanother.(others)
itisthewrongforminthecontext.
a[cheque]fromyourself(you)

17. FormofDeterminer

Thesethreethingsaretheonesthatweconsidertobeofmoreimportance.(most)
Wearefortunateenoughtohaveagovernmentwhichregardseducationasa
importantthing(an)

DerivationofAdverb
Whereanadverbresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidadverbbuthasbeen
DerivationofAdverberror.
10. DerivationofAnaphor
Whereananaphorresembles,orincludesthestemof,avalidanaphorbuthasbeen
DerivationofAnaphorerror.
9.
32
UCLES/CUP 2011
27. MissingVerb
26. MissingNoun
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanounforcompletenessandthatword
hasbeenomitted.
25. MissingDeterminer
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresadeterminerforcompletenessandthat
wordhasbeenomitted.
23. InflectionofDeterminer
determiner,usuallybecauseofamistakenbeliefthatthedeterminermustagreein
24. MissingAdverb
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresanadverbforcompletenessandthat
wordhasbeenomitted.
22. InflectionofAnaphor
anaphor.
20. InflectionofAdjective
adjective.Thiscodealsocoversinstanceswherelearnersmistakenlymake
adjectivesagreewiththenounstheymodify.
21. InflectionofAdverb
Whenthelearnerhascreatedafeasiblebutnonvalidinflectedformoftheadverb.
18. FormofNoun
Whenthesingularformofanounisusedwherethecontextdemandsaplural,or
viceversa.
19. FormofQuantifier
Whenavalidformofthequantifier(singularorpluralform)hasbeenusedbutis
thewrongforminthecontext.

Thesecasesarefewandfarbetweentotakeplaceinreallife.(aretoofew)
Furthermore,becauseofthisincidentImissedachancetoseemyfriend,whenwe
hadarrangedourmeeting.(hadalreadyarranged)

itwasreallyverydifficulttofindsomekindofentertainmentexceptwatchingTV
inrooms.(inourrooms)
Thequalityoflunchyouprovidedwasthenextproblem.(ofthelunch)

Bytheway,thetrainwilltakeyouaboutthreeandahalfhoursandcostaround40
marks.(trainjourneywill)
thedepartmenthasaverylimitedofficeequipment.(limitedamountofoffice)

Despitehavingtopaysuchheftyamounttodrive,(amounts)
Thankyouforyourconsiderations.(consideration)

moviesandcopiesfromanothercountries(other)
Justtrytogetoutmoreandusemoderntechnologyaslessaspossible.(little)

whichresultedinhugesqueues.(huge)
you'llseethattheirlifestylewasmuchquieter,simplierandslower.(simpler)

NobodyfrommygroupgotfarerfromtheHotel's[lobby]...(further)
weneedtodothingsquicklierthanbefore(morequickly)

Theseservicesareonlythefirstpackageofseverals[]whichwillfollowoverthenext
12months[.](several)
Eachtimeeverythingschanges.(everything)

becauseoursclassesfinishatseveno'clockp.m.(our)
andthentraveltoyour'sfriend[s']countries.(your)
UCLES/CUP 2011
33
35.
34.
33.
32.
31.
30.
29.
28.
theorganisershadneverpromisedthat45stallsbepresent(stallswouldbe)
Thiswouldnotonlyreducethetrafficcon[g]estionprobleminthecity,italsoenable
peopletoownacar...(itwillalso)

ReplaceAdverb

Whenavalidadverbinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartof
theoneabouttourismwashighabovestandard.(well)
speechbutnotthecorrectadverb.
Ihavenoticedthatbreakfastisnomoreafamilything.(longer)

ReplaceQuantifier

Ihopemysuggestionswillbeofanyusetoyou.(some)
Whenavalidquantifierinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartof
Moreover,thereareonlytwotelephonesforallofthedepartment.(thewholeof
the)
speechbutnotthecorrectword.

ReplaceVerb

Whenavalidverbinthelanguagehasbeenusedanditisthecorrectpartofspeech Inthiscontext,wecannotoverseethechangingroleofwomen...(overlook)
butnotthecorrectverb.
Itdependsfromonepersontothenext.(differs)

UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)

Whenanunnecessaryextraconjunction/linkwordhasbeenusedinasentenceor Wehavegotenoughtimetodosomethingforentertainment,suchasdoingsports,
watchingmovies,andetc.
AsIknowtwopeople[in]thegroupwouldliketogoforlongwalks.

UnnecessaryDeterminer

Whenanunnecessaryextradeterminerhasbeenusedinasentenceor
Thehostfamiliesareverykindandhospitableandtheywillalsogiveyouaverygood
food.

UnnecessaryNoun

Whenanunnecessaryextranounhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstructionin
So,wesuggestavisittoanightclubdiscowherewecanhearsomemodernmusic
suchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect.
anddance.
Bothhotelscanprovidefullboardmealsandnicecomfortablerooms.


Whenanunnecessaryextraquantifierhasbeenusedinasentenceorconstruction Afterallthisterribleexperiencewithyourcompany...
insuchawaythatitmakesthesentenceorconstructionincorrect.
Wearehardly[ever]atalossforwordswhenmeetingsomeclients.

ComplexError

Whereanungrammaticalandincomprehensiblestringofwordsarewrittenanditis Pacino'scareerexperienceseemstobeexplodingathismaximum.
impossibletocorrectthem,itisaComplexError.
AndfinallyIwouldliketomakeagainnotewecouldn'ttakeanexam.(mention
againthat)
Whenasentenceorconstructionrequiresaverbforcompletenessandthatword
hasbeenomitted.
34
UCLES/CUP 2011
Canuseanincreasingrepertoireofuncountablenouns
correctlywithagreaterrangeofitemsbeforethe
noun:
the,further,more,some,this,interesting,detailed,
useful

Errorspersistwiththemostcommonitems.
noun:
useful,following,no

Errorsincreasewiththemostcommonitems.
B1
B2
noun:
useful,additional,essential,uptodate
Canuseanincreasingrangeofcommonuncountable
nounscorrectlywithanincreasingsmallrangeofitems
beforeanoun:
alotof,some,more,theimportant
A2
C1
Typicaluseofstructure/feature
Canusesomeuncountablenounscorrectly:
information,money,time,work
withalimitedrangeofdeterminers:
some,alotof,the

A1
MostcommonerrorsandCLCexamplesatthelevel
homeworks,breads,houseworks

x Idontlikehomeworks.
x Shelooksafterthechildreneveryday.Thenshedoes
thehouseworksinherhouse.
x Youcanbuyalltypesoffruits,sauces,breads.

Canyouhelpme?Ineedmoreinformationabout informations,musics,papers,loves,homeworks
thiscourse.

x Ihavesomeinformationsabouttheartclass.
x Youhavetobringapenandsomepapers.

Ourpresentaccommodationistoosmallforus.
informations,equipments,homeworks,advices,furnitures,
countrysides,works,softwares,trainings

Ifyouneedfurtherinformationjustask.
x Imlookingforwardtohearingfromyouifyourequire
furtherinformations.
x 250ofthemareveryyoungandtheyneedalotof
trainings.

informations,advices,equipments,transports,
Abetterwayofspendingthemoneyistobuilda
knowledges,works,spending,trainings,homeworks,
newfitnessclub.

researches,furnitures,behaviours,damages
IwouldliketoknowifIneedextramoney.

x Pleasesendmealltheinformationsandthe
Tourismhasaninevitablefactofbringingahuge
application.
sumofmoneytolocalbusinesses.
x Ithinkbothofthemhavereasonablepricesfortheir
foods.

informations,transports,trainings,equipments,advices,
Formoredetailedinformationyoumaycontact
knowledges,softwares,researches,furnitures,tuitions,
meon...
spendings,accommodations,feedbacks,congestions

Theyhavealreadybeenequippedwiththe
necessaryhardwareandsoftwareandhaveaccess x Forreadersthatarelesskeenonsports,anarticle
totheinternetandourdatabase.
containingsomesimpleadvicesonhowtokeepfitwill
Examples
SheusuallydoesthehouseworkonSunday.

Ihavealotofworkincollege.

Ihavegotalotofinformationabouttheshops
nearourarea.

Table12:ThedevelopmentofusageofuncountablenounsacrossCEFRlevels
d) AnexampleofhowagrammaticalfeaturedevelopsinlearnerlanguageacrosstheCEFRlevels
UCLES/CUP 2011
35
noun:
useful,additional,essential,uptodate,enough,
provide

Errorsdecreasebutpersistwiththemostcommon
items.
Researchanddevelopmenthaspreventedmanyof
usfromillnesses...

Itisforthesepeoplethatamagazinesuchasyours
shouldgiveextensiveadvice.

Inaddition,therehasalsobeensignificant
damagetoourhouses:wallsandceilingscracking,
rooftilescomingloose,andoccasionallywindow
panesbeingshattered!

Theonlycriticismwecanmakeistheamountof
equipment.
bemorepleasanttoread.
Ihadasmallproblemwithtransports,becausethe
nearestbusstopwasabouttwomilesfaraway.
Thethreecomputerswereacquiredinordertoreplace
theoutofdateequipmentsthatwereusedbythe
GeneralManager.

advices,behaviours,informations,researches

x Readingthesebooksareveryinteresting,asmany
advicesarehiddeninside.
x Eventhoughsomeofourchildhoodinfluencesmay
leadustonegativebehavioursasadults,suchasbeing
messy,itmightbeagoodideatobethankfulforthe
goodinfluences.
x Youcanevenexchangeyourteachingandlearning
experiencesorinformationswithotherschools
throughcomputers.
x Allinformationsinthisstatementareprovidedwith
mybestknowledge.
x Manyresearcheshavebeenmadealreadyinorderto
findoutifotherplanets,likethemoon,MarsorVenus,
aresuitableforhumanlife.

Thesefindingsongrammararestilltentativeandsuggestfutureresearchdirections,includingextendingtheconceptof"criteriality"totheanalysistoother
samples of learner language and in particular to speech. Spoken language data is being collected and corpora are being built with the necessary
computationaltoolstoenabletheresearchtobeextendedinthatdirection.Inaddition,afocusontheClevelscontinueswiththecollectionofacademic
Englishwritingsamples.WorkisunderwaytoproduceanEnglishGrammar Profileresourcethatboth documentsandpresentsthesefindingsinauser
friendlyway,inlinewiththegeneralEnglishProfileapproach.
C2
Errorsincreasewiththemostcommonitemsandwith
determiners.
3TheEnglishFunctionsProfile

Thisresearchstrandreexaminestheuseoflanguagefunctionsindefininglanguageconstructsacrosstheability
rangeandinsettinglearningobjectiveswhicharesensitivetotheproficiencyleveloflearners.ThispartoftheEP
Programmeisprimarilyconcernedwiththeinputtothelearners:inotherwords,thefunctionsthatprovidethe
learningobjectivesaspartofacommunicativesyllabusateachleveloftheCEFR,andthereadingtextswhichare
judged to be suitable for different levels and which are presented to the learners for pedagogic purposes. This
researchworkisbasedonthefunctionalnotionalapproachwhichunderpinstheCEFRandwhichledtotheuseof
CanDostatementswithinitsGlobalScaleandbankofIllustrativeScales.EnglishProfilesuggestspracticalwaysin
whichtheexistingCanDostatementsintheCEFRcanbeexpandedandrefinedbyprovidingadditionaldetailwith
referencetocontextsofusewhichareparticularlyrelevanttolearnersofEnglish.

Languagefunctionsaimtocapturenotwhatlearnersknowaboutalanguage,orwhataspectsofthelanguagethey
areabletouse(i.e.thelexicogrammaticalaspectsoflanguage),butrathertheyintendtoconveyhowlearnersuse
thelanguage:whattheycandowithitinsocialcontexts.Wheninvestigatingfunctions,inadditiontotheCEFR,
English Profile builds on the Threshold Series or Tseries (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998a, 1998b, 2001; Trim
2009). The Tseries was instrumental in promoting a communicative approach to language teaching from the
1970sonwardsandcoveredproficiencylevelsthatarenowassociatedwithCEFRA2(Waystage),B1(Threshold),
andB2(Vantage).AnA1(Breakthrough)specificationbyJohnTrimhasalsobeenmadeavailableelectronicallyfor
theEPProgrammeandallTseriespublicationsarenowfreelyaccessiblefromtheEnglishProfilewebsite.

AsGreen(2011)pointsout,theCEFRsapproachwasclearlyinfluencedbyHymes(1972)andaconceptualization
of communicative competence which comprises both a linguistic and a sociolinguistic element. The
sociolinguistic dimension includes the dynamic interaction that occurs between the context and the discourse
produced.Theinteractionbetweencontextandthecognitiveprocessesofthelearnerunderpinsasociocognitive
approachtolearning,teachingandassessmentonwhichtheCEFRitselfisbased,andwhichhasbeenimportantin
developingtheEnglishProfileProgrammeofresearch.

English Profile proposes a new, generative, Can Do
modelconsistingoffiveelementswhichcanbelinked DefininggenerativeCanDostatements:
to specific contexts and which can lead to a more
framessettingouthowtheelementsoftheCEFR
detailedandtechnicaldefinitionoftheCEFRlevelsfor
modelmayinteractinshapingthedifficultyofdefined
English(seedefinitionalongside).
languageactivitiesandtasks.(Green2011:160)

These Can Do statements are intended to help and
CanDostatementsshouldprovideenough
encourage practitioners to develop and validate Can
informationtoguideusersincarryingoutavarietyof
Do statements to fit more appropriately with their
purposes.Theyshouldoffersufficientdetailtoinform
materialswritersandtestdevelopers(whoneedto
own context and purposes, while at the same time,
operationalisethegeneralCEFRframeworkthrough
finding a way to relate them coherently to the
specific,contextualizedtasks);buttheyshouldalso
common framework. This aligns with the CEFRs
supportbriefersummarystatementsthatmight
functions which are widely interpretable based on
communicatesuitablygeneralinformationtoothers,
the everyday expressions used by teachers (Green
suchastheusersoftestresultsThestatements
2011:14).
shouldalsoserveasalinkbetweenthesedifferent

purposes:usersshouldbeabletotracetheways

inwhichtheelementsoftheframeworkare

interpretedandrepresentedinthespecificdemands

madeoflearnersinusinglanguagetocarryoutatask.
(Green2011:47)

36
UCLES/CUP 2011
ThecomponentelementsproposedforthenewCanDostatementsincludethefollowing:

Activity:Can
Theme/Topic/Setting:Concernedwith
Inputtext:Basedon
Outputtext:Producing
Qualities:Howwell?
Restrictions:Providedthat
The social act (function) or related sequence of acts (activity) that the learner
mightbeexpectedtoaccomplishbymeansofthelanguage,i.e.whatthelearner
cando
The themes, topics and settings in relation to which the learner might be
expectedtoperform.IntheCEFR,applicablethemesaregroupedunderthefour
domains:educational,public,professionalandpersonal,i.e.whattheinteraction
isconcernedwith
Thenatureofthetextthatthelearnermightberequiredtoprocessasabasisfor
his or her own contribution or to demonstrate his or her comprehension, i.e.
whatthecommunicationisbasedon
The nature of the text that the learner might be expected to produce or
participateinproducingtodemonstrate(aspecifieddegreeof)understandingor
toaccomplishatask
Thequalitiesthatthelearnerwouldbeexpectedtodemonstrateincarryingout
language activities. For production, these qualities are grouped under the CEFR
headingsofLinguistic,Pragmatic,SociolinguisticandStrategiccompetencesand
wouldanswerthequestionHowwell?
Physical or social conditions and constraints under which the learner would be
expectedtoperform,i.e.Providedthat

Intermsoflanguagefunctions,EnglishProfilehasfocusedongettingabetterunderstandingofEnglishusedatthe
ClevelsbecausethesearetheleastwelldefinedintheCEFRandwerenotcoveredbytheTseries.Inkeepingwith
theevidenceledstanceoftheEnglishProfileProgramme,theseCanDostatementshaveastrongempiricalbasis.
EnglishProfileresearcherscollecteddataintheformoflanguagelearningmaterialswhicharealignedtotheCEFR
andareinusearoundtheworld.TherangeofsourcesthathaveinformedtheEnglishProfileCanDostatementsto
dateinclude:

x CEFRillustrativescales
x bestselling international textbooks and related support materials from different publishers including
CambridgeUniversityPress
x examinationhandbooksfromCambridgeESOL
x curriculumandsyllabusdocumentssourcedbyEnglishProfilepartnerssuchastheBritishCouncil,EnglishUK
andothers
x theBankofdescriptorsforselfassessmentinEuropeanLanguagePortfolios(Lenz&Schneider2004)
x online publications by educational institutions such as test specifications and handbooks, proficiency scales
andtextbooksupportmaterials
x additionalnonpubliclyavailablematerialsfromvariouseducationalcontexts.

ThroughtheEPNetwork(seeSections7and9),theresearchteamconsultedwidelyonthedevelopmentofthe
newCanDosfortheClevels.TheinventoryoftheserefinedandcontextualisedfunctionsisgiveninGreen2011in
the form of sets of English Profile Can Do statements. These Can Do Statements are reproduced here and are
dividedbymode(spokenorwritten)andwhetherrelevantforinteraction,productionorreception.
UCLES/CUP 2011
37
38
UCLES/CUP 2011
complextechnical/
abstracttopics
accountforand
sustainhis/her
opinions
discussthenature goodsorservices,
andrelativemerits procedures,courses
ofparticular
ofaction
choices
followand
contributeto
complex
interactions
betweenthird
parties
1.
2.
3.
abstract,complex
unfamiliartopics
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
Activity
Can
Input
Basedon
[spokeninteraction]
groupdiscussion
[spokeninteraction]
[spokeninteraction]
discussion
Text
Producing

Table13:CanDostatementsforSpokenInteractionattheClevels
EnglishProfileCanDostatementsfortheClevels
P9.providingrelevantexplanations,argumentsand
comments
L2.isreadilycomprehensible
L3.intonationisusedtosupportmeaning
L4.usesarangeofgrammaticalformsandvocabulary
appropriatetotheaudience,topicandsocial
context
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechto
suitsocialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegrated
intotheflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants
context
P10.contributionsarerelevantandareintegratedinto
theflowofthediscourseusinglinkingwords,
X2.repairsinteractionasnecessary
P11.turntakingisnatural
P8.conveysideaswithsomeprecision,doesnotresort
tosimplification
context
Qualitieshowwell?
Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic/(XStrategic)
Restrictions
Provided
that
UCLES/CUP 2011
39
expresssympathy
orcondolence,
enquireintothe
causesof
unhappinessor
sadnessandoffer
comfort
6.
discussworkwith
colleagues
framecritical
remarksorexpress
strong
disagreementin
suchawayasto
minimiseany
offence
5.

7.
evaluate,restate
andchallenge
4.
matterswithintheir
academicor
professional
competence
personal
relationships/
counsellingroles
familiartopics/
matterswithintheir
academicor
professional
competence
matterswithintheir
academicor
professional
competence
contributions
fromother
participant
[spokeninteraction]
[spokeninteraction]
conversation
[spokeninteraction]
[spokeninteraction]
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants.
context
P12.remarksarerelevant
repetitionofwordsusedbyotherparticipants.
L2.isreadilycomprehensible;L3.intonationisusedto
supportmeaning
context
L6.usesintonationandwordchoicetoexpressmood,
distinguishingbetweenshadesoffeeling
context
L5.usingappropriatetechnicalterminology
tosimplification
context
40
UCLES/CUP 2011
requests
pricesand
conditionsofsale
rates,termsand
conditions
11. enquireaboutand
negotiatespecial
treatment
meetingsonmatters
withintheir
academicor
professional
competence
meetingsonmatters
withintheir
academicor
professional
competence
indicatelevelsof
willingnessor
reluctanceand
stateconditions
whenagreeingto
requestsor
granting
permission
invite
participation,
introducesissues,
manages
contributions
10. summariseand
evaluatemain
pointsin
discussion
9.
8.
[spokeninteraction]
extendednegotiation
[spokeninteraction]
extendeddiscussionor
negotiation
[spokeninteraction]
[spokeninteraction]
P12.playsaleadingpartindiscussionornegotiation
context
P13.abletogainandholdfloor
P14.summaryisaccurate
context
tosimplification
context
context
UCLES/CUP 2011
41
complaints
aboutthird
parties/
conditions
legal,regulatory
matters:incaseof
infringementsof
regulations
13. apologiseandask
forunderstanding
oftheirposition
14. expressregrets
andnegative
wishesor
intentions

15. establishsolidarity
withinterlocutors
through
sympathetic
questioningand
expressionsof
agreement
poorservicee.g.
service
returningfaulty,
agreements
inappropriateor
unwantedgoodsand
negotiatingfora
replacementor
refund
12. complainand
negotiateredress
[spokeninteraction]
informalconversation(with
friends)
[spokeninteraction]
[spokeninteraction]
exchangeswithofficials
[spokeninteraction]
extendednegotiation
tosimplification
context
context
context
P15.contributionsareintegratedintotheflowofthe
discourseusinglinkingwords,repetitionofwords
usedbyotherparticipants
L6.usesintonationandwordchoicetoexpressmood,
distinguishingbetweenshadesoffeeling
context

infringements
areminor
42
UCLES/CUP 2011
17. negotiateacourse
ofactionwitha
partnerorgroup,
reportingonwhat
othershavesaid,
summarizing,
elaboratingand
weighingup
multiplepointsof
view
[spokeninteraction]
discussion
[spokeninteraction]
discussion
19. qualifyassertions
Activity
Can
18. interpretspecialist
topicstothe
layperson
complextechnical/
abstracttopics
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
complextechnical
topics
Inputtext
Basedon
[spokenproduction]
addressingaudiences
Outputtext
Producing
[spokenproduction]
addressingaudiences

Table14:CanDostatementsforSpokenProductionattheClevels
complex,abstract
ideas
academic/
professionalmatters
16. askforexplanation
orclarificationand
negotiate
understanding
Qualities howwell?
Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic/(XStrategic)
L1.abletospeakatlengthasrequired
L4goodcommandofnontechnicalcircumlocution,
idiomaticexpressionsandcolloquialisms
context
P2.manipulatestheorderofelementstocontrol
informationfocus
S1.makestopicaccessibletothelayperson
S2.adjustslevelofformalityandstyleofspeechtosuit
socialcontext:formal,informal,colloquial
S3consistentregister
X1checkscomprehension
L1.abletospeakatlengthasrequired
context
P15.contributionsareintegratedintotheflowofthe
discourseusinglinkingwords,repetitionofwords
usedbyotherparticipants
context
Restrictions
Providedthat
topicsrelateto
his/herfieldof
interest
presentation
prepared
independently
UCLES/CUP 2011
43
complextechnical/
abstracttopics
seriesofcomplex
professional/
academic
procedures
20. defineorspecify

21. giveinstruction
22. speculateor
hypothesise,
comparingand
evaluatinga
numberof
possible
developments
[spokenproduction]
[sustainedmonologue]
[spokenproduction]
[sustainedmonologue]
[spokenproduction]
addressingaudiences
context
L5.indicatinglevelsofconfidenceoruncertainty
P1.clear
P3.demonstratesflexibilityandcontrolofnuances
P7.wellstructuredanddeveloped
context
P1.clear
P2.demonstratesflexibilityandcontrolofnuances
P4.indetail,distinguishingbetweenobjectsor
conceptsthatcloselyresembleeachother
P5.atlength
appropriatetotheinterlocutor(s),topicandsocial
context
P1.clear
P5.atlength
P6.detailed
tosimplification
X1.checkscomprehensionasnecessary
P1.clear
P6.detailed
P5.atlength
tosimplification
appropriatetotheinterlocutor(s),topicandsocial
context
instructionstoa
workcolleagueor
studentwithsome
technical
knowledge
topicsrelateto
his/herfieldof
interest
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informalmeetings
anddiscussions
informalmeetings
anddiscussions
formaldiscussions
onacademic,public
orprofessional
topics
24. extractthegist
anddistinguish
betweenopinions
25. identifythe
emotionsor
attitudesof
speakers
26. extractgist,detail,
purposesand
mainpoints

27. extract,selectand
multiplesources:
Text
Whenlisteningto
presentations,
lecturesor
documentary
broadcasts
Activity
Can
23. makenotesto
extractand
reconstructthe
mainpointsand
keysupporting
details
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
complexpublic,academic
orprofessionaltopics
involvingdetailed
propositionalinformation
thatisnewtothelistener
andincludesabstract
concepts
personalorpublictopicsof
generalinterest
varietyofspoken
complex,abstract
extractsandevaluatesinformationandopinions
identifiesthemainpointsbeingmadeby
participants
identifiesallareasofagreementand
disagreementbetweenparticipants
Qualities
Howwell?
producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext
levelrepresentationoffactualcontent
summarisesthemainpoints
accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofdetail
Restrictions
Providedthat
standardaccents,
familiartothelistener
rateofspeechis
natural
standardaccent,
conversationis
animatedatafast
naturalrate
voicesareeasily
differentiatedoraudio
issupportedby
images
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
multiparticipant
personal,public,academic, accuratelyidentifiestheattitudesoremotions
conversationis
discussionmarked
professionaltopics
conveyedimplicitlybystress,pitchand
animatedatafast
naturalrate
bynonlinear
intonation,lexicalchoices
voicesareeasily
organisation,

differentiatedoraudio
colloquialismsand
issupportedby
overlappingturns
images
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
producesaccurateanddetailedsummaryortext contributionsare
dialogues,multi
levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing clearlypresented
participant
relationshipsbetweenideas
intendedforan
discussionwith
involvingdetailed
audienceaswellas
formalturntaking
fellowparticipants
andorganisation
thatisnewtothelistener:
standardaccent,
maybemediatedby facts,definitions
achairperson
multiparticipant
discussionwithnon
linearorganisation,
frequent
colloquialismsand
overlappingturns
Textcharacteristics
Characterisedby
extended
monologue
Table15:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforSpokenReceptionattheClevels
UCLES/CUP 2011
45

29. evaluate
presentationsin
relationtotheir
purposeand
audience
30. integrate
informationand
detailed
instructionsto
carryoutcomplex
tasksinvolving
multipleelements
integratedetailed
information
requiredtocarry
outrelatedtasks
28. identify,analyse
andevaluatethe
useofinteractive
spokenlanguage
forpersuasion
extended
monologue
extended
monologues,
dialogues
presentations,
speeches,
multiplesources
formaldebates,
interviews,business
interactions,
situationsof
personalorpublic
conflict
texttypes:extended
monologues,multi
participant
discussions
dialogues,multi
participant
discussions
personal,public,academic, identifiesspeakerpurposeandintended
professionaltopics
audience
evaluatestheuseoflanguageinrelationto
these:suggestsimprovements

personal,public,academic, bringstogetherinformationfromdifferent
professionaltopics
sourcestodescribeatasktobecarriedoutand
stepstocompletethetask
personal,public,academic, identifieshowlinguisticresources(stress,pitch
professionaltopics
andintonation,lexicalchoices)areusedby
participantstoresolveconflict,buildconsensus,
promoteviewsetc.andevaluatesthesuccessof
thesestrategiesinaninteraction
personal,public,academic, fromdifferentsources
professionaltopics
integratestheseinpreparationforareport,
essayorpositionpaperetc.
discussionsareformal
andstructured

indialogues/
discussions,voicesare
easilydifferentiatedor
audioissupportedby
images
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
areused
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
maybeused
rateofspeechis
natural
languageisstandard,
butarangeofaccents
maybeused
rateofspeechis
natural
unfamiliarprocessor
procedure
thecontextisfamiliar
personaltothe
listenerorwithinthe
listenersacademic/
professionalfield
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UCLES/CUP 2011
academicor
professional
employment
professionalor
academic
32. Writeapersuasive
application
33. Evaluate,restate
andchallengean
argument

34. Askfor
complex,abstract
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
personalor
professional
Activity
Can
31. Writeinsupportof
acandidatefora
joboraward
onlinediscussion
personal
information
Inputtext
Basedon
resume
[writteninteraction]
onlinediscussion
[writtenproduction]
job/studyapplication
letter/email
Outputtext
Producing
letter/emailofreference
Table16:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenInteractionattheClevels

Qualitieshowwell?
Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic
L1.maintainshighlevelsoflinguisticaccuracyover
extendedtext
L2.makeseffectiveuseoflinguisticmodalitytosignal
thestrengthofclaim,argument,orposition
L5.complex
P1.clear
P2.appropriateandeffectivelogicalstructurewhich
helpsthereadertofindsignificantpoints
P6.reachesapositionorconclusion
P9.logical
P10.usesconventionalelementsofgenrestructure
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadoptedandtothe
readerinmind
extendedtext
L5.complex
P1.clear
P2.appropriateandeffectivelogicalstructurewhich
P9.logical
readerinmind
extendedsequenceofturns
P1.clear
readerinmind
inrealtime
inrealtime
employment/
studywithin
his/herfieldof
interest
Restrictions
Providedthat
UCLES/CUP 2011
47
35. expresssympathy
orcondolenceand
offercomfort
explanationor
clarificationand
negotiate
understanding
sensitivepersonal
matters
ideas
academic/
professionalmatters
newsof
bereavement/
divorce
letterofsympathy,
condolence
onlinediscussion
extendedsequenceofturns
P1.clear
readerinmind
extendedtext
L5.complex
P1.clear
P9.logical
readerinmind
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UCLES/CUP 2011
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
38. describeand
interpret
39. presentspecialist
material
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
37. setoutmultiple
perspectivesonan
intellectualissue
40. defineorspecify
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
Activity
Can
36. incorporate
informationdrawn
fromtheworkof
othersintohis/her
owntext
Personal
experiences/
texts
researchor
professional/
academictexts
empiricaldata
fromresearch
professionalor
academictexts
Inputtext
Basedon
professionalor
academictexts
[writtenproduction]
reports,articlesoressays
[writtenproduction]
forageneralaudience
[writtenproduction]
[writtenproduction]
Outputtext
Producing
[writtenproduction]
Table17:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenProductionattheClevels

Qualitieshowwell?
Linguistic/Pragmatic/Sociolinguistic
P1.clear
P2. appropriate and effective logical structure which
P3.without
infringing
conventionallyaccepted
academic/professional standards of the use of
otherswork
L1. maintains high levels of linguistic accuracy over
extendedtext
P4.makesclearauthorsownstanceontheissue
P5.clearlydistinguishesownideasandopinionsfrom
thoseof(multiple)sources
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadopted

extendedtext
L3.atlength(500wordsplus)
P1.clear
S1.styleappropriatetothegenreadopted
extendedtext
L4.usessuitablynontechnicalwordsandphrases
P1.clear
readerinmind
S2.accessibletoanaudiencethatisnotfamiliarwith
thetopic
P8. in detail, distinguishing between objects or
conceptsthatcloselyresembleeachother
topicwithinhis/her
fieldofinterest
opportunitiesfor
redraftingand
revision
topicwithinhis/her
fieldofinterest
Restrictions
Providedthat
UCLES/CUP 2011
49
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
42. writeaconclusion
complexacademic
orprofessional
topics
41. writean
introduction
Cotext
Cotext
[writtenproduction]
longerreports,articlesor
dissertations
[writtenproduction]
longerreports,articlesor
dissertations
extendedtext
P1.clear
L5.complex
P9.logical
extendedtext
L5.complex
P1.clear
P9.logical
P11. presenting key elements to be developed in
succeedingtext
extendedtext
L5.complex
P1.clear
P9.logical
P12.reviewsandsummarisesanextendedexposition
orargument
topicwithinhis/her
fieldofinterest
opportunitiesfor
redraftingand
revision
topicwithinhis/her
fieldofinterest
opportunitiesfor
redraftingand
revision
50
UCLES/CUP 2011
Text
Whenreading
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
referencebooks;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
referencebooks;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
referencebooks;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
Activity
Can
43. demonstrate
comprehensive
understanding
44. integrateideas
acrosstexts:
compare,
contrast,
synthesize
45. demonstrate
understandingof
implicitattitudes
andopinions
complex,public,academic
includingabstractideas
Topic/Setting
Concernedwith
conveyingdetailed
thatisnewtothereader:
facts,definitions
linguisticmeansfor
conveyingattitude
orprofessionaltopics;
includeuseof
conveyingattitudesand
metaphor/marked
opinions
syntax/lexical
connotation
Textscharacterisedby:
lengthy,complex
sentences
infrequent,sometimes
lengthy,complex
sentences
technicalvocabulary
formalregister
Textcharacteristics
Characterisedby
lengthy,complex
sentences
technicalvocabulary
formalregister
Table18:EnglishProfileCanDostatementsforWrittenReceptionattheClevels
accuratelysummarisestheviewsofthewriter
identifiesallmainareasofagreementand
disagreementacrosstexts
selectselementsfromtwoormoretextsto
constructabalancedresponsetoaquestion
levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing
Qualitieshowwell?
Restrictions
Providedthat
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
textsaddressedto
generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
textsaddressedto
generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
textsaddressedto
generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
UCLES/CUP 2011
51
personalmessages
ininformalletters,
emailsetc.
informalarticles,
weblogsetc.
literarywritings
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
personalmessages
ininformalletters,
emailsetc.
47. demonstrate
understandingof
implicitattitudes
andopinions
48. criticallyinterpret
personalmessages
ininformalletters,
emailsetc.
informalarticles,
weblogsetc.
46. demonstrate
comprehensive
understanding
linguisticmeansfor
conveyingattitude
includeuseof
metaphor/marked
syntax/lexical
connotation
informalregister
colloquialexpressions
ellipticalcohesion
culturalreferences
formalregister
lengthy,complex
sentences
technicalvocabulary
OR
informalregister
ellipticalcohesion
culturalreferences
informalregister
ellipticalcohesion
culturalreferences
technicalvocabulary
formalregister
personal,public,
educationalor
professionaltopics
personaltopics;conveying
emotions,attitudesand
opinions
conveyingdetailed
facts,definitions
accuratelyrepresentstheviewsofthewriterand
engagescriticallywiththemtoreachaconclusion
accuratelysummarisestheviewsofthewriter
levelrepresentationoffactualcontent,showing
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
textsaddressedto
generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading
52
UCLES/CUP 2011
literarywritings
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
personalmessages
ininformalletters,
emailsetc.
articlesinserious
newspapersor
magazines;
referencebooks;
specialised
academic/
professional
publications
formalregister
lengthy,complex
sentences
technicalvocabulary
OR
informalregister
ellipticalcohesion
culturalreferences

lengthy,complex
sentences
technicalvocabulary
formalregister
conveyingdetailed
facts,definitions
personal,public,
educationalor
professionaltopics
producesaccurategeneraloverviewofcontent
reproducesallmainideas
accuratelyrespondstoquestionsofgist
successfullyidentifiesgenre,tone,purpose,
stylisticfeaturesandlikelyimpact
undertime
pressure
textsaddressedto
generaleducated
readership
OR
textsaddressedto
professional/
academic
communityto
whichlearner
belongs
accesstoreference
tools
opportunitiesfor
rereading

Researchisnowunderwaytospecifylanguagefunctionsatthelowerlevels(A1andA2)andadditionaldescriptorsarebeingdevelopedtospecifyfunctional
objectivesforyoungerlearnersofEnglishwhoarestudyingthelanguageaspartoftheirschoolcurriculum.EnglishProfileresearchersalsoaimtoprovide
learnerexamplesoffunctionalusageforeachCEFRlevel,illustratinghowrelatedfunctionsdevelopacrosstheCEFRlevels.
50. demonstrate
broad
understanding
49. candemonstrate
awarenessofthe
impactonthe
readeroffeatures
ofstyle:lexical
andgrammatical
choices,discourse
organisation
4EnglishVocabularyProfile

The main thrust of the EP Programmes research on vocabulary has resulted in the English Vocabulary Profile
(Capel2011),aninteractiveonlineresourcewhichdescribesthevocabularywhichlearnersofEnglishknowateach
leveloftheCEFR.Itprovidesalargesearchabledatabaseofdetailedinformationonthewordsandphrasesthat
areappropriateforlearnersateachleveloftheCEFRandisalreadybeingusedtoinformteaching,publishingand
assessmentactivities,withfurtherusesandupgradesplanned.
CompilingtheEnglishVocabularyProfile

TheEnglishVocabularyProfileresearchhasbeensubstantiallybutnotexclusivelycorpusinformed.Wehaveused
boththeCambridgeEnglishCorpus,a1.2billionwordcollectionofwrittenandspokenEnglish,andtheCambridge
Learner Corpus, a unique corpus of written learner English, currently standing at 45 million words and which
includesstudentwritingatallsixCEFRlevels,andfromover200countries.Workisnowunderwaytoconstructa
spoken learner corpus of 2 million words, which will further inform future iterations of the English Vocabulary
ProfilebyprovidingevidenceofvocabularyinL2speech,inbothtestingandothercontexts.

In combination with this corpus evidence, we have monitored a range of classroombased sources, including
wordlistsfromleadingcoursebooks,readerswordlistsandthecontentofvocabularyskillsbooks.Wehavealso
referred to the Vocabulary Lists for Cambridge ESOLs Key English Test (KET) and Preliminary English Test (PET)
examinations,whichhavebeeninusesince1994andhavebeenregularlyupdatedtoreflectlanguagechangeand
patternsofuse.Finally,eventhoughitwaspublishedthirtyyearsago,theCambridgeEnglishLexiconbyRoland
Hindmarsh(1980)hasprovedinvaluableasacheckingsource,wherethelanguagehasnotevolvedovertime;it
toowasorganisedatmeaninglevel.

Many people will already be familiar with the working title of the project, which was English Profile Wordlists.
However, the resource is much more than a list of words for each CEFR level. The current English Vocabulary
Profile:

x containswords,phrases,phrasalverbsandidioms
x presentsthelevelofeachmeaningofawordinCEFRorder,tosuggestlearningpriorities
x provides detailed dictionarystyle entries with clear definitions, grammatical information and guidewords to
meanings
x includesaudioandwrittenpronunciations
x containsmanyrealexamples,fromdictionariesandfromactuallearnersatanappropriatelevel
x canbesearchedaccordingtodifferentfilters,includingpartsofspeech,grammar,usage,topicandaffixes
x containsbothBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishversionswhichuserscaneasilyswitchbetween.

Whatdoesitmeantoknowaword?

The core objective of the English Vocabulary Profile project has been to establish which words and phrases are
commonlyknownbylearnersaroundtheworld.Whatismeantbyknowinthiscontext?Wehavenotattempted
to separate receptive competence from productive as, in reality, so much will depend on learning styles and
priorities. In general, communicative classrooms in the 21st century provide more consistent opportunities for
usingnewlanguagethanagenerationago.Addedtothatistheunlimitedaccessthatmoststudentshavetothe
Internet,wheretheywillbebrowsingbutalsoactivelyparticipatingthroughEnglish.Forus,knowingawordisa
cumulativeprocess,whichimplieslifelonglearning,asfurthermeaningsandusesareacquired.

Takeforexamplethewordknow.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileentryforthiswordstretchesfromA1toC2level,
with figurative and idiomatic uses coming in at the higher CEFR levels, suggesting that there are additional
UCLES/CUP 2011
53
meaningsandphrasescontainingknowthatarenotacquireduntiltheClevels,seethecoreresultsforknowin
BritishEnglishbelow:

KeyfeaturesoftheEnglishVocabularyProfile

There are several key features of the English Vocabulary Profile, starting with its presentation of different
meaningsforthesameword.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileoperatesatthelevelofindividualmeanings,unlike
most vocabulary resources as some meanings are quite distinct from the core meaning of a word, and will be
encounteredbylearnersatdifferentCEFRlevels.TheEnglishVocabularyProfileteamhaveevaluatedeachsense
ofaword,startingfromitsfrequencyforfirstlanguageusersandcomparingthatwithlearnerdatathroughCUPs
corpusinformeddictionarydatabase,whichistheonlymonolingualEnglishdictionaryresourcetoflagfrequency
atsenselevel.

The EVP also includes extensive information about phrases based on stateoftheart research on phrasal
expressions,forexamplemakeyourway,whichhasaB2senseofliterallygettoaplaceversustheC2figurative
senseofmakeyourwayinacareer:
54
UCLES/CUP 2011
Similarly, learner knowledge of phrasal verbs is being investigated by an EP Network partner in Japan who is
conductingalargescaletesttoevaluatetherelativedifficultyof100ofthe442phrasalverbsthatarecurrently
included in the A1 to B2 levels. This test, which is being replicated in other regions, will enable us to compare
knowledgeofphrasalverbsacrossdifferentfirstlanguagebackgrounds.

Here is an extract from the entry for the word cool (showing A1 to B2 level) that illustrates some of meanings
availableandkeyphrasalverbsincludingcool:
Guidewordsincapital
lettersforeachmeaning
helptheusernavigate
throughlongentries
Phrasalverbsarelistedat
theendofanentry

TheEnglishVocabularyProfilealsoprovidesinformationongroupsofwordswithacommonroot(wordfamilies).
ThedifferentpartsofspeechinawordfamilywilloftenbeatdifferentCEFRlevelsaccordingtotheirfrequency.
UCLES/CUP 2011
55
Another key area of research within the vocabulary strand is the investigation of affixation. Here too, native
speakerfrequencyhasplayedapartinthedecisionmakingprocessastoCEFRlevel,alongwithaconsiderationof
thetransparencyofthedifferentpartsofspeechinrelationtothebaseword.Whenanaffixisattachedtoaword,
it may be transparent in meaning for example, it is not difficult to understand downloadable from the verb
download but it is less easy to work out the meaning of changeable, as in changeable weather, formed from
change.

WearecurrentlydevelopingtheEnglishVocabularyProfileforlevelsC1andC2.Thisentailslookingagainatthe
less frequent meanings of words that are already included in the A1 to B2 levels, and adding new words and
phrases.
AccessingtheEnglishVocabularyProfile

You can see a threeletter Preview version for the complete English Vocabulary Profile on the EP website. The
current online resource covers A1B2 levels; click on the thumbnail on the homepage to access the EVP at

YoucanusetheEnglishVocabularyProfileto:

x checkthelevelofwords,phrasesandmeanings
x producelistsofwordsatcertainlevelsforaparticulartopic,orwithcertaingrammaticalfeatures,etc.
x seehowthedifferentmeaningsofwordsfitacrossCEFRlevels
x getrealexamplesofhowwordsandphrasesareusedbynativespeakersandbylearnersatdifferentlevels
x compareAmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish
x getmoreinformationoncollocations
x getanoverviewofwordfamilies.

ForfurtherinformationabouthowtousetheEVP,visittheEPwebsiteandexploretheInformationBookletunder
Resources.TofindoutmoreaboutthecompilationoftheEVPseeCapel(2010a,2010b).

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UCLES/CUP 2011
5HowtousetheEnglishProfile

ThissectionsuggestswaysinwhichELTprofessionalssuchasteachers,curriculumplannersandmaterialsortest
writers can use the English Profile resources contained in this booklet, specifically to enable them to make
decisionsaboutwhichEnglishlanguagepointsaresuitableforteaching,learningandassessingateachCEFRlevel.
TherearefourareaslistedbelowwhichcanbenefitfromtheEnglishProfile,withexemplificationofhowdifferent
groupsofELTprofessionalsmightuseEnglishProfileresourceswithintheseareas.

A
Deciding whether particular English language points are relevant for a specific purpose, learner group
andCEFRlevel
x Ateachercheckingwhethersomekeyvocabularyforalessonissuitablefortheirclass.
x AtestdevelopercheckingwhetheraparticulargrammaticalpointissuitableforanA2test.
x Anauthorcheckingwhataspectsofagrammaticalarea(e.g.pasttense)aresuitableforaB1course.

B
IdentifyingsuitableEnglishlanguagepointsforaspecificpurpose,learnergroupandCEFRlevel
x AcurriculumplannerisdrawingupthevocabularylistforanA1course.
x An author wants to identify language points that are particularly difficult for Spanish speakers at B1
level.
x AtestdeveloperhastodecidewhichstructurestoincludeintheassessmentsyllabusforaC1exam.
x Anauthorisproducinganexerciseofprefixes/suffixesforaparticularsetofwords.
x AteacherislookingforarangeofexamplesofrefusingarequestsuitableforB2learners.

C
ObtainingauthenticlearnerlanguagetoillustratelanguagepointsataspecificCEFRlevel
x Ateacherisputtingtogetheranexerciseonaparticularlanguagepoint,usingexamplesproducedby
learnersatthesamelevelastheirclass.
x Atestwriterislookingforasuitablesentenceforaparticulartestitem.
x Acurriculumplannerwantstoaddtothesyllabusexamplesofparticularstructuresthataresuitable
forthelevel.
x An author is writing a unit on health at B1 level and wants a list of suitable words and phrases to
include.
x AteacherislookingforexamplesofaskingforpermissioninaformalworkcontextsuitableforaB2
class.

D
GainingadeeperunderstandingofEnglishlanguagepointswithinandacrossCEFRlevels
x Anauthorwantstoknowhowanunderstandingofcountable/uncountablenounsprogressesfromA1
toB1CEFRlevelstoworkoutwhatshouldbeincludedinanA1orB1levelcourse.
x A teacher wants to see how the different meanings of keep are normally acquired across the CEFR
levels.Itisinthetop500wordsforEnglish,butwhichmeaningsshouldstudentslearnfirst?
x AtestwriterneedstoknowwhatverbsaremostsuitableforanitemonthepassivevoiceatB2level.
x A curriculum planner wants to make sure the C2 curriculum covers the language of presenting a
counterexampleinbothformalandinformalcontexts.

TheEnglishProfiledescribeswhatlearnersknowandcandoateachCEFRlevel.ELTprofessionalswillmakeuseof
thatinformationindifferentwaysaccordingtotheirsituationandrequirementsasthereisnosingleEnglishProfile
curriculumthatisrightforalllearnersinallcontexts.TohelpELTprofessionals,theEnglishProfilewillsharesome
sample curricula based on English Profile tools, but ELT professionals will always need to make decisions about
howtheseexamplesapplytotheirowncontext.Wewelcomeyourfeedbackonwhethertheresourcespresented
hereareofpotentialoractualuseinyourspecificcontext,togetherwithanyexamplesofhowyouhavealready
used,orplantousethem.
UCLES/CUP 2011
57
6WhatisEnglishProfilebasedon?

TheEnglishProfileProgrammehassetouttoprovidethedefinitiveguidetowhatlearnersofEnglishknowateach
CEFRlevel.Ithasdonethisbycombining:

Leadingeducationalorganisations
x CambridgeESOL
x CambridgeUniversityPress
x TheBritishCouncil
x EnglishUK
Worldleadingresearchinstitutions
x
x
x
x
UniversityofCambridge
UniversityofBedfordshire
UniversityofNottingham
andotherEPNetworkPartners
ExtensivedataaboutrealEnglishlanguageuse
x
x
x
x
x
CambridgeEnglishCorpus
CambridgeLearnerCorpus
Arangeofothercorporafromaroundtheworld
Awiderangeofcoursebooks
Examspecificationsandwordlists

EnglishProfileresearchersuseaninnovativemethodologyfordescribingEnglishwhichisbothempiricalinthatit
isbasedonreallanguageasproducedbyspeakersofEnglishworldwide;andinternationalinthatitwillnotsolely
beconcernedwithEnglishasitisspokenintheUK,orinotherEnglishspeakingcountries.Theycanachievethis
largelybecausetheyhaveaccesstouniqueandvaluabledatabasesofEnglishlanguageinuse.
Previous attempts to describe English at different CEFR levels have been produced by
languagespecialistslargelyusingtheirinsightasexpertusersandteachersofthelanguage.
However,EnglishProfile'sresultsarebasedonobserveddata,providingconcreteevidenceof
whatlearnersthroughouttheworldcandoateachCEFRlevel.Twoofthemaincorporaused
to date are the Cambridge English Corpus (formerly known as the Cambridge International
Corpus)andtheCambridgeLearnerCorpus.TheCambridgeEnglishCorpuscontainsover1.2
billionwordsandcomprisesmaterialsfromahugevarietyofsourcesfromtheUKtheUSA,AustraliaandSingapore
amongothersthatincluderealanduptodateexamplesofnativespeakerlanguage.Researchersusethiscorpus
(andotherslikeit)todiscoverhownativespeakersuseEnglish. ForEnglishProfilewealsowanttolookathow
nonnativespeakersuseEnglish.
The Cambridge Learner Corpus has been at the centre of EP research work to date (see Section 2 for an
introduction), although as it consists entirely of exam data it required complementary non examination learner
data.Sometimeslearnersmaytrytoavoidlanguagetheyfinddifficultandsticktosafevocabulary,grammaror
functionsinexams,ratherthanrisktryingoutlanguagetheyreunsureof.This,amongotherreasons,iswhywe
arecurrentlycollectingnonexamdatafromlearnersallovertheworldfortheCambridgeEnglishProfileCorpus
(CEPC). We are working to build the Cambridge English Profile Corpus with the collaboration of a network of
educational establishments across the world, including state schools, universities, private language schools,
research centres, government bodies (including ministries of education) and other ELT professionals. Together
werecollectingawidevarietyofdatatypesfromanumberofcontexts,suchasclassroomwork,conversations,
homework, and so on. The corpus will be balanced acrossa number of variables, including the first language of
learners,thecountrywheredataarecollected,theageoflearnersandtheirCEFRlevel.

Forcurrentinformationonourcorpusrelatedactivities,visittheEPwebsiteandclickontheCorpuspage.
58
UCLES/CUP 2011
7HowtogetinvolvedwithEnglishProfile

GettinginvolvedwithEnglishProfileisyouropportunitytoshapetheCEFRforEnglish.Youcansubmitdatafor
ourresearch,getinvolvedinresearchitself,oryoucansimplyjointhenetworkcommunityandkeepintouchwith
developments.Asthispublicationgoestopresswearepreparingforthepublicationoftheinauguralvolumesof
theEnglishProfileStudiesseries(Green2011;Hawkins&Filipovi2011)andfollowingthat,wewillbewritingan
EnglishProfileHandbookfullofpracticalapplications,anticipatedpublicationdateearly2012.Ontheeventsside,
EP team members will be presenting at major events in China, Australia and the Czech republic in the coming
months(amongstothers),docheckoutourEventswebpageformoredetailsandwehopetoseeyouthere.
JointheEPNetwork

Joining the EP Network as a data contributor or researcher is straightforward; to submit data please contact us
throughourwebsitebyfillingintheformGetinvolvedindatacollectionunderCommunity.Learnerssubmittheir
dataviaanonlinedatacollectionportalwhichhasbeendevelopedespeciallyforEnglishProfile.

ThebenefitsofjoiningtheEPNetwork:

1. OnlineaccesstotheCEPC(whichwouldincludethecontributor'sowndata)inasearchableformat.Teachers
canusethistohelpthemunderstandtheirstudents'needsbetter,andtodevelopteachingmaterialswhich
catertothoseneeds.
2. FreeaccesstotheEnglishVocabularyProfile,afantasticonlineinteractivevocabularyresourcedevelopedas
partofEnglishProfile.
3. FreeticketstoEnglishProfileworkshops,whichwillincludetrainingrelevanttoteachers,suchashowtoratea
student'sworkbyCEFRlevel.
4. AdvancenoticeofEnglishProfilerelatedpublicationsandautomaticsubscriptiontoEnglishProfileJournal.
5. A'certificateofparticipation'(onrequest)foryourschool,andlistingofyourschool'sname,withthanks,on
ourdatacontributorswebpage.
6. InvitationstoEnglishProfileresearchseminarsandotherEnglishProfileevents.
Givefeedbackonthisbooklet

Wewelcomeyourfeedbackonthispublication:

x Doesitprovidetheinformationyouneed?
x Doesthepresentationoftheinformationworkforyou?
x HowdoyouthinkyoucouldmakeuseofEnglishProfile?
x WhatelsewouldyouliketoseefromEnglishProfile?

Pleasegotowww.englishprofile.orgtosendusyourfeedback,mentioningEnglishProfileVersion1.1.
UCLES/CUP 2011
59
8References

Hereyouwillfindkeyreferencesmentionedinthispublication.AfullerbibliographycanbefoundontheEnglish
ProfilewebsiteunderResearchers:www.englishprofile.org
EnglishGrammarProfile
Hawkins,JA&Buttery,P(2010)CriterialFeaturesinLearnerCorpora:TheoryandIllustrations.EnglishProfile
Journal1,e5doi:10.1017/S2041536210000103

Hawkins,JA&Buttery,P(2009)Usinglearnerlanguagefromcorporatoprofilelevelsofproficiency:Insightsfrom
theEnglishProfileProgramme.InLTaylor&CJWeir(Eds)LanguageTestingMatters:Investigatingthewider
socialandeducationalimpactofassessment,StudiesinLanguageTesting,vol.31,(pp.158175).Cambridge:
UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

Hawkins,JA&Filipovi,L(2011)CriterialfeaturesinL2English:SpecifyingtheReferenceLevelsoftheCommon
EuropeanFramework.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.1,Cambridge:UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.
O'Keeffe,A&Mark,G(inpreparation)TheEnglishGrammarProfile.Tobeavailableonlineat:

Salamoura,A&Saville,N(2010)ExemplifyingtheCEFR:CriterialfeaturesofwrittenlearnerEnglishfromthe
EnglishProfileProgramme.InIBartning,MMaisa&IVedder(Eds)Communicativeproficiencyandlinguistic
development:IntersectionsbetweenSLAandlanguagetestingresearch,EuroslaMonographsSeries,vol.1,(pp.
101132).Availableonlineat:http://eurosla.org/monographs/EM01/101132Salamoura_Saville.pdf

Salamoura,A&Saville,N(2009)CriterialfeaturesacrosstheCEFRlevels:EvidencefromtheEnglishProfile
Programme.ResearchNotes37,3440,Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Availableonlineat:
www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/rs_nts37.pdf

Saville,N&Milanovic,M(2011)SeriesEditorsNoteinHawkins,JA&Filipovi,LCriterialfeaturesinL2English:
SpecifyingtheReferenceLevelsoftheCommonEuropeanFramework.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.1,Cambridge:
EnglishFunctionsProfile

Onlinesurvey:www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella/cando

Green,A(2011)Languagefunctionsrevisited:Theoreticalandempiricalbasesforlanguageconstructdefinition
acrosstheabilityrange.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.2,Cambridge:UCLES/CambridgeUniversityPress.

Green,A(2010)RequirementsforReferenceLevelDescriptionsforEnglish.EnglishProfileJournal1,e6
doi:10.1017/S204153621000005X

Lenz,P&Schneider,G(2004)IntroductiontothebankofdescriptorsforselfassessmentinEuropeanLanguage
Portfolios.Availableonlineat:
www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/?L=E&M=/documents_intro/Data_bank_descriptors.html

Saville,N&Milanovic,M(2011)SeriesEditorsNoteinGreen,ALanguagefunctionsrevisited:Theoreticaland
60
UCLES/CUP 2011
empiricalbasesforlanguageconstructdefinitionacrosstheabilityrange.EnglishProfileStudies,vol.2,Cambridge:

Trim,JLM(2009)Breakthrough.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Availableonlineat:

vanEk,JA(1975)TheThresholdLevelinaEuropeanUnit/CreditSystemforModernLanguageLearningbyAdults.
Strasbourg:CouncilofEurope.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(2001)Vantage.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(1998a)Waystage1990(revisedandcorrectededition).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.

vanEk,JA&Trim,JLM(1998b)Threshold1990(revisedandcorrectededition).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.

Wilkins,D(1976)NotionalSyllabuses.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
EnglishVocabularyProfile

CambridgeESOLexaminationvocabularylists(KETandPET):
www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113295_ket_vocablist09.pdf
www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113298_pet_vocablist09.pdf

Capel,A(2011)TheEnglishVocabularyProfile.Availableonlineat:www.englishprofile.org
Capel,A(2010a)InsightsandissuesarisingfromEnglishProfileWordlistsproject.ResearchNotes41,27,
Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Availableonlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN41p2
7.pdf

Capel,A(2010b)A1B2vocabulary:insightsandissuesarisingfromtheEnglishProfileWordlistsproject.English
ProfileJournal,1,e3doi:10.1017/S2041536210000048

Hindmarsh,R(1980)CambridgeEnglishLexicon:agradedwordlistformaterialswritersandcoursedesigners.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
CorpusDevelopment

Alexopoulou,T(2008)BuildingnewcorporaforEnglishProfile.ResearchNotes33,1519,Cambridge:Cambridge
ESOL.Availableonlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN33p1519.pdf

Briscoe,E,Carroll,J,&Watson,R(2006)TheSecondReleaseoftheRASPSystem.InProceedingsofthe
COLING/ACL2006InteractivePresentationSessions,Sydney,Australia.

Nicholls,D(2003)TheCambridgeLearnerCorpuserrorcodingandanalysisforlexicographyandELT.InArcher,D,
Rayson,P,Wilson,A&McEnery,T(Eds),ProceedingsoftheCorpusLinguistics2003Conference,UCRELtechnical
papernumber16,UCREL,LancasterUniversity.
UCLES/CUP 2011
61
GeneralEnglishProfilereferences

Coste,D(2007)ContextualisingusesofthecommonEuropeanframeworkofreferenceforlanguages.Paper
presentedatCouncilofEuropePolicyForumonuseoftheCEFR,Strasbourg2007.Availableonline
www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/SourceForum07/DCoste_Contextualise_EN.doc

CouncilofEurope(2005)ReferenceLevelDescriptionsforNationalandRegionalLanguages.Guideforthe
productionofRLD.Version2.Strasbourg:LanguagePolicyDivision.Availableonlineat:
ww.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/DNR_Guide_EN.pdf

CouncilofEurope(2001)CommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages:Learning,Teaching,
Assessment.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

EnglishProfileBibliographywww.englishprofile.org

EnglishProfileGlossarywww.englishprofile.org

Little,D(2007)TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages:PerspectivesontheMakingof
SupranationalLanguageEducationPolicy.TheModernLanguageJournal91(4):64555.

McCarthy,M(2010)Spokenfluencyrevisited.EnglishProfileJournal1,e4doi:10.1017/S2041536210000012

Milanovic,M(2009)CambridgeESOLandtheCEFR,ResearchNotes37,25,Cambridge:CambridgeESOL.Available
onlineat:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN37p25.pdf

Saville,N&Hawkey,R(2010)TheEnglishProfileProgrammethefirstthreeyears.EnglishProfileJournal1,e7
doi:10.1017/S2041536210000061

Trim,JLM(2010)TheModernLanguagesProgrammeoftheCouncilofEuropeasabackgroundtotheEnglish
ProfileProgramme.EnglishProfileJournal1,e2doi:10.1017/S2041536210000097
62
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9TheEnglishProfileNetwork

FoundingPartners

EPNetworkPartners

ThefollowinginstitutionsareinvolvedindatacollectionorresearchactivitiesforEnglishProfile:

x ATLCoopLombardia,Cant
x
BabeBolyaiUniversitywww.ubbcluj.ro
BanatUniversityofAgriculturalScienceandVeterinaryMedicinewww.usabtm.ro
ColegioNewlands,BuenosAireswww.colegionewlands.com
CologneUniversityofAppliedScienceswww.fhkoeln.de
ElColegioLeonardoDaVinci,Madridwww.colegioleonardodavinci.es
EscuelaOficialdeIdiomasdeBurgoswww.eoiburgos.es
EscuelaOficialdeIdiomasdeMadridMoratalaz(ExtensinPuentedeVallecas)
www.educa.madrid.org/web/eoi.moratalaz.madrid/vallecask.html
FONUniversitywww.fon.edu.mk
HogeschoolUniversiteitBrusselwww.hubrussel.be
InternationalProgrammesCenterEFPenzawww.efpenza.ru
InternationalUniversityofNoviPazarwww.uninp.edu.rs
KaplanInternationalCollegeswww.kic.org.uk
KragujevacUniversitywww.ekfak.kg.ac.yuandwww.filum.kg.ac.rs
MaryImmaculateCollegewww.mic.ul.ie
MasarykUniversitywww.muni.cz
MegatrendUniversitywww.megatrend.edu.rs
MetropolitanUniversityBelgradewww.fit.edu.yu
MoscowInstituteofForeignLanguageswww.gaudeamus.ru
NoviSadUniversitywww.uns.ac.rs
UCLES/CUP 2011
63
Parhamergymnasiumwww.parhamer.at
PalackUniversitywww.upol.cz
PreovUniversitywww.unipo.sk
TheRomanianMinistryofEducationResearchandInnovationwww.edu.ro
ShannonCollegeofHotelManagementwww.shannoncollege.com
SingidunumUniversitywww.singidunum.ac.yu
TalkTeflSupportCentre,Gorgan,Iran
TechnicalCollegeaakwww.vstss.com
TokyoUniversityofForeignStudieswww.tufs.ac.jp
UniversidadChilenoBritnicadeCulturawww.ubritanica.cl
UniversidadComplutensedeMadridwww.ucm.es
UniversidadPolitcnicadeValncia(CampusdeAlcoy)www.upv.es
UniversitateaBabeBolyaiwww.ubbcluj.ro
UniversityofKragujevacwww.kg.ac.rs
UniversityofNiwww.ni.ac.rs
VilniusPedagogicalUniversitywww.vpu.lt
WyszaSzkoaLingwistycznawww.wsl.edu.pl

EUfundedEPNetworkProjectMembers
x
CambridgeUniversityPresswww.cambridge.org/uk
CambridgeESOLwww.CambridgeESOL.org
CRELLA,UniversityofBedfordshirewww.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella
BanatUniversitywww.usabtm.ro
CologneUniversityofAppliedScienceswww.internationaloffice.fhkoeln.de
ComplutenseUniversity,Madridwww.ucm.es
MasarykUniversitywww.muni.cz
PresovUniversitywww.unipo.sk
TheDublinInstituteofTechnologywww.dit.ie

64
UCLES/CUP 2011
EnglishProfile
EnglishProfile
Introducing the CEFR for English
The English Prole Programme is an elaboration of the reference level descriptions
of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) that is
concerned specically with the English language.
English Prole has applications in English language pedagogy and assessment,

curriculum design, materials development and test construction.
This booklet introduces the theoretical and empirical bases of English Prole,
setting out the ambitions of the Programme and presenting emerging ndings.
It is for teachers, curriculum planners, writers, test developers and other ELT
professionals. It will help them make decisions about which English language
points are suitable for learning at each level of the CEFR.
EMC/7624/1Y08
www.englishprole.org
Introducing the CEFR for English
Version 1.1
Since its publication, the CEFR has become inuential in building a shared
understanding of performance levels for foreign language learners. However, there
is a considerable gap between the broad descriptions of levels provided in the
CEFR, which cover a range of languages and learning contexts, and the level of
detail required for applications such as syllabus or test design, which English Prole
addresses.

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Introducing the CEFR

English Prole has applications in English language pedagogy and assessment,

Introducing the CEFR for English

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