CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 General
Expansive soils are those soils which show major volume changes due to change in the
moisture content causing major damage to property. These soils contain minerals such as
montmorillonite clay that is capable of absorbing water. When they absorb water, they increase
in volume. The more water they absorb the more their increase in volume occurs. Although
mechanical compaction, dewatering and earth reinforcement have been found to improve the
strength of the soils, other methods like stabilization using admixtures are more advantageous.
The different admixtures available are coir fiber, cement, fly ash, blast furnace slag etc.
2.1 Stabilization
Different admixtures used in present investigation are coir fiber, polypropylene fiber,
cement, RBI Grade-81, Fly ash, Ground granulated blast furnace slag. The stabilization of
expansive soils with Cement is well documented. Cement stabilization now-a-days is less
appreciated because of the increasing cost of cement and environmental concerns related to its
production.
With this growing evidence the requirement to find alternatives to Cement and lime has
been made more pressing in recent years. The focus is on the use of the industrial materials like
Fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS). Fly ash is a byproduct from burning
pulverized coal in electric power generating plants. GGBS is manufactured from blast furnace
slag, a by-product from the manufacture of iron. GGBS is obtained by quenching molten iron
blast furnace slag immediately in water or stream, to produce a glassy granular product that is
then dried and ground into a fine powder. It is an excellent binder to produce high performance
cement and concrete. As industrial waste materials have little or no production cost, using these
materials in the field of Highway Engineering saves construction cost.
The beneficial use of these industrial waste materials is not only the promising solutions
to reduce the disposal problem but also reduces the demand of cement production thereby
reducing the CO2 emissions.

2.2Coir Fiber Reinforcement

Gopal Ranjan et al.,(1)in this investigation, the author suggests that soil reinforcement is
an effective and reliable technique for improving strength and stability of soils. In conventional,
method of reinforced soil construction,
Goasavi et al.,(2)conducted tests on Black cotton soil locally collected from Aurangabad.
The studies were made to investigate the strength behavior of the Black cotton soil reinforced
with geotextile woven fabric and fiber glass. Results showed that there was an increase in the
value of cohesion.
Shenbaga.R.kaniraja et al.,(3)conducted experiments on fiber reinforced soil and
concluded that the length of fiber have an important influence on the behavior of the specimens.
Addition of small percentage of fiber increases slightly maximum dry density and decreases the
optimum moisture content.
G.Venkatappa Rao et al.,(4)concluded that natural fibers like coir, jute, available at
economical costs could be effectively used for ground improvement technique
Shivkumar Babu and Vasudevan

(5)

explains that the shear strength of red soil can

increases considerably due to the inclusion of coir fibers and have concluded that, shear strength
of red earth can increases considerably due to the inclusion of coir fibers at 2.5% by dry weight
of soil.
Babu et al.,(6)conducted studies on reinforcing materials like Reinforcing strips,
geosynthetic materials and natural fibers. Natural fibers will not cause any environmental
problems. Though the natural fibers like coir and jute are cheap compared to artificial fibers. For
long run theses natural fibers will undergo biodegradation except coir.
M.Sudhakaran Pillai et al.,(7)Coir is a renewable natural material available abundantly
in India and produced at low cost. It is as such an economical answer to the problems related to
primary consolidation of soft clay. Coir is an eco- friendly product and so its application never
sustains any damages to environment.

H.N. Ramesh et al.,(8)Describes the strength and compaction behavior of Black cotton
soil reinforced with coir fibers.BC soil reinforced with coir fiber shows only marginal increases
in the strength of soil, inhibiting its use for ground improvement. In order to further increase the
strength of the soil-coir fiber combination, optimum percentage 4% of lime is added.
Degradation of Natural Fibers
Fauziah Ahmed et al.,(9)they have performed tests to evaluate the response of randomly
distributed fibers on the strength of reinforced silty sand. The results indicate that shear strength
parameters of the soil-fiber mixture can be improved significantly.
Manoj Krishna and Pratap(10)studied the water absorption and degradation behavior of
coir fibers under submerged conditions. In this paper the investigators have made use of natural
coir fibers to study the water absorption and the degradation behavior for its use in the
submerged conditions. The results of the Investigations indicated 96% absorption at 180days,
which indicates the easy disintegration under submerged conditions. The authors have concluded
that Coir fiber is a better reinforcement among many natural fibers for reinforcement of soil, but
should be protected under submerged conditions. Water absorption capacity of uncoated coir
fiber is 96% at 180days of soaking which indicates that it degradable and hence needs treatment
2.3 Polypropylene Fiber
Polypropylene is an economical material that offers a combination of outstanding physical,
chemical, mechanical, thermal and electrical properties not found in any other thermoplastic.
Compared to low or high density polyethylene, it has a lower impact strength, but superior
working temperature and tensile strength.
Polypropylene possesses excellent resistance to organic solvents and electrolytic attack. It
has lower impact strength, but its working temperatures and tensile strength are superior to low
or high density polyethylene. It is light in weight, resistant to staining, and has a low moisture
absorption rate. This is a tough, heat-resistant, semi-rigid material. It has excellent resistance to
acids and alkalies, but poor aromatic, aliphatic and chlorinated solvent resistance.
Behzad Kalantari et al.,(11)describe various types of designs to be considered for
structural engineering projects when the subsoil foundation consists of expansive or swelling

soils. Among civil and architectural engineers expansive soils are known to be difficult
foundation materials and problematic. These type of soils swell when they are subjected to
moistures and shrink due to moisture loss. Because of this different behaviour upon wetting and
drying, they cause minor to major structural damages to pavements as well as buildings. Every
year millions of dollars spent dealing with the consequences of swelling soils. For design on
swelling soil, it is first essential to recognize and evaluate the soil based on its swelling potential,
and then determining the most proper design that can be done on this problematic soil. In
general, this study presents some of the most common properties of expansive soils. Also, it
discusses problems associated with swelling soil, classification of structural damages caused to
buildings, and various pavement designs to combat the problems based on the degree of
detrimental effects of swelling potential to civil engineering projects.
Studies on Polypropylene Fibers for Soil Reinforcement:
M.S. Dixit, S.H. Pawar

(12)

in present study an attempt has been made to investigate the

use of polypropylene fibers for improving properties of locally available soil. The comparison of
properties of soil with addition of varying percentages of fibers by dry weight of soil and having
different aspect ratios is also carried out. The addition of polypropylene fibers resulted in
increase in optimum moisture content and decrease in maximum dry density. Direct shear tests
conducted on soil shows increase in value of cohesion and decrease in value of angle of
internalfriction. With the inclusion of the fibers increase in C.B.R. value and unconfined
compressive strength. Soil is modified by addition of polypropylene fibers in the range of 0.75%
to 3.0% by dry weight of soil mass. Addition of polypropylene fibers to the soil resulted in
reduction in maximum dry density in the range of 3% to 14%. Similarly the addition of fibers
resulted in increase in optimum moisture content in the range of 1% to 9% due to adsorption of
water particles by the surface of fibers. With addition of polypropylene fibers in the soil
anincrease in the value of cohesion (c) was observed in the range of 2% to 21%. This trend is
observed upto addition of 2.25% of fibers. For addition of 3.0% of fibers in the soil the value of
cohesion decreases. By addition of polypropylene fibers in the soil the angle of internal friction
decreases by 1% to 11% up to 2.25 % addition of fibers and reverses the trend for 3% addition.
The C.B.R. value increases in the range of 11% to 47% for addition up 2.25% of polypropylene
fibers and decreases afterwards. Therefore, addition of 2.25% fibers can be considered as an
optimum mix.The value of unconfined compressive strength increasesin the range 17% to 46%

up to 2.25% addition of fibers. Hence it can be concluded that 2.25% addition of polypropylene
fibers in the soil can be considered as an optimum mix for design purposes.
P.V.Koteswara Rao, K.Satish Kumar & T.Blessingstone(13) studied the influence of
polymer fibers on the properties of locally available Black cotton soil with and without
admixture modification. This study revealed that the fiber reinforcement improves the soil
properties in terms of improved stress-strain patterns and progressive failure in place of quick
post peak failure of plain samples. The unconfined compressive strength of Clay soil is increased
by 7 times with admixture stabilization and 9 times for admixture with fiber modification with
respect to plain samples. The shear strength parameters of clay soil are also significantly
increased upon admixture stabilization and admixture with fiber treatment. The CBR value also
increased significantly even for soaked CBR tests. By addition of CKD the Liquid limit of the
mixture is decreased 23 %, whereas plastic limit is increased by 41%. Plasticity Index of the mix
is decreased by 57%.From this study it is revealed that the clays can be thoroughly modified by
admixture stabilization and fiber reinforcement, provided the effective mixing methods are
available. The Cement Kiln Dust can be utilized in pavement construction as the CBR of the ckd
soil mix is significant even in soaked condition. Use of fibers is greatly affecting the stress strain
behaviour of the CKD soil mix. With the addition of Cement Kiln Dust Plasticity index of the
soil reduced significantly.
P.V.Koteswara Rao, K.Satish Kumar & T.Blessingstone (14) Made an attempt to
compare the quantity of the earth required for the sub grade with and without fly ash
stabilization, for 1.5% of fiber and 15 % of fly ash the thickness of the pavement is decreased by
60% and the 8610 m3 of soil can be saved for one kilometer length of the road. An attempt has
been made to use the fly ash and fiber to modify the properties of the soil which is available at
the construction site. By addition of the fly ash and fiber to the expansive soils the CBR value is
increased .By increasing the CBR we can reduce the pavement thickness.
Akshaya Kumar Sabat et al.,(15)Studiedthe effect of randomly distributed polypropylene
fibers on Maximum dry density (MDD), Optimum moisture content (OMC),Unconfined
compressive strength(UCS),soaked California bearing ratio(CBR),hydraulic conductivity and
swelling pressure of an expansive soil stabilized with rice husk ash and lime. The effects of 7 and
28 days of curing on all these properties except MDD and OMC have also been discussed. The

results of the tests showed a significant improvement in some of these properties. The additions
of rice husk ash and lime decreases the MDD and increases the OMC of the expansive soil.
MDD goes on decreasing and OMC goes on increasing, with increase in percentage of poly
propylene fiber in the rice husk ash-lime stabilized expansive soil. The addition of rice husk ash
and lime increases the UCS and soaked CBR of the expansive soil. With the addition of
polypropylene fiber to rice husk ash-lime stabilized expansive soil, the UCS and soaked CBR
increases, up to 1.5 % addition of polypropylene fiber, and decreases with further increase in
polypropylene fiber content. The UCS and soaked CBR increases with increase in curing period
irrespective of the percentage of addition of polypropylene fiber in rice husk ash-lime stabilized
expansive soil.
S.Twinkle & M.K.Sayida

(16)

the objective of study is intended to determine the

reinforcing effect of randomly distributed short polypropylene fibers on the compaction

characteristics, penetration resistance and unconfined compressive strength of lime stabilized
black cotton soil from Kozhinjampara region in Palaghat District. The study focuses on effect of
change of percentage fiber content and curing period on the engineering properties of soil. In the
case of lime stabilization in black cotton soil, the optimum moisture content increases and the
maximum dry density decreases. In case of polypropylene fiber it is observed that as the fiber
content increases, optimum moisture content increases and maximum dry density decreases.
With lime stabilization the liquid limit of soil decreases but plastic limit increases. Thus
plasticity index of soil decreases. In UCC, the optimum lime dosage level was noted at 6% lime
with a strength increase of about 3.8 times compared to untreated soil for 28 days curing period.
The peak UCC value is obtained at 0.75% for all the cases of polypropylene fibre reinforced soil
and polypropylene plus lime content stabilized soil. In CBR, the optimum lime dosage level was
noted at 6% lime with a strength increase of about 3.19 times compared to untreated soil. The
CBRvalue is highest at 0.75% for all the cases of polypropylene fiber reinforced and
polypropylene plus lime stabilized soil.
K. Suresh, V. Padmavathi et al.,(17)Studied on the effect of stone dust and Polypropylene
fibers on engineering and strength properties of the Black Cotton Soils. The properties of
stabilized soil such as compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength and
California bearing ratio were evaluated and their variations with content of stone dust and fibers

are evaluated. Addition of either Optimum percentage of stone dust (3%) and Optimum
Percentage of fibers (0.6%) or Optimum percentage of its combination to the Black Cotton Soil
has improved the strength characteristics of sub grade. For soil admixed with only stone dust, the
optimum combination is found to be Soil + 3% stone dust. The Soaked CBR value of this mix is
found to be 2.912, which is 1.574 times more than CBR value of soil alone. For soil admixed
with only fibers, the optimum combination is found to be Soil + 0.6% Fibers. The Soaked CBR
value of this mix is found to be 2.35, which is 1.27 times more than CBR value of soil alone. For
soil admixed with stone dust and fibers, theproportion which yielded max CBR value was found
to be Soil + 3% Stone Dust + 0.6% Fibers. The Soaked CBR value of this combination was at
4.16, which is 2.25 times more than soil alone. There is increase in unconfined compressive
strength with addition of stone dust and fibers and the increase in strength with addition of
optimum stone dust and fibers are more compared to only stone dust and fibers.
Nagrale Prashant et al.,(18)the objectives of this paper investigates the improvement of
subgrade soils due to fiber reinforcement in terms of CBR values. A series of laboratory tests
were conducted on two types of soils, namely clay soil and fine sand, reinforced with different
percentages of polypropylene fiber. It was observed that there is as increase in CBR value due to
reinforcement with short fibers. The CBR value of unreinforced clay soil and fine sand was 1.16
and 6.20 percent, respectively. These values increased to 4.33 and 18.03 percent, respectively
due to the fiber reinforcement.
Gosavi et al.,(19)observed that the inclusion of randomly oriented discrete fibers of jute
and coir, in black cotton soil, increased the CBR values of well-graded sandy (SW) soil, and
sandy-silt (SM) soil by about 96% at an optimum fiber content of 0.75% by weight.
Dean Freitag et al.,(20) studied with the objective to obtain some data on the effect of
fibers on the strength of a compacted fine grained soil. The strength of reinforced soil compacted
near and wet of optimum was greater than for plain soil at the same water content. For samples
compacted well on the dry side of optimum these did not seen any benefit from the presence of
fiber. It can be concluded that the randomly distributed fibers in a compacted fine-grained soil
can result in greater strength and toughness. The amount of strength gain for samples wet of
optimum is about 25% which is comparable to the benefits found for other materials and other
fibers.

2.4Cement Stabilization
Ordinary Portland cement is the mostwidely used throughout the world.The addition of
cement to a material, in the presence of moisture, produces hydrated calcium aluminate and
silicate gels, which crystallize and bond the material particles together. Most of the strength of a
cement-stabilized material comes from the physical strength of the matrix of hydrated cement. A
chemical reaction also takes place between the material and lime, which is released as the cement
hydrates, leading to a further increase in strength.
Portland cement is a multimineralic compound made up of oxides of calcium, silica,
alumina and iron. When cement is mixed with water, cementing compounds of calcium silicatehydrate (C-S-H) and calcium-aluminate-hydrate (C-A-H) are formed and excess calcium
hydroxide is released. Some calcium is therefore available to modify the clay particle early in the
modification process when the water is added, and additional calcium becomes available later as
it is formed as a result of cement hydration. The hydrates help to stabilize flocculated clay
particles through cementation. The hydration reactions and strength increases occur for the most
part between 24 hours and 28 days, although the cement will continue to hydrate at decreasing
rates as long as free moisture is present.
M.H.Maher and Y.C.Ho

(21)

explained that the mechanical properties of Kaolinite/fiber

soil composite were evaluated by a series of laboratory unconfined compression, splitting

tension, three point-bending and hydraulic conductivity tests. The inclusion of randomly
distributed fibers significantly increased the peak compressive strength, ductility, splitting tensile
strength, and flexural toughness of kaolinite clay. The increase in strength and toughness was a
function of fiber length and content, and the water content of the composite. Increasing fiber
content increase the compressive and tensile strength, and the toughness of kaolinite clay, with
the effect being more pronounced at lower water contents. The contribution of fibers to peak
compressive and tensile strengths were reduced, and ductility increased, with increasing fiber
length. The fiber inclusion increased the hydraulic conductivity of the composite and the
increase was more pronounced at higher fiber contents.
Gopal Ranjan, R.M.Vassan and H.D.Charan (22)the series of triaxial compression tests
were carried out on cohesion less soils reinforced with discrete, randomly distributed fibers, both
synthetic and natural, to study the influence of fiber characteristics (i.e., weight fraction, aspect

ratio, and surface friction) soil characteristics and its density, and confining stress on shear
strength of reinforced soils. A regression analysis of test results has been carried out to develop a
mathematical model to bring out the effect of these factors on the shear strength of reinforced
soil.
The model estimates the strength of soils reinforced with any type of fiber and under
given stress environment. The model predictions agree reasonably well with the experiment
results and the results published in the literature.
The test results indicate that the failure envelopes of soil-fiber composites have a
curvilinear failure envelope with a transition occurring at a certain confining stresstermed as
"critical confining stress" below which the fibers tend to slip.
The amount of the critical confining stress is affected by the fiber aspect ratio. Fiber
inclusion increases significantly the shear strength of soil. The increase in strength is function of
fiber weight fraction aspect ratio and soil grain size.
2.5 Other Stabilizers
Soil stabilization refers to the process of changing soil properties to improve strength and
durability. There are many techniques for soil stabilization, including compaction, dewatering
and by adding material to the soil. Mechanical stabilization improves soil properties by mixing
other soil materials with the target soil to change the gradation and therefore change the
engineering properties. Chemical stabilization used the addition of cementatious or pozzolanic
materials to improve the soil properties. Chemical stabilization has traditionally relied on
Portland cement and lime for chemical stabilization. There are number of materials suggested by
IRC that can be used individually, or mixed with other materials, to achieve soil stabilization.
There are very large numbers of stabilizer are available in the present market. The
stabilizers are of different types, Natural stabilizer and Chemical stabilizer. The natural
stabilizers are lime, jute, quarry dust, rice rusk and other. The chemical stabilizers are fly ash,
soil fix, bitumen, cement, RBI-81 and other. The RBI is the stabilizer using in project. Below is
the brief introduction of RBI-81 stabilizer. RBI-81 chemical stabilizer is used in our present
study and a brief introduction is given below.

2.6 RBI Grade-81 Chemical Stabilization

Alchemist Touchnology Ltd.has focused on the rehabilitation or the new construction of
asphalted roads or un-asphalted roads. These present a major problem to every country in the
world. It is almost unimaginable that an inorganic natural material, once applied to any type of
soil, from sand (desert and beach) to active clay, will modify the in-situ soil through a natural
mechanism, will render it impermeable, and harden it to the point that it will perform as a
wearing course.
In other words, after treated with RBI Grade-81, the in-situ will perform as wearing
course, under different weather conditions. This will reduce the ever most costly road
maintenance, a reality the world over and amounting immeasurable rupees being spent
repeatedly on the same road. We are well aware of the damage to vehicles, contribution to
accidents and the limitations placed on economic activity by these kinds of roads. RBI Grade-81
saves long hours of hardship in travel and on endless repetitive repairs to existing basic
structures, and such savings are of national importance to the point where no country can afford
to be without this technological advancement.
RBI Grade-81 is a unique and innovative product that was developed for the stabilization
of wide spectrum of soils in an efficient, least-cost manner. It is an environment friendly,
inorganic, hydration activated powder-based stabilizer that reacts with soil particles to create
layers that are interconnected through a complex inter-particle framework.RBI-81 is a unique
and highly effective natural inorganic soil stabilizer for Infrastructure development and repair.
RBI Grade-81 was originally developed by RBI for South African Army Road Building
International for the in the beginning of 1990s for pavement engineering applications. RBI-81 is
a natural inorganic soil-stabilizer which re-engineers and modifies the properties of the soil
strength it for roads, paving and roads and pavement. Alchemist Touchnology Ltd is the
exclusive manufacturer and distributor of RBI Grade-81 in India.
RBI Grade-81 has ability to react with a wide range of soil types and under different soil
conditions eliminates the requirement for multiple stabilizers for a given project. Results of many
applications both in-situ and in laboratories have consistently proven that the success of the
resultant stabilized layer is not jeopardized through changes in the soil type. Clay, silt, sand and
gravel based soils can all be stabilized with a single product.
From rural roadways to runways, RBI Grade-81 provides complete and holistic solutions

that are economical, eco-friendly. RBI Grade-81 permits the use of a single stabilization product
in a wide variety of applications serving very diverse needs, from haul roads and foundation
layers in primary roads to bicycle and wheelchair paths, parking lots and more.
2.7 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) is a by-product from the blast-furnaces usedto
make iron. These operate at a temperature of about 15000C and are fed with acarefully controlled
mixture of iron-ore, coke and limestone. The iron ore is reduced toiron and the remaining
materials form a slag that floats on top of the iron. This slag isperiodically tapped off as a molten
liquid and if it is to be used for the manufacture ofggbs it has to be rapidly quenched in large
volumes of water. The quenching optimizes the cementatious properties and produces granules
similar to coarse sand. Thisgranulated slag is then dried and ground to a fine powder in
sophisticated productionfacilities, capable of processing up to half a million tons annually, to
tightly controlledfineness.
Ggbs has environmental benefits relative to lime or cement:
Its raw material is a by-product,
Its manufacture involves only a fraction of the energy use and CO2 emissions, associated with
cement or lime.
Higgins.D.D et al.,

(24)

have studied onSoil Stabilization with Ground granulated

blastfurnace Slag.This paper summaries UK research and practical experience relating to the
use ofggbs+lime combinations for soil stabilization. Laboratory research and field trials
haveconfirmed that sulfides, as well as sulfates, are liable to cause disruptive expansion in
stabilized soils. It has been shown that ggbs+lime combinations are practical and effective
options for soil stabilization, and provide technical benefits. In particular the incorporation of
ggbs is very effective at combating the expansion associated with the presence of sulfate or
sulfide in soil.
Gyanentakhelmayum, Savitha.A.L, Krishna Gudi(25) have studied on Experimental
Studies on Soil Stabilization Using Fine and Coarse GGBS. It was found that with the decrease
in water content the dry density also increases up to 20-30% and with further decrease in water
content the dry density increases gradually. The lowest dry density was observed to be about
1.42g/cc for 95% soil and 5% GGBS mixture and maximum density was about 1.72 g/cc for 70%

soil and 30% GGBS mixture. This variation in density is primarily due to chemical
composition,particle size distribution and surface morphology. The increase in the maximum dry
unit weight with the increase of the percentage of GGBS mixture is mainly due to high specific
gravity and immediate formation of cemented products by hydration which increases the density
of soil. The increase in dry density with increase in fine and coarse GGBS mixture is due to
enhanced C-S-H formation compared to using Soil alone. This enhanced C-S-H occupies pore
spaces, normally occupied by calcium hydroxide in the hydration of pozzolanic reaction taking
place in mixtures which uses the excess SiO2 from the slag source, Ca (OH)2 produced by the
hydration of the silicates, and water to produces more of the desirable C-S-H making slag a
beneficial mineral admixture to attain and increase in dry density.
Anil Kumar Sharma,Sivapullaiah P.V.(26)have studied on Soil stabilization with waste
materials based binder.Based on the findings of the present investigation, thefollowing
conclusions can be drawn. Both OMC and MDD decreased with the addition of GGBS to the BC
soil. This is due to predominant effects ofreduced clay content and increased frictional resisting
respectively. It is observed that the strength of the soil-GGBS mixtures increase with curing
period. The UCS of the Fly ash-GGBS mixture increases withthe increase in the GGBS content.
Almost a linear relationship is found between theunconfined compressive strength of the Fly ashGGBS mixture and the GGBS content with a discontinuitybetween 20 to 30% of the GGBS
content.
Laxmikant Yadu, Tripathi R.K.(27) have studied on Stabilization of soft soil with
granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash. Based on the present investigation, the following
conclusions can be drawn. OMC increased and MDD decreased with the addition of fly ashGGBS mixture to the soft soil, Moreover MDD increased with increase in GGBS content in fly
ash-GGBS mixtures. This is due to predominant effects of reduced clay content and increased
frictional resistance respectively. Both the soaked and unsoaked CBR of fly ash-GGBS mixture
increases with the increase in the GBS content. 3 % fly ash + 6 % GGBS mixture is determined
as optimum percentage as an additive for the soft soil. Based on the results of this research, it
appears that soft soil can be effectively stabilized with the addition of fly ash-GGBS mixtures.
Fly ash-GGBS mixtures are suitable for use in rural roads, embankments and it be used as
provide fill materials of comparable strength.

2.8 Fly ash

Fly ash is one of the most plentiful and industrial by-products. It is generated in vast
quantities as a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants (Senol et al., 2006). Fly ash by
itself has little cementatious value but in the presence of moisture it reacts chemically andforms
cementatious

compounds

and

attributes

to

the

improvement

of

strength

and

compressibilitycharacteristics of soils. Fly ash generated by coal combustion based power plants
typically fall within the ASTM fly ash classes C and F (Reyes and Pando, 2007). Fly ash consists
of inorganic matter present in the coal that has been fused during coal combustion. This material
is solidified while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected from the exhaust gases by
electrostatic precipitators. Since the particles solidify while suspended in the exhaustgases, fly
ash particles are generally spherical in shape (Ferguson, 1999). Fly ash particles those are
collected in electrostatic precipitators are usually silt size (0.074 - 0.005 mm). Making a more
productive use of fly ash would have considerable environmental benefits, reducing air and water
pollution. Increased use as a partial cement or lime replacement would also represent savings in
energy because fly ash has been called a high-energy-based material (Hausmann, 1990).
Erdal Cokca et al.,(28)Effect of Flyash on expansive soil was studied by Erdal Cokca,
Flyash consists of often hollow spheres of silicon, aluminium and iron oxides and unoxidized
carbon. There are two major classes of flyash, class C and class F. The former is produced from
burning anthracite or bituminous coal and the latter is produced from burning lignite and sub
bituminous coal. Both the classes of fly ash are puzzolans, which are defined as siliceous and
aluminous materials. Thus Fly ash can provide an array of divalent and trivalent
cations(Ca2+Al3+Fe3+etc) under ionized conditions that can promote flocculation of dispersed
clay particles. Thus expansive soils can be potentially stabilized effectively by cation exchange
using flyash. He carried out investigations using Soma Flyash and Tuncbilek flyash and added it
to expansive soil at 0-25%. Specimens with flyash were cured for 7days and 28 days after which
they were subjected to Oedometer free swell tests. And his experimental findings confirmed that
the plasticity index, activity and swelling potential of the samples decreased with increasing
percent stabilizer and curing time and the optimum content of flyash in decreasing the swell

potential was found to be 20%. The changes in the physical properties and swelling potential is a
result of additional silt size particles to some extent and due to chemical reactions that cause
immediate flocculation of clay particles and the time dependent puzzolanic and self-hardening
properties of flyash and he concluded that both high calcium and low calcium class C fly ashes
can be recommended as effective stabilizing agents for improvement for improvement of
expansive soils.
Pandian et al.,(29)studied the effect of two types of fly ashes Raichur fly ash (Class F) and
Neyveli fly ash (Class C) on the CBR characteristics of the black cotton soil. The fly ash content
was increased from 0 to 100%. Generally the CBR/strength is contributed by its cohesion and
friction. The CBR of BC soil, which consists of predominantly of finer particles, is contributed
by cohesion. The CBR of fly ash, which consists predominantly of coarser particles, is
contributed by its frictional component. The low CBR of BC soil is attributed to the inherent low
strength, which is due to the dominance of clay fraction. The addition of fly ash to BC soil
increases the CBR of the mix up to the first optimum level due to the frictional resistance from
fly ash in addition to the cohesion from BC soil. Further addition of fly ash beyond the optimum
level causes a decrease up to 60% and then up to the second optimum level there is an increase.
Thus the variation of CBR of fly ash-BC soil mixes can be attributed to the relative contribution
of frictional or cohesive resistance from fly ash or BC soil, respectively. In Neyveli fly ash also
there is an increase of strength with the increase in the fly ash content, here there will be
additional puzzolonic reaction forming cementitious compounds resulting in good binding
between BC soil and fly ash particles.
Phanikumar and Sharma

(30)

this study was carried out by Phanikumar and Sharma and

the effect of fly ash on engineering properties of expansive soil through an experimental
programme. The effect on parameters like free swell index (FSI), swell potential, swelling
pressure, plasticity, compaction, strength and hydraulic conductivity of expansive soil was
studied. The ash blended expansive soil with flyash contents of 0, 5, 10,15 and 20% on a dry
weight basis and they inferred that increase in flyash content reduces plasticity characteristics
and the FSI was reduced by about 50% by the addition of 20% fly ash. The hydraulic
conductivity of expansive soils mixed with flyash decreases with an increase in flyash content,
due to the increase in maximum dry unit weight with an increase in flyash content. When the
flyash content increases there is a decrease in the optimum moisture content and the maximum

dry unit weight increases. The effect of fly ash is akin to the increased compactive effort. Hence
the expansive soil is rendered more stable. The undrained shear strength of the expansive soil
blended with flyash increases with the increase in the ash content.
S. Bhuvaneshwari, R. G. Robinson, S. R. Gandhi

(31)

based on the studies following

conclusions were madeAs the locally available borrow soil has generally high plasticity (LL >
50) it was difficult to use it directly for construction. The tests carried out with different
proportion of FA indicated that the workability is maximum with 25% FA. Also the dry density
observed is maximum for 25% FA. The natural soil used for construction shall be dried with
moisture content below 7%. If soil has more moisture it is difficult to mix with FA. Such soil
shall be spread on surface and allowed to dry before construction. Presence of dry clay lumps in
the borrow soil increases the number of passes of disc harrow for mixing. It is therefore
necessary to eliminate such soil lumps in the construction. It is observed that placing of two
different materials (local soil and FA) in three layers with FA layer sandwiched between soil
layers and mixing them with disc harrow is workable. It is preferable to cover the compacted
soil-FA bund with a suitable soil cover of minimum 500mm thickness. For this purpose suitable
borrow soil of CI type (in limited quantity) shall be used. Strict quality control shall be exercised
with regard to quality of borrow soil, its natural moisture content, number of disc harrow passes,
density and moisture content after compaction, etc.
S.M. Prasanna Kumar et al.,(32) studied on Cementitious Compounds Formation Using
Pozzolans and their effect on Stabilization of soils of varying Engineering Properties. The
following are the conclusions of the study carried out. On addition of any ash decreases the
diffused double layer thickness of mixture and hence water holding capacity of soil mixtures
decreases. On addition of any ash the gradation of mixture is adversely affected which leads in
reduction of dry density for higher content of ash.But at 40% of any ash addition shows high
density of mixtures. Both ashes can be used as a good stabilizer along with secondary additives.
RFA ash needs cement as secondary additive and NFA ash needs lime as secondary additive.
Cement and lime imparts considerable strength in both the soils.
Hakari Udayashankar D et al.,(33)studied on Geotechnical Characteristics of HubliDharwad Black Cotton SoilsMixed With Fly Ash: An Experimental Evaluation The following
conclusions are drawn from the present investigation, The black cotton soils of Hubli-Dharwad

have high degree of expansion and possess high swelling potential and require stabilization for
their better performance. The index parameters of the study soils improve with the addition of
DFA. The liquid limit decreases from 63% to 46%, plastic limit from 28.9% to 23.1% and the
plasticity index from 34.1% to 22.9% ; for the corresponding increase in the addition of DFA
from 10% to 50% respectively. The shrinkage limit increases from 17.3% to 37% for increasing
in the addition of DFA from 10% to 50% respectively. In respect of the compaction parameters,
the maximum dry density is found to increase from 15.5KN/m3 for M-10 mix to 17.9 KN/m3 for
M-50 mix; and further increase in the addition of DFA is observed to decrease it. The optimum
moisture content decreases from 24.3% for M-10 mix to 21.3% for M-50 mix. The CBR value
increases from 0.77% for M-10 mix to 2.64% for M-50 mix. Any further increase in addition of
DFA does not increase CBR value. The unconfined compressive strength of these soils increases
from 140.9 KN/m2 for M-10 mix to 291.6 KN/m2 for M-50 mix, with no curing. For a curing
period of 7 days, the trend of increase in the strength is found more pronounced and the
unconfined compressive strength increases from 238.52 KN/m2 for M-10 mix to 395.7 KN/m2
for M-50 mix. The geotechnical properties of HubliDharwad black cotton soils can be favorably
changed with the addition of DFA at an optimum quantity of 40-50%.
2.9 Combination of Fly ash and or GGBS
Laxmikant Yadu, R.K. Tripathi(34)they evaluated the potential of granulated blast
furnace slag (GBS) with fly ash to stabilize a soft soil. Different amounts of GBS, i.e. 3, 6, and
9% with different amount of fly ash i.e. 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% were used to stabilize the soft soil.
The performance of GBS with fly ash modified soils was evaluated using compaction and
California bearing ratio (CBR) test. Based on these performance tests, optimum amount of GBS
with fly ash was determined as 3% fly ash + 6% GBS. Reasonable improvement has been
observed for unsoaked and soaked CBR value of soils with this optimum amount.
AnilKumar Sharma, Sivapullaiah.P.V.(35)This paper describes a laboratory trial to study
the effectiveness of a waste-based binder to stabilize expansive soils. The proposed binders viz.,
Fly ash and/or Ground granulated Blast furnace slag (GGBS) were mixed with the expansive soil
along with a small amount of lime to increase soil pH and enable pozzolanic reactions. The
geotechnical characteristics of the various combinations of samples were investigated through
the compaction tests, unconfined compression tests etc. It was found that the addition of GGBS

with and without fly ash and lime has significant influence on the geotechnical characteristics of
the soil.
Gupta and Seehra(36)they studied the effect of lime-GGBS on the strength of soil. They
found that lime- GGBS soil stabilized mixes with and without addition of gypsum, or containing
partial replacement of GGBS by fly ash produced high UCS and CBR in comparison to plain
soil. They also concluded that partial replacement of GGBS with fly ash further increased the
UCS.
Akinmusuru et al.,(37)He studied the effect of mixing of GGBS on the consistency,
compaction characteristics and strength of lateritic soil. He observed a decrease in both the liquid
and plastic limits and an increase in plasticity index with increasing GGBS addition. Further, he
observed that the compaction, cohesion and CBR increased with increasing the GGBS content up
to 10% and then subsequently decreased. The angle of internal friction decreased with increasing
GGBS percentage.
Phanikumar and Sharma(38)A similar study was carried out by Phanikumar and
Sharmaand the effect of fly ash on engineering properties of expansive soil was found out
through an experimental program. The effect on parameters like free swell index (FSI), swell
potential, swelling pressure, plasticity, compaction, strength and hydraulic conductivity of
expansive soil was studied. He inferred that increase in flyash content reduces plasticity
characteristics and the FSI was reduced. The hydraulic conductivity of expansive soils mixed
with flyash decreases with an increase in flyash content, due to the increase in maximum dry unit
weightwith an increase in flyash content. The effect of fly ash is akin tothe increased compactive
effort. Hence the expansive soil is rendered more stability. The undrainedshear strength of the
expansive soil blended with flyash increases with the increase in the ashcontent.