Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education

A.
Mndez-Vilas and J. Daz (Eds.)
______________________________________________

Surface nanofabrication using focused ion beam

Nan Yao1 and Alexander K Epstein1,2
1

Princeton University, Princeton Institute for the Science and Technology of Materials, 70 Prospect Avenue, Princeton, NJ
08544
2
Present address: School of Engineering and Applied, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138

Keywords focused ion beam; nanofabrication; microscopy, surface, nanotechnology

1. Principles of FIB systems

The modern focused ion beam (FIB) system is a major tool for surface
nanofabrication. It uses a liquid metal ion source (LMIS) at the top of its
column to produce ions. Gallium is usually used for its low melting
point, high mass, low volatility, and because it is easily distinguished
from other elements. From the LMIS the ions are field evaporated and
focused into a narrow beam by an electrostatic lens, then passed through
a number of apertures before scanning the sample surface (Figure 1).
When the ions impact the sample surface, elastic ion-atom collisions
result in the removal of surface atoms in a process called sputtering.
Inelastic collisions produce secondary electrons and x-rays.
Additionally, the incident ions transfer energy to the surface atoms and
electrons, producing secondary ions. These products of ion-atom
collisions are collected, amplified, and analyzed as signals to form an
image.
1.1 FIB versus SEM
FIBs use of gallium ions from a field emission liquid metal ion (FEFig. 1 Schematic diagram of the FIB system.
LMI) source provides functionality and applications different from those
of the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Ions are much larger and
more massive than electrons, greatly affecting beam-sample interaction. Also, since ions travel more slowly and require
stronger fields to focus and control than electrons, different methods are required to control ions in the optic column of
the microscope. The high mass of ions allows FIB to remove surface atoms, somethin
something
g that SEM cannot do. This
sputtering effect can be used to precisely remove atoms from the surface of a material
material,, enabling important milling
applications.
For the FIB, imaging resolution below 10 nm is attainable. The image will show both topographic information and
materials contrast. Since the ion-solid interaction depends in part on the crystal grain orientation, information on grain
size and orientation can be obtained using the FIB. The sample must be vacuum compatible, and often a conductive
layer is painted on the surface to prevent charge accumulation on the sample. Unlike in the SEM, the sample will
invariably be altered under the FIB due to the sputtering effect.
1.2 FIB Techniques: milling, gas-assisted etching, deposition, and implantation

Milling makes it possible to locally modify the material surface, prepare cross-sections, and shape sample materials.
Generally, the sputtering rate is proportional to the primary beam current. For milling, a higher beam current should be
used initially, followed by a lower current to create a fine polish. However, a low-current beam must be used for
imaging, or else the sample will be excessively eroded.
The sputtering process can also be made material-selective through a process known as gas assisted etching (GAE).
In this technique, one of several halogen gases is introduced in the immediate vicinity of the milling site. The materialspecific absorbency rates enhance the formation of volatile reaction products under ion bombardment. Typical milling
resolution of around 0.1 m is achieved with GAE, and holes and cuts can be placed within 20 nm [5]. Milling
efficiency of this technique is typically a few m3/nC. GAE is much more efficient than standalone FIB for removing
large volumes of material, and it does not cause unwanted redeposition of already-etched materials. However, GAE can
only be used with certain substrates, as it requires a precursor gas that specifically forms volatile products with the
substrate while avoiding spontaneous reaction. Furthermore, GAE sacrifices some of the precision of unassisted ion
milling for higher speed. The smallest feature sizes it has achieved have been between 200 and 300 nm. Thus, a twostage process of initial GAE followed by ion milling is frequently used when an operation requires bulk volumes of
material removal as well as high precision.

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In a different process known as FIB deposition, a

gas phase organometallic compound is introduced
immediately above the sample in the path of the ion
beam. It adsorbs onto the sample surface and
decomposes when struck by the ion beam and
secondary emission products. Volatile organic
impurities are removed by the vacuum system while
the metal remains deposited on the surface, creating a
thin film (Figure 2). To deposit an oxide insulator, a
siloxane gas and oxygen are used. Decomposition of
the silicon bearing molecule in the presence of
oxygen leads to the formation of a silicon dioxide
layer. A drawback of FIB deposition is lower purity
than chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Cracking of
the organometallic molecules is almost never
complete, leaving organic impurities in the thin film.
Lingering gallium ions can also compromise the
insulating ability of a deposited oxide layer. However,
FIB offers precise, localized deposition and can
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the platinum deposition process [53].
control the height of deposition.
The conventional fabrication method for semiconductors uses broad ion beam (BIB) systems and involves patterned
films, or masks, which protect certain areas of the wafer such that only the unmasked areas become implanted with
ions. The FIBs localized control and precision make it possible to eliminate the mask, introducing new approaches to
control doping gradients and the depth of implantation [3]. However, FIB-induced ion implantation suffers from slow
processing rate.
1.3 The two-beam system
By incorporating FIB and SEM technology in a single machine, we can use the two synergistically to achieve tasks
beyond the limitations of either individual system. In a two-beam system (Figure 3), the ion beam and electron beam are
placed in fixed positions and share their focal points at the coincidence point, an optimized position for the majority
of operations, including FIB sample direct writing.
The two-beam system simplifies the reconstruction of the three-dimensional structure and chemistry of a sample by
interpolating two-dimensional SEM/FIB images and ion-assisted secondary ion mass spectroscopy chemical maps of
layers that have been successively exposed through ion milling [18]. The sample can be imaged in real time with the
SEM while the FIB is milling, depositing, etc., allowing for greater accuracy when creating cross sections [19]. The
SEMs damage-free imaging is especially useful in the final phase of sample preparation for the TEM, since using a
FIB alone inevitably results in sputtering damage.
The two-beam system also offers advantages for the deposition of metal or insulating layers compared to a
standalone FIB. Ion beams may leave the layer with poor insulating properties due to gallium ion impurities. However,
in the two-beam system, the SEM beam can be used to induce deposition, ensuring high insulating quality. FIB systems
can accurately mill holes only down to a diameter of 10 nm. However, with the two-beam system, nanoscale holes can

Fig. 3 Schematic of the SEM and FIB machines, shown in a two-beam configuration [53].

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first be milled using the ion beam and then filled using electron beam deposition to make the final diameter as small as
4 nm [23].

2. Application of focused ion beam instrumentation

Thus far, we have discussed in depth the many functions and remarkable capabilities of the FIB machine. However, it is
the abundance of applications yielded by these capabilities that is the primary reason for the growing interest of
academia and industry in FIB technology. Many applications have proven commercially successful, while others hold
promise for the near future. We will begin with applications related to surface structure modifications, followed by the
popular application of TEM sample preparation. Finally, we will examine the 3-D imaging applications of the FIB
machine as they relate to ion milling.
2.1 Surface structure modification
As we have seen, FIB technology is capable of precise milling at the micro and nano scales, making it a very attractive
tool for micromachining tasks. A number of industrial areas especially stand to benefit from adopting FIB for these
tasks. The IC industry continually seeks more precise failure analysis and product modification, both provided by FIB.
Circuitry engineers can harness the FIB as a powerful tool for defect location and investigation, defect sample
preparation, circuit rewiring, and surface modification. Meanwhile, the FIBs lithographic capabilities are becoming
increasingly effective, and studies have shown that they are comparable with current lithographic standards. Skeptics
have pointed out that the FIB is slower since it is a serial process, but speeds are improving, and FIB lithography and
patterning have proven effective with many different materials and specific applications.
It is equally important to consider the limitations of FIB. At the Oxford University Department of Materials, there
has been interest in studying the imperfections involved in surface modification at low ion dosage. A recent study was
conducted in which a Si wafer was bombarded with Ga+ ions at different doses between 1013 and 1019 ions cm-2, where

Dose = Iion t exposure

) (A

pattern

1.602 10-15

(1)

Rectangles with depths of about 4 nm and dimensions of 4 x 1 m were milled and investigated, along with grids
consisting of lines 5 m by 20 nm. Atomic force microscopy
was used to characterize the topography of the altered
surface. It was found that results differed for varying doses
of ions. In almost all cases, edge protrusions were noted,
ranging from 0 nm (1013 ions cm-2) to a maximum height of
approximately 1 nm when below a dosage of 1017 ions cm-2.
Edge effects were mainly blamed on Ga+ implantation from
stray ions and redeposition of secondary and backscattered
material [24].
2.1.1 Integrated circuit analysis and modification
The FIB system has found widespread use in the
semiconductor industry for applications in defect analysis
and modification of prototype integrated circuits. The ion
Fig. 4 Combination SEM and FIB passive voltage contrast
beam is capable of precisely milling a cut to disconnect a
images. The FIB portion (right) shows an area of memory
wire while depositing conducting material in another area to
cells after exposing the wings of the floating gates. One
connect two pieces of wire, like a micro-soldering iron, and
floating gate appears bright, indicating that it is grounded and
this is all done with minimal damage to the wafer itself.
therefore the tunnel or gate oxide has failed [25].
When investigating integrated circuits, the lack of visible
evidence on the material surface often makes it difficult to find the defect location; the failure cannot be repaired if it
cannot be found. This problem has been analyzed at FEI Europe, Ltd., and a technique utilizing only the FIB machine
has been developed to effectively locate the area of concern. FEI examined a transistor containing a certain gate
(approximately 1 m2) under which a thin gate oxide layer had broken down due to excessive voltage application
(Figure 4). The source and drain lay on opposite ends of the gate, which sat atop the gate oxide layer, all of which
resided on a silicon substrate. TEM samples of the failure site (<100 nm in diameter) were desired to investigate the
mechanics behind the problem, but first the area of failure had to be located. To do so, an outline of trenches was first
milled around the suspected region using high beam currents. Removal of thin slices along with fast and minimally
destructive imaging was then performed until the structure became apparent. Finally, low beam currents were used to
uncover the region (focusing and stigmation adjustment were performed away from the region to avoid unnecessary
damage). It was found that these basic steps succeeded in efficiently locating a defective area [25]. After locating the
defect, the FIB can be used again for repairing it.

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2.1.2 Lithography and patterning

In the area of surface modification, FIB can be used for lithography and pattering for nanofabrication. FIB demonstrates
clear advantages over other techniques for high resolution patterning and depth of focus. Because of its precision and
high level of lithography detail, the FIB merits study as a practical alternative. However, these strengths are balanced by
an unavoidable drawback: slower throughput. This problem was closely studied at the University of Cambridge, where
Li et al. replicated FIB-generated structures with nano-contact imprinting. Silicon wafers were patterned (10 m single
pixel line and 20 nm diameter dots) with a 30kV Ga+ ion beam at currents of 1, 4, 11, and 70 pA. Analysis was
performed using the AFM and negative replicas were fabricated by pouring polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) prepolymer
over the print master, curing, and lifting it off. Dwell time, ion dosage, and beam current were characterized, and the
resulting moulds were satisfactory in most respects [26].
With patterning rates on the order of 0.1-1 m3/nC incident ion current, speed has been considered the principal
limitation for FIBs applicability. However, Liu et al has recently reported significantly more rapid feature fabrication.
Patterns were fabricated on a 120 nm thin film of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) that was spin coated on a Si wafer.
A Ga+ ion beam with beam currents of 1-70 pA was used to fabricate feature sizes of 60 nm diameter and 5 nm depth,
and Liu reports milling times of 20 s per feature and a material removal rate of 1000 m3/nC. Other features were also
created orders of magnitude faster than previously reported. In fact, all sputtering yields were remarkably high, which
Liu attributed to the etched polymer undergoing depolymerization aided by the ion beam, a phenomenon usually seen at
higher temperatures [27].
Recently, a group at the University of Limerick in Ireland developed a two-step lithography process called negative
resist image by dry etching (NERIME). The method combines exposure to Ga+ ions from the FIB with reactive ion
etching (RIE). This leads to enhanced patterning capabilities, as the process eliminates some of the limitations of basic
FIB lithography, such as low penetration depth and sample damage [28].
2.1.3 Materials alteration and characterization
We have already seen how the FIB system is a powerful tool for tasks involving material alteration. Its milling and
deposition abilities allow the creation of almost any three-dimensional microstructure (Figure 5), and its crosssectioning capability facilitates a more complete characterization of materials. This section will highlight only a small
sampling of the vast range of studies on FIB applications.
Gallium Nitride (GaN) is a widely applicable semiconductor material whose high melting point and light sensitivity
make it well suited for applications in both high temperature devices and light detecting or emitting devices [29, 30].
Unlike traditional methods, the FIB does not need an etch mask for manipulation because of its local specificity and
precision. In a study conducted at the University of Bristol, FIB etching onto GaN structures was observed with both
AFM and SEM techniques. The group used a FIB in conjunction with a magnetic sector mass analyzer to produce a 20
nm Ga+ beam and to etch square patterns of 49 m2 onto a 1.2 m
thick GaN specimen. They employed doses of 500, 1000, 1500,
2.7m
and 2000 pC/m2, all without an etch mask. The etch depths and
surface roughness were then closely studied by examining SEM
images obtained using a secondary electron detector and data from
a secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) analysis. The group
found that the etch rate increased linearly with ion dose,
corresponding to a linear increase in etch depth with increasing
dosage. They also examined edge effects and found that edge
sections had a low roughness size of under 0.1 m. While slower
than traditional methods, FIB etching on GaN nevertheless proved
advantageous in its high quality production and versatility [30].

0.4m

Fig. 5 Creation of a nanoscale 3D structure with FIB

deposition [54].

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In other experiments, ion bombardment on hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy films (a-SiC:H) has been shown to
induce different opacities in crystal layers, depending on whether or not they have been bombarded (Figure 6). This is
of great interest because large optical contrast in a-SiC:H enables a new material for opto-electronic devices and for
severe environmental conditions. A recent study
compared the effects of Ga+ and Sn+ bombardment with
previous experiments that studied As+. Films were
prepared by two different methods: a glow discharge
technique (GD), and reactive magnetron sputtering (SP).
The samples were bombarded at 50 keV (Ga+) and 60
keV (Sn+), with an ion-beam intensity of 2 A/cm2 and
doses between 1015 and 1017 ions cm-2. Both films
showed massive increases (greater for the GD-prepared
film) in optical absorption coefficients compared to
previous experiments with As+, indicating that the
formation of optical contrast was much more effective.
FIBs material altering capabilities as part of an
integrated two-beam system were vividly demonstrated
by the work of Shinji Matsui at the Himeji Institute of
Technology in Japan. It was shown that using the milling
and deposition techniques, complex 3D structures could
be modeled based on software-defined inputs, such as
Fig. 6 Optical contrast pattern written into a GD a-Si0.85C0.15:H
bitmap files, using a digital patterning generator. CAD
film deposited on Corning 7059 glass substrate. The
files were used in conjunction with ion beam deposition
transparent and opaque regions represent un-implanted and
to create spring and bellow shaped 3-D helical structures
implanted parts of the film, respectively. The patterning has
with part dimensions as small as 80 nm (Figure 7) [32].
been performed with the help of a program-controlled Ga+focused ion beam. The minimum feature size is 2.5 m. [31]

Many studies have shown that the FIB is also a very

powerful tool for characterization of nanoscale objects.
For instance, we expanded the versatility of the FIB by
adding high-resolution strain mapping software. The two
work together seamlessly to provide a new method for in
situ measurement of the residual stresses in thin films. The
FIB initially mills narrow slots at precise locations which
serve to relieve residual stress in the material and displace
the surrounding film. The strain mapping software is then
used to measure these displacements and calculate the
residual stresses that were present [33].
In a different experiment, we studied the lubricated
Fig. 7 Nanostructures fabricated by FIB deposition: a) SEM
wear of steel couples coated with W-DLC. The ion beam
image of microcoil with a 600-nm coil diameter, 700-nm coil
in a two-beam system was used to cut thin cross-sections
pitch, and 80-nm wire diameter, b) microbellow with a 100-nm
at specific locations, which were observed using the
thickness, 800-nm pitch (courtesy of Shinji Matsui of Himeji
electron beam [34]. This enabled the study of the subInstitute of Technology of Japan).
surface condition of the coating and substrate. Similarly,
the FIB was used to characterize sub-surface damage in a study of foreign object damage (FOD) in a thermal barrier
system. The conditions were set to simulate those of a turbine engine, and the FIB observations indicated damage in the
thermal barrier coating. The study showed that these changes were caused by particle impact, confirming the presence
of FOD [35]
More recently, complex biomaterials have been altered and characterized by FIB. Using a two-beam FIB, we
examined the micro-architecture of the red abalone shells nacreous layer, which consists of 0.5 m-thick inorganic
platelets and proteinaceous organic interlayers. The ion beam was used to mill successive cross-sections of the nacre
sample at submicron intervals, while the electron beam was used to collect images of each section (Figure 8). By
revealing the structure below the surface, it was possible to detect the propagation of screw dislocations through the
aragonite layers, a phenomenon previously unobserved in the material.

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Fig. 8 Abalone shell two-beam cross-section images showing the presence and propagation of screw dislocations
through multiple layers of nacre. A screw dislocation core platelet (a) was selected for analysis, after which trenches
were precisely milled through it by FIB and observed via SEM. The resulting side views (b-d) display the complex
morphology of the biomaterial and reveal features that were previously impossible to view [55].

2.2 TEM Sample preparation for imaging and analysis

The most widely used FIB application is the preparation of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) samples,
specifically the creation of electron transparent samples by milling [36-41]. The TEM collects data from electrons that
are transmitted or diffracted through the sample, and it is very useful for examining atomic structure and composition of
solid materials. In order for transmission to be possible, TEM samples must be extremely thin: no more than 200 nm
thick and ideally less than 50 nm. In addition, the sample must be cleanly extracted from the bulk specimen since defect
analysis, a major use of TEM, is highly location-specific. Before FIB technology, the conventional sample preparation
involved tedious grinding and polishing which limited the productivity of research groups. FIB technology, however,
has increased both the speed and quality of TEM sample preparation.
FIB milling provides a number of advantages over previous methods for TEM sampling. Since the sample can be
rotated and oriented without being removed from the chamber, much time is saved during material removal. A defective
area on a sample can be easily located by thinning different regions until the defect is located, all before the milling
process begins. Also, the dimensions of samples can be controlled much more precisely. Finally, the FIB allows the
user to observe the sectioning of a sample in real time, which provides valuable feedback for adjustments. Simultaneous
imaging is greatly enhanced in a two-beam FIB system, where the SEM can be used for high-resolution, nondestructive
imaging. Indeed, the FIBs capabilities of precise cutting and polishing make it uniquely qualified to prepare TEM
samples. Cairney has taken full advantage of FIBs superior capabilities to create samples of large, uniform areas with
relative ease for his groups TEM work studying TiN and TiAlN thin films [37]. Similarly, Volkert used the FIB to
prepare TEM samples for work on synthetic fluorapatite-gelatine composite particles. Volker reports that the FIBprepared samples make high-quality, crack-free specimens with no apparent ion beam-induced damage [38].
The most common and practical method of sample preparation by FIB is the lift-out technique, so called because the
final step involves the lifting out of the sample area by a tiny glass rod. Prior to milling, the bulk sample is generally
coated with a conducting metal to eliminate charging. Once secured in the chamber, the region of interest is located and
a trench is dug around the area in a step-like manner. The X and Y dimensions of the rectangular trenches must be in a
ratio of 2:1 so that the entire trench can be imaged. The FIB is able to perform rapid milling to thin out the region,
which is then cut along the attached edges, lifted out with a glass rod, and placed on the TEM grid for analysis (Figure
9). The lift-out technique was used by Wang to prepare CMOS cross-sectional specimens starting with integrated circuit
wafers. Success is reported in producing a large and uniform sectional specimen in a very short time. On the other
hand, Wang mentions a disadvantage of the lift-out technique, namely that a finished specimen cannot be re-fabricated
if it is too thick; however, newer techniques using the FIB have been able to overcome this problem [39, 40].

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Fig. 9 Left: SEM image of sample immediately before lift out (courtesy of FEI Company). Right: image of warping effect. FIB cuts
will be made near both endpoints to relieve residual stresses and decrease warping.

A structural problem that can occur during thinning with the lift-out technique is warping in the sample. As the
material is thinned to less than 200 nm, stresses in the sample cause strain and bending. These bulk stresses can be due
to poor mounting or are sometimes naturally present in the internal structure of the material. In either case, a study by
FEI Europe Ltd. found that cutting one or both of the edges (depending on the degree of the warping) of the almost fully
thinned sample would alleviate the stress by creating space for relaxation. This technique has been shown to solve
almost all warping problems [41, 42].
The FIB systems direct writing capabilities in TEM sample preparation have been exploited not only for materials
science, but also for environmental science applications. For example, copper run-off from the roofs of buildings has
become a serious environmental concern. One proposed solution has been to install filter systems in major runoff areas.
In a study of this concept by the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Study and Technology, iron hydroxide was
found to be the most effective Cu filter. The research looked at Cu adsorption on suspended specimens in the water and
in the iron hydroxide. TEM analysis of iron hydroxide samples prepared by the FIB lift out technique showed that the
iron hydroxide was effectively decreasing the copper runoff [43].
2.3 Sample Imaging Defining the Third Dimension
As previously discussed, FIB systems can image as well as modify sample surfaces. As a result, the FIB machine is
uniquely capable of three-dimensional sample imaging. Three-dimensional images can be constructed from a series of
two-dimensional images, which are obtained by milling off layers of a sample using the ion beam and imaging with the
SEM. Interpolation of the two-dimensional images yields a three-dimensional representation, as well as data about the
grain structure and other features. The FIBs singular ability to reveal the internal structure of a material through milling
or gas assisted etching (GAE) is valuable to many researchers because it provides important information on the material
properties and behaviour. For example, the grain structure and grain boundaries yield extensive insight into a materials
mechanical and electrical properties. Internal elemental distribution can also be obtained using SIMS [18, 46]. Dunn
and
Hull
recently
Pt protective strap
demonstrated this ability of the
FIB
to
create
threeStaircase cuts shape
cut
dimensional
volume
reconstructions. Their method
Cross sections
used FIB serial sectioning and
face
linear interpolation to produce
Second
well-defined images of the
milled
samples 3-D structure (Figure
10) [47].
2 m
1 m
a.

5 m

b.

Fig. 10 (a) Schematic of sequential FIB slicing for 3-D reconstruction and a set of slices
taken through a sample; (b) reconstructed surface of a nano-indented PVAC film [56].

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Cross-sectioning with elemental spatial mapping using

the FIB machine has also been useful for investigating the
effects of additive exposure. A study at the University of
Tokyo used FIB to mill cross-sections in non-woven fibers
that contained additives for spatial and distribution
analysis. Researchers added Chimassorb 944, an additive
known to improve the functionality of polyester fiber, to
non-woven fiber samples. Elemental distribution data was
gathered by a novel method using FIB/SIMS technology.
Samples of altered fiber were successively cross-sectioned
along each of three different planes: perpendicular to the
fibers, at a 45 angle, and parallel to the length of the
fibers. SIMS mapping was performed on the cross
sections, yielding the desired chemical distribution. Signals
for C-, O2-, AlO-, Na+, K+, Ca+, CaO+, and C+ ions were
detected, analyzed and mapped for three-dimensional
spatial analysis. Voids were found in the material where
the additive seemed to concentrate demonstrating the
success of the combined FIB/SIMS/SEM method for threedimensional sample analysis [48]. Another example of 3D
-sample imaging is shown in Figure 11.
2.4 Damage to the sample induced by the FIB
Having discussed many of the advantages of the FIB, we
now address its drawbacks. First of all, bombardment with
Ga+ ions usually results in some level of inadvertent
gallium implantation within the surface layers of the
sample. The bombardment can also cause the formation of
an amorphous layer, as atoms are ejected by collisions and
create vacancies. Finally, preferential sputtering or redeposition can lead to non-uniform thickness. It is crucial
to understand the nature and causes of sample damage to
be able to recognize and minimize these effects.
Given this consideration, many studies of FIB-induced
damage have been undertaken. For example, Rubanov
observed cross-sections of FIB-milled trenches to examine
the types and range of damage incurred. It was discovered
Fig. 11 3D FIB-SEM reconstruction with transparency
that side-wall damage layers were amorphous, a direct
applied to highlight phases formed in heat affected zone of a
result of using the gallium beam. Another finding was that
stainless steel weld. The top two images are frames extracted
there was a layer of material rich in gallium at the bottomfrom the original movie. Below are reconstruction views. A
wall layers, and that local re-crystallization had occurred.
common feature detail is identified by the dashed lines. Axes
Lowering beam voltage from 30 keV to 10 keV succeeded
units are microns in bottom panel image [57].
in reducing the thickness of the damage layer by half. In
both cases, re-deposition frequently occurred in more
complex milling patterns [49].
Every instrument in imaging and analysis has certain limitations, so those of the FIB system should by no means
discourage its use. Indeed, it is the very ability to alter the sample that makes FIB useful for so many applications. In
addition, there are several methods under development to reduce undesired sample damage, each with some pros and
cons. Sutton studied the effect of sample tilt, and noted that the depth of damage could be decreased by tilting the
specimen 4 to 8 degrees at the end of the thinning process. This technique, however, cannot create parallel sidewalls for
chemical analysis [50]. Alternatively, the previously discussed GAE technique has been shown to not only increase the
etching rate, but also reduce the rate of re-deposition and gallium implantation [51]. The optimal method depends on the
specific needs of the user and the experiment. Regardless, the FIB remains, without a doubt, a singularly versatile and
adaptable tool. The FIBs powerful nanofabrication capabilities have already led to numerous breakthroughs and new
applications in nanotechnology research [52-57], with the promise of many more in the future.
Acknowledgements The partial support of Austin Akey, Anton Li and the National Science Foundation-MRSEC program through
the Princeton Center for Complex Materials (DMR-0819860) and the New Jersey Commission of Science and Technology is
gratefully acknowledged.

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