How to understand a coal sample analysis?

What is the difference between proximate and ultimate

analysis? What is AR (as-received) basis? Is is the same with DAF (dry, ash free) basis? How about AD
(air-dried) basis? And what coal ash analysis is all about?
Well, it is indeed a long list of questions to answer but the explanation is actually not as twisted as it
seems. The main purpose of coal sample analysis is to determine the rank of the coal along with its
intrinsic characteristics.Furthermore, these data will be used as the fundamental consideration for future
concerns, for instance: coal trading and its utilizations.

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Coal Properties
Coal comes in four main types or ranks: lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal or black coal, anthracite and
graphite. Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by
moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons) and carbon content.
Moisture
Moisture is an important property of coal, as all coals are mined wet. Groundwater and other extraneous
moisture is known as adventitious moisture and is readily evaporated. Moisture held within the coal itself is
known as inherent moisture and is analyzed. Moisture may occur in four possible forms within coal:
Surface moisture: water held on the surface of coal particles or macerals
Hydroscopic moisture: water held by capillary action within the microfractures of the coal
Decomposition moisture: water held within the coals decomposed organic compounds
Mineral moisture: water which comprises part of the crystal structure of hydrous silicates such as
clays.

2.

3.

4.

Volatile matter
Volatile matter in coal refers to the components of coal, except for moisture, which are liberated at high
temperature in the absence of air. This is usually a mixture of short and long chain hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons and some sulfur. The volatile matter of coal is determined under rigidly controlled standards.
In Australian and British laboratories this involves heating the coal sample to 900 5 C (1650 10 F) for
7 minutes in a cylindrical silica crucible in a muffle furnace. American Standard procedures involve heating
to 950 25 C (1740 45 F) in a vertical platinum crucible.
Ash
Ash content of coal is the non-combustible residue left after coal is burnt. It represents the bulk mineral
matter after carbon, oxygen, sulfur and water (including from clays) has been driven off during combustion.
Analysis is fairly straightforward, with the coal thoroughly burnt and the ash material expressed as a
percentage of the original weight.
Fixed carbon
The fixed carbon content of the coal is the carbon found in the material which is left after volatile materials
are driven off. This differs from the ultimate carbon content of the coal because some carbon is lost in
hydrocarbons with the volatiles. Fixed carbon is used as an estimate of the amount of coke that will be
yielded from a sample of coal. Fixed carbon is determined by removing the mass of volatiles determined by
the volatility test, above, from the original mass of the coal sample.
Coal Proximate Analysis
The objective of coal proximate analysis is to determine the amount of fixed carbon (FC), volatile
matters (VM), moisture, and ash within the coal sample. The variables are measured in weight percent
(wt. %) and are calculated in several different bases. AR (as-received) basis is the most widely used basis in
industrial applications. AR basis puts all variables into consideration and uses the total weight as the basis
of measurement. AD (air-dried) basis neglect the presence of moistures other than inherent moisture while
DB (dry-basis) leaves out all moistures, including surface moisture, inherent moisture, and other moistures.
DAF (dry, ash free) basis neglect all moisture and ash constituent in coal while DMMF (dry, mineralmatter-free) basis leaves out the presence of moisture and mineral matters in coal, for example: quartz,
pyrite, calcite, etc. Mineral matter is not directly measured but may be obtained by one of a number of
empirical formula based on the ultimate and proximate analysis.
Proximate Analysis

unit

(ar)

(ad) (db) (daf)

Moisture

(wt. %)

3.3

2.7

Ash

(wt. %) 22.1 22.2 22.8

Volatile Matter

(wt. %) 27.3 27.5 28.3 36.6

Fixed Carbon

(wt. %) 47.3 47.6 48.9 63.4

Gross Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 24.73 24.88 25.57 33.13

A table is shown above containing an example of proximate analysis data of coal. Conversion from one
basis to another can be performed using mass balance equations. The standard practice for proximate
analysis of coal may be referred to ASTM D3172-07a or ISO 17246:2005.
Ash Analysis
Oxides

wt.% of ash
wt.% of ash
Elements
(Calculated)
(Measured)

Na2O

0.35

Na

0.26

MgO

0.48

Mg

0.29

Al2O3

20.0

Al

10.6

SiO

74.1

Si

34.6

P2O5

0.05

0.05

K2O

1.1

0.92

CaO

0.68

Ca

0.49

TiO2

0.80

Ti

0.48

Mn3O4

0.06

Mn

0.05

Fe2O3

3.25

Fe

2.28

An analysis of coal ash may also be carried out to determine not only the composition of coal ash, but
also to determine the levels at which trace elements occur in ash. These data are useful for
environmental impact modelling, and may be obtained by spectroscopic methods such as ICP-OES or AAS.
An example of coal ash composition is shown on the right.
Beside composition of coal ash, ash fusion point is also one significant parameter in ash analysis. The
optimum operating temperature of coal processing will depend on the gas temperature and also the ash
fusion point. Melting of the ashes may cause them to stick to the walls of the reactor and result in a buildup.
You might be interested to read an article of coal characterization equipments here, illustrated with photos,
including coal proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and ash fusion point analysis equipments.
About Coal Ash
Coal ash is the generic term referring to several very distinct materials produced when we combust coal to
produce electricity. Coal ash offers our society extraordinary environmental and economic benefits without
harm to public health and safety when properly managed.
Our industry refers to these materials as coal combustion products or CCPs to emphasize that they have
significant commercial value. A multibillion-dollar industry has arisen over the past 50-plus years around
the use of these materials, which include fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and various forms of flue gas
emission control/ desulfurization materials. Each of these varies by coal source and composition,
combustion technologies, emissions controls technologies, and other factors.
In 2007, the United States produced 131 million tons of coal combustion products. While 43 percent were
used beneficially, nearly 75 million tons were disposed of. By using coal ash instead of disposing of it in
landfills we are avoiding the environmental degradation and energy costs associated with mining virgin
materials. We are building stronger, longer-lasting structures that save taxpayer dollars and minimize
environmental impacts. For every ton of fly ash used in place of portland cement about a ton of carbon
dioxide is prevented from entering the Earths atmosphere. Also, it takes the equivalent of 55 gallons of oil
to produce a single ton of cement.
Another significant benefit of using fly ash is that it requires less water than portland cement, conserving a
limited resource, while also reducing a projects water and equipment costs. Boiler slag, which replaces
sand in blasting grit, has the benefit of being free of silica, which eliminates the potential health risk of
silicosis. Flue gas desulfurization materials are used in 30 percent of U.S. wallboard products, avoiding the

need to mine gypsum. Environmentally and economically it makes more sense to use existing materials
than to mine new ones.
What is Coal Ash?
Coal combustion byproducts (CCBs) are considered to be four distinct and extremely different
materials.
FLY ASH
Fly ash is the finest of coal ash particles. It is called "fly" ash because it is
transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Fly ash is the
fine powder formed from the mineral matter in coal, consisting of the
noncombustible matter in coal plus a small amount of carbon that remains
from incomplete combustion. Fly ash is generally light tan in color and
consists mostly of silt-sized and clay-sized glassy spheres. This gives fly ash
a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. Properties of fly ash vary
significantly with coal composition and plant-operating conditions.
Fly ash can be referred to as either cementitious or pozzolanic. A
cementitious material is one that hardens when mixed with water. A
pozzolanic material will also harden with water but only after activation
with an alkaline substance such as lime. These cementitious and pozzolanic
properties are what make some fly ashes useful for cement replacement in
concrete and many other building applications.

BOTTOM ASH
Coal bottom ash and fly ash are quite different physically, mineralogically,
and chemically. Bottom ash is a coarse, granular, incombustible byproduct
that is collected from the bottom of furnaces that burn coal for the
generation of steam, the production of electric power, or both. Bottom ash is
coarser than fly ash, with grain sizes spanning from fine sand to fine gravel.
The type of byproduct produced depends on the type of furnace used to burn
the coal.

Fly ash is one of the residues generated in combustion, and comprises the fine particles that rise with
the flue gases. Ash which does not rise is termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash usually refers
to ash produced during combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured byelectrostatic precipitators or
other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power plants, and
together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this case jointly known as coal ash.
Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary
considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2)
(bothamorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO), both being endemic ingredients in many coalbearing rock strata.
Toxic constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup, but may include one or more of the
following elements or substances in quantities from trace amounts to several

percent: arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium

VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury,molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along
with dioxins and PAH compounds.[1][2]
In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in
recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal
power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, [3] often used to supplement Portland cement in
concrete production. Some have expressed health concerns about this.[4]
In some cases, such as the burning of solid waste to create electricity ("resource recovery" facilities
a.k.a. waste-to-energy facilities), the fly ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than the bottom ash
and mixing the fly and bottom ash together brings the proportional levels of contaminants within the range
to qualify as nonhazardous waste in a given state, whereas, unmixed, the fly ash would be within the range
to qualify as hazardous waste.

THE RESULTS OF A COAL ANALYSIS MAY BE REPORTED ON ANY OF A number of bases,

differing from each other in the manner by which moisture and ash is treated. Except for data reported on a
dry basis, it is essential that an appropriate moisture content be given in the data report. This would avoid
ambiguity and provide a means for conversion of data to other bases. These bases are defined in ASTM
D121 and include the following:

As-determined Basis (ad)The basis for analytical data obtained from an analysis sample of coal or coke
after conditioning and preparation to Number 60 (250 m) sieve, in accordance with ASTM D 2013. Asdetermined data represent the numerical values obtained at the particular moisture level in the analysis
sample at the time of the analysis.
As-received Basis (ar)The basis for analytical data calculated to the moisture condition of the sample as it
arrived at the laboratory and before any processing or conditioning. If the sample has been maintained in a
sealed state so there has been no gain or loss, the as-received basis is equivalent to the moisture basis as
sampled.
Dry Basis (d)The basis for analytical data calculated to a theoretical basis of no moisture associated with
the sample. The numerical value as established in ASTM D 3173 or D 5142 is used for converting the asdetermined data to a dry basis.
Dry, Ash-free Basis (daf)The basis for data calculated to a theoretical basis of no moisture or ash associated
with the sample. Numerical values as established by ASTM D 3173 and D 3174, or D 5142, are used for
converting the asdetermined data to a moisture- and ash-free basis.
Equilibrium Moisture BasisThe basis for data calculated to the moisture level established as the equilibrium
moisture. Numerical values as established by ASTM D1412 are used for the calculation to an equilibrium
moisture basis.
COAL ANALYSIS Effects and Corrections due to Moisture.
written by: johnzactruba edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 1/10/2010
Moisture content in the coal affects the reported Heating Value of coal. Corrections have to be applied to
get the real values. Read on to learn about these corrections.

Fuel cost is the most important single component that determines the cost of electric power. Coal
is the primary fuel used for power generation. All utility companies are concerned about how much has to
be paid to the coal suppliers. Fuel cost is directly linked to the Heating Value or the energy content of the
coal. Determining the correct heating value becomes an important commercial issue and directly affects the
profitability of a power plant.

The heating value of coal depends on the Combustible Matter, mainly Carbon and Hydrogen, in
the coal and how it reacts during the combustion process. Apart from the Combustible Matter the other
main ingredients are Ash and Moisture.
In its journey from the mines to the power plant, Combustibles and the Ash in the Coal remain unchanged.
What changes is the moisture content. A Coal sampled at the mines will have a moisture content higher
than what enters the boiler.

The moisture in Coal consists of two parts.

One is the moisture held within the molecular structure of the coal called inherent
moisture. Removal takes place only at temperatures greater than 100 deg C.

The second part is the moisture that is on the surface of the coal. This is normally due to
the conditions and locations of the mines. This moisture can evaporate in exposed atmospheric
conditions. How much evaporates depends on

The time of exposure,

Atmospheric contact because of spreading,

Ambient temperature and humidity.

The Moisture in the Coal is both these put together and is the Total Moisture.
A coal sampled at the mines having a moisture of 20%, after storage for a few weeks, when entering the
boiler can have moisture of only 8%. If the Coal sampled at the mines has an HHV of 18800 kJ/kg the same
coal at the boiler will have a higher HHV. This is because the percentage of combustibles in one kg is more.
Based on a simple proportion calculation, multiplying by a factor [100-8]/ [100-20] the HHV will be 21620
kJ/kg.