Hall effect sensor

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A wheel containing two magnets passing by a Hall effect sensor

The magnetic piston (1) in this pneumatic cylinder will cause the Hall effect sensors (2 and 3) mounted on its
outer wall to activate when it is fully retracted or extended.

Engine fan with Hall effect sensor

Commonly used circuit symbol

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic
field. Hall effect sensors are used forproximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications.[1]
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a
known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors,
the relative position of the magnet can be deduced.
Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off)
mode, and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial applications
such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment; for example
some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. When high reliability is
required, they are used in keyboards.
Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal
combustion engine ignition timing,tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used
in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured
wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each
revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.
Contents
[hide]

1Hall probe

2Working principle

3Materials for Hall effect sensors

4Signal processing and interface

5Advantages

6Disadvantages

7Applications
o

7.1Position sensing

7.2DC current transformers

7.3Automotive fuel level indicator

7.4Keyboard Switch

8References

9Further reading

Hall probe[edit]
A Hall probe contains an indium compound semiconductor crystal such as indium antimonide,
mounted on an aluminum backing plate, and encapsulated in the probe head. The plane of the
crystal is perpendicular to the probe handle. Connecting leads from the crystal are brought down
through the handle to the circuit box.
When the Hall probe is held so that the magnetic field lines are passing at right angles through the
sensor of the probe, the meter gives a reading of the value of magnetic flux density (B). A current is
passed through the crystal which, when placed in a magnetic field has a "Hall effect" voltage
developed across it. The Hall effect is seen when a conductor is passed through a uniform magnetic
field. The natural electron drift of the charge carriers causes the magnetic field to apply a Lorentz
force (the force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field) to these charge carriers.
The result is what is seen as a charge separation, with a buildup of either positive or negative
charges on the bottom or on the top of the plate. The crystal measures 5 mm square. The probe
handle, being made of a non-ferrous material, has no disturbing effect on the field.
A Hall probe should be calibrated against a known value of magnetic field strength. For
a solenoid the Hall probe is placed in the center.

Working principle[edit]
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from a straight path. The flow of electrons through a conductor is known as a
beam of charged carriers. When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of the electrons, they will be deflected from a straight path. As a consequence, one plane of
the conductor will become negatively charged and the opposite side will become positively charged.
The voltage between these planes is called Hall voltage. [2]
When the force on the charged particles from the electric field balances the force produced by
magnetic field, the separation of them will stop. If the current is not changing, then the Hall voltage is
a measure of the magnetic flux density. Basically, there are two kinds of Hall effect sensors. One is
linear which means the output of voltage linearly depends on magnetic flux density; the other is
called threshold which means there will be a sharp decrease of output voltage at each magnetic flux
density.

Materials for Hall effect sensors[edit]

The key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high electron mobility. As a result,
following materials are especially suitable for Hall effect sensors:

gallium arsenide (GaAs)

indium arsenide (InAs)

indium phosphide (InP)

indium antimonide (InSb)

graphene [3]

Signal processing and interface[edit]

Hall effect sensors are linear transducers. As a result, such sensors require a linear circuit for
processing of the sensor's output signal. Such a linear circuit:

provides a constant driving current to the sensors

amplifies the output signal

In some cases the linear circuit may cancel the offset voltage of Hall effect sensors. Moreover, AC
modulation of the driving current may also reduce the influence of this offset voltage.
Hall effect sensors with linear transducers are commonly integrated with digital electronics. [4] This
enables advanced corrections of the sensor's characteristics (e.g. temperature coefficient
corrections) and digital interfacing to microprocessor systems. In some solutions of IC Hall effect
sensors a DSP is used, which provides for more choices among processing techniques. [5]
The Hall effect sensor interfaces may include input diagnostics, fault protection for transient
conditions, and short/open circuit detection. It may also provide and monitor the current to the Hall
effect sensor itself. There are precision IC products available to handle these features.

Advantages[edit]
A Hall effect sensor may operate as an electronic switch.

Such a switch costs less than a mechanical switch and is much more reliable.

It can be operated up to 100 kHz.

It does not suffer from contact bounce because a solid state switch with hysteresis is used
rather than a mechanical contact.

It will not be affected by environmental contaminants since the sensor is in a sealed

package. Therefore, it can be used under severe conditions.

In the case of linear sensor (for the magnetic field strength measurements), a Hall effect sensor:

can measure a wide range of magnetic fields

is available that can measure either North or South pole magnetic fields

can be flat

Disadvantages[edit]

Hall effect sensors provide much lower measuring accuracy than fluxgate
magnetometers or magnetoresistance-based sensors. Moreover, Hall effect sensors drift
significantly, requiring compensation.

Applications[edit]
Position sensing[edit]
Sensing the presence of magnetic objects (connected with the position sensing) is the most common
industrial application of Hall effect sensors, especially those operating in the switch mode (on/off
mode). The Hall effect sensors are also used in the brushless DC motor to sense the position of the
rotor and to switch the transistors in the right sequence.
Smartphones use hall sensors to determine if the Flip Cover accessory is closed. [6]

DC current transformers[edit]
Hall effect sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of DC current in current
transformers. In such a case the Hall effect sensor is mounted in the gap in magnetic core around
the current conductor.[7] As a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current in
the conductor can be calculated.

Automotive fuel level indicator[edit]

The Hall sensor is used in some automotive fuel level indicators. The main principle of operation of
such indicator is position sensing of a floating element. [8] This can either be done by using a vertical
float magnet or a rotating lever sensor.

In a vertical float system a permanent magnet is mounted on the surface of a floating object.
The current carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the tank lining up with the magnet. When
the level of fuel rises, an increasing magnetic field is applied on the current resulting in higher
Hall voltage. As the fuel level decreases, the Hall voltage will also decrease. The fuel level is
indicated and displayed by proper signal condition of Hall voltage.

In a rotating lever sensor a diametrically magnetized ring magnet rotates about a linear hall
sensor. The sensor only measures the perpendicular (vertical) component of the field. The
strength of the field measured correlates directly to the angle of the lever and thus the level of
the fuel tank.

Keyboard Switch[edit]
Developed by Everett A. Vorthmann and Joeseph T. Maupin for Micro Switch (a division of
Honeywell) in 1969, the switch was known to still be in production until as late as 1990. The switch is
one of the highest quality keyboard switches ever produced, with reliability being the main aim of the
design. The key-switches have been tested to have a lifetime of over 30 billion keypresses, the
switch also has dual open-collector outputs for reliability. The Honeywell Hall Effect switch is most
famous used in the Space-cadet keyboard, a keyboard used on LISP machines.