Ecosystems 3

Ecosystems
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere or segment of nature consisting
of community of living beings and the physical environment both interacting and exchanging
materials between them.
Definition : Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.
Ecology is the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological
environment.
The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen,
carbondioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere.
The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and animals.
The term 'ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935
Living organisms (biotic component) and their non-living (abiotic component) systems of the
environment are interrelated and interact with each other to form a stable self supporting system.
Odum (1971) defined Ecosystem as a unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area
interacting with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic
structure (Trophe = nourishment) , biotic diversity and material cycles within the system
The study of ecosystem is important because :

1. It provides information about the amount of available solar energy in an area.
2. It provides data about the availability of mineral elements, their utilization and recycling.
3. It provides information between organism as well as between organism and abiotic
environment.
4. It provides information of productivity and number of producers and consumers.
5. The knowledge about pollution, natural resourses and their conservation also can be
gathered.
Structure of Ecosystem:
Each ecosystem has two main components:
1. Abiotic components : The nonliving factors or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem form the abiotic components. They are mainly of two types:
(a) climatic factors: Rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity.etc
(b) Edaphic factors: Soil, pH, Minerals, Topography.
2. Biotic components:
The living organisms including plants, animals, and micro-organisms (Bacteria and fungi) that are
present in an ecosystem.
On the basis of their role in ecosystem they are classified into three main groups:
1) Producers 2) consumers 3 ) Decomposers.
The producers are plants and some bacteria capable of producing their own food photosynthetically
or by chemical synthesis.
1 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/Unit 3 Notes
Autrotrophs : (autotrophic = self-nourishing)
Green plants fix radiant energy in the presence of the green pigment, chlorophyll, and with the help of
minerals (C, H, O, N, P, L, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe etc.) taken from their soil and aerial environment ,they
build up complex organic matter (carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids etc).
So green plants are also called as converters (or) transducers
Therefore, autotrophs are called producers.
The consumers are animals that obtain their energy and protein directly by grazing , feeding on other
animals, or both.
Heterotrophs: (heterotrophic = other - nourishing)
The radiant energy is transferred to various other trophic levels like consumers.
Heterotrophic organisms, chiefly animals, which ingest other organisms (or) particulate organic matter
are included in this category,
Macroconsumers: eg: They are of three types :

viz., primary consumers eg: herbivores, secondary consumers eg: carnivores and tertiary consumers
eg: Carnivores and Omnivores (Phagotrophs) .
Microconsumers
It includes parasites, detervares and decomposers.
1. Parasites: They obtain food directly from other organism of all trophic levels. Parasites
cause disease and depend on the host for food.
2. Detervores and Scavangers: Detervares (e.g., termites, earth worms, wood lice, millipede
etc) feed on organic fragments whereas, scavengers (e.g., valture, carrion beetle) feed on dead
bodies.
Scavengers and deterivores seem to be essential for quick breakdown of dead bodies of organisms.
3. Decomposers: They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.
The dead organic matter comprising plant and animal material is then broken down by decomposers
(bacteria and fungi) into simple inorganic substances. They are cycled back to the soil and the
atmosphere and are available to primary producers.
Nature is capable of sustaining the producer – consumer – decomposer cycle indefinitely with the sun
as the energy source.
An organism feeding position in an ecosystem is its trophic level.
The smallest such entity that is self – sufficient is an Ecosystem.

Thus, an ecosystem may be very extensive covering millions of km2 .
(i) The composition of biological community including species (plants, animals and
microbes), biomass, life cycles and distribution in space, trophic standpoint.
(ii) The quantity, distribution and cycling of the non-living materials such as major and
micronutrients, trace elements and water
(iii) The range (or) gradient of conditions like temperature, light, rainfall, relative humidity,
wind and topography
Function of Ecosystem:
i) Flow of Energy:
The rate of biological energy flow i.e., production and respiration rates of the community.
ii) Nutrient Cycling: Rate of materials (or) nutrient cycles
Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles:
There are about 40 chemical elements considered to be essential for living organisms.
They are of two varieties:

i) Sedimentary cycles : In sedimentary cycles the main reservoir is the soil;
The sedimentary and other types of rocks of earth's crust.
ii) Gaseous cycles: They have their main reservoir of nutrients in the atmosphere and
oceans. Examples are the oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle etc. Both cycles
involve the biotic and abiotic systems
Biogeochemical cycles are the circulation pathways of elements (e.g., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen or mineral elements) through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem.
A reservoir is that portion of the earth that acts as a storehouse for the element.
An exchange pool is the portion of the environment from which producers take chemicals, such as the
atmosphere or soil.
The biotic community is the pathway (i.e., food chains) through which chemicals move.
Some cycles are primarily gaseous cycles (carbon and nitrogen); others are sedimentary cycles,
(phosphorus).
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

1. In the hydrologic cycle, freshwater evaporates and condenses on the earth.
2. Evaporation of water from the oceans leaves behind salts.
3. Rainfall that permeates the earth forms a water table at the surface of the ground water.
4. An aquifer is an underground storage of fresh water in porous rock trapped by impervious rock.
5. Freshwater makes up about 3 percent of the world's supply of water and is a renewable resource.
6. Freshwater becomes unavailable when consumption exceeds supply or is polluted so it is not usable.
Carbon Cycle
1. Terrestrial and aquatic organisms exchange carbon dioxide with the atmosphere.
2. Photosynthesis removes CO2 from atmosphere; respiration and combustion add CO2 to
atmosphere.
3. CO2 from the air combines with water to produce bicarbonate (HCO3), which is a source
of carbon for aquatic producers, primarily algae.
4. Similarly, when aquatic organisms respire, the CO2 they release combines with water to
form HCO3.
5. The amount of HCO3 in the water is in equilibrium with the amount of CO2 in the air.
6. The reservoir for the carbon cycle is largely composed of organic matter, calcium
carbonate in shells,and limestone, as well as fossil fuels.
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
1. Transfer rate is amount of nutrient moving from one part of the environment to another in a
time period.
2. Transfer rates between land and atmosphere and oceans and atmosphere due to respiration
are about even.
3. Because we burn fossil fuels and forests, there is more CO2 entering the atmosphere than
is removed.
4. The oceans are apparently taking up much excess carbon dioxide.
5. CO2, nitrous oxide and methane are gasses that contribute to the rise in atmospheric
temperature.
6. The above gasses and water vapor increase the greenhouse effect that holds heat next to the
earth.
7. Increased heat may cause more clouds that in turn increase global warming.
8. Possible results may include glaciers melting, sea levels rising, redistribution of dry and
wet regions.
Nitrogen Cycle
1. Nitrogen gas (N2) is 78% of the atmosphere, yet nitrogen deficiency often limits plant
growth.
2. In the nitrogen cycle, plants cannot incorporate N2 into organic compounds and therefore
depend on various types of bacteria to make nitrogen available to them.
3. Nitrogen Gas Becomes Fixed
a. Nitrogen fixation is the process whereby N2 is reduced and added to organic compounds.
b. Some cyanobacteria in water and free-living bacteria in soil are able to reduce N2 to
ammonium (NH4+).
c. Other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, living in nodules on the roots of legumes, make reduced
nitrogen and organic compounds available to the host plant.
d. Plants cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen but take up both NH4+ and nitrate (NO3-) from the
soil.
e. After plants take up NO3-, it is enzymatically reduced to NH4+ used to synthesize amino
and nucleic acids.
Nitrogen Gas Becomes Nitrates

a. Nitrification is the production of NO3-.
b. Nitrogen gas is converted to NO3- in the atmosphere when cosmic radiation, meteor trails,
and lightning provide the high energy for nitrogen to react with oxygen.
c. Nitrifying bacteria convert NH4+ to NO3-.
d. Ammonium in the soil is converted to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria in the soil in a two-step process:
1) First, nitrite-producing bacteria convert NH4+ to nitrite (NO3-).
2) Then, nitrate-producing bacteria convert NO2 - to NO3-.
e. Denitrification is conversion of NO3- to nitrous oxide (N2O) and N2.
f. There are denitrifying bacteria in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
g. Denitrification counterbalances nitrogen fixation, but not completely; more nitrogen
fixation occurs.
h. Humans contribute much to the nitrogen cycle when they convert N2 to ammonium and urea in
fertilizers.
i. Eutrophication (over enrichment) results from fertilizer runoff; when rampant algae dies
off, decomposers use up available oxygen during cellular respiration, and this results in a
massive fish kill.
Nitrogen and Air Pollution

a. Production of fertilizers and burning of fossil fuels adds three times the nitrogen oxides to
the atmosphere as normal.
b. Acid deposition occurs when nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides combine with water vapor.
c. Photochemical smog results when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react in presence of
sunlight; smog contains ozone and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) and causes respiratory
problems.
d. Air pollutants are trapped near the ground by thermal inversions where cold air is trapped
near the ground by warm air above.
Phosphorus Cycle
1. In phosphorus cycle, weathering makes phosphate ions (PO4 and HPO4 2-) available to
plants from the soil.
2. Some phosphate runs off into aquatic ecosystems where algae incorporate it into organic
molecules.
3. Phosphate that is not taken up by algae is incorporated into sediments in the oceans.
4. Sediment phosphate only becomes available when geological upheaval exposes
sedimentary rocks.
5. Phosphate taken up by producers is incorporated into a variety of organic compounds.
6. Animals eat producers and incorporate some of phosphate into long-lasting teeth, bones,
and shells.
7. Decay of organisms and decomposition of animal wastes makes phosphate ions available
again.
8. Available phosphate is generally taken up quickly; it is usually a limiting nutrient in most
ecosystems.
Phosphorus and Water Pollution

1. Humans boost the supply of phosphate by mining phosphate ores for fertilizers, detergents,
etc.
2. Run-off of animal wastes from livestock feedlots and commercial fertilizers from cropland
as well as discharge of untreated and treated municipal sewage can all add excess
phosphate to nearby waters.
3. Eutrophication is the name of this over-enrichment and can lead to algal blooms; when the
algae die off, decomposers use up the oxygen.
4. Biological magnification is the concentration of chemicals as they move up the food chain.
5. Oil spills add over 5 million metric tons of oil a year to oceans.
6. Human activities including fishing have exploited ocean resources to the brink of
extinction.
(iii) Biological (or) Ecological regulation which includes regulation or organisms by environment
(eg: Photoperiodism) and regulation of environment by organisms (nitrogen fixation by organisms).
Ecosystem Regulation - All ecosystems regulate and maintain themselves under a set of
environmental conditions.
Any stress tries to disturb the normal ecosystem functions , the ecosystem, by itself, tries to resist the
change and maintain itself in equilibrium with the environment due to a property known as
homeostasis.
Ecosystem maintains a functional balance between various components. This phenomenon is called
homoeostasis.
It is achieved by a number of limitations, which is called cybernetics.

For example generally no species increases its number beyond the limit thus it controls own growth in
response to scaricity of resources and overcrowding.
In an Ecosystem biological cycling of materials is maintained by three groups viz. Producers,
consumers, and decomposers/recyclers.
The two ecological processes of energy flow and mineral cycling involving interaction between the
physico -chemical environment and the biotic communities is considered as the 'heart' of ecosystem.
Energy flow is always in non-cyclic manner (unidirectional) from sun to the decomposers via
producers and macro consumers.
But minerals keep on moving in a cyclic manner
Broadly ecosystems are classified into different systems as given below:

1. Terrestrial ecosystems:
Forest Ecosystems – coniferous forest, Evergreen forest, Tundra forest, Tropical rain forests.
Grassland Ecosystems – Prairies
Desert Ecosystems
2. Aquatic ecosystems:
Ponds, streams , lakes , river, oceans
Marshes and swamps
Coral reefs, continental shelves , deep oceans.
The transition region between two adjoining ecosystems may be considered as ecosystem.
The transitional ecosystems are called ecotones eg. Grassland – forest ecosystem,
Land Ecosystem (ecosystem 1 ) – Ecotone (Marshland) – Aquatic ecosystem (Ecosystem 2)
The transitional regions create unique environments that support distinctive plants and animals as well
as those that are common to the adjoining ecosystems.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem :
Energy flow is the movement of energy through an ecosystem from the external environment through
a series of organism and back to the external environment.
Ecosystem is maintained by the flow of energy.
With the exception of chemosynthetic bacteria all other autotrophs obtain energy from the sun. They
trap the light energy and convert it into chemical energy of organic compounds during the process of
photosynthesis.
The amount of energy trapped varies from ecosystem to ecosystem.
Aquatic ecosystem = 0. 2%
Terrestrial ecosystem, = 1. 0%
Grassland = 1. 15%
Mixed forest = 0. 8%
Crops = 5. 0%
C4 plants (sugarcane ) = 10 - 12%
The autotrophs consume a part of the trapped energy, during their growth and metabolism. The
remaining is used in their body building.
The heterotrophs depend upon the autotrophs for obtaining organic compounds and energy contained
in them.
The energy is used for their growth and maintenance. There is always loss of energy at each step of its
transfer.
Some energy is degraded into heat and dissipated.
Thus, the flow of energy in the ecosystem is always unidirectional.
The flow of energy follows the two laws of Thermodynamics:

1st law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
transformed from one form to another.
The solar energy captured by the green plants (producers) gets converted into biochemical energy of
plants and later into that of consumers.
Second law of Thermodynamics states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other words, its gets
converted from a more concentrated to dispersed form. As energy flows through the food chain, there
occurs dissipation of energy at every trophic level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration,
loss of energy in locomotion, running, hunting and other activities.
At every level there is about 90% loss of energy and the energy transferred from one trophic level to
the other is only about 10%.
Food chains:
The transfer of food energy from the source in plants (producers) through a series of organism
(herbivores) to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as
food chain.
All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some other organism and thus, there is essentially
no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:

Grass —> grasshopper —> Frog —> Snake —> Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
Phytoplanktons —> water fleas —> small fish —> Tuna (Pond ecosystem)
Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level depending on its
nutritional status.
Two major types of food chains:

1. Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and culminates in
carnivores. Example :
Grass —> Rabbit —> Fox
Phytoplankton —> Zooplantkton —> Fish —> Man
Grass —> Grasshopper —>frog —> snake —> Hawk
Ecosystems of such type of food chains are directly dependent on an influx of solar energy.
2. Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and decomposers
consume.
Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and
their predators. Example - Mangrove and estuarine areas.
Dead organic matter —> Detrivores —>predators.

Fallen leaves and dead plants —>soil mites —> Insects —> Fish.
Ecosystems having such type of food chains depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced
in another system. They are less dependent on solar energy.
FOOD WEBS
Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate as isolated linear sequences.
Rather, they are found to be interconnected and usually form a complex network with several linkages
and are known as food webs.
Thus, food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic
level.
In ecosystems, some consumers feed on a single species, but most consumers have multiple food
sources.
Similarly, some species are prey to a single kind of predator, but many species in an ecosystem are
beset by several types of predators and parasites.
In this way, individual food chains interconnect to form a food web.
Significance of food chains and food webs

Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two most
important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different animals and
thus, help maintain the ecological balance.
Food web
Hawk <— sparrow <— insect <— Grass
Grains,
Nuts, —> Mouse —> snake —> lizard
Plants
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
An ecological pyramid shows the trophic structure of an ecosystem as a graph
representing biomass, organism number, or energy content of each trophic level in a
food web.
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with

producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an
ecological pyramid.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:
Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic
level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of numbers, depending upon the type of
ecosystem and food chain
A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
The producers in the grasslands are grasses and that in a pond are phytoplanktons (algae
etc.), which are small in size and very large in number. So the producers form a broad
base. The herbivores in a grassland are insects while tertiary carnivores are hawks or
other birds which are gradually less and less in number and hence the pyramid apex
becomes gradually-narrower forming an upright pyramid. Similar is the case with the
herbivores, carnivores and top carnivores in pond which decrease in number at higher
trophic levels.
Pyramid of Numbers a) Grassland b) forest c) parasitic food chain
Pyramid of biomass:
It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain.
The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted. The pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright.
The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. The total biomass of producers
(phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects), Carnivores (Small
fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and
broad apex.
a) Grassland ecosystem b) pond ecosystem
Pyramid of Energy:
The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid. Pyramid of
energy is always upright.
At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration etc.
Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decline in
energy level of each successive trophic level as we move from Producers to top carnivores.
Pyramid of energy
About 10% of energy at a particular trophic level is incorporated into the next trophic level.
a. Thus, 1,000 kg (or kcal in an energy pyramid) of plant material converts to 100 kg of herbivore
tissue, which converts to 10 kg of first carnivores, which can support 1 kg of second level carnivores.
b. This rapid loss of energy is the reason food chains have from three to four links, rarely five.
c. This rapid loss of energy is also the reason there are few large carnivores.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
An ecosystem is not static in nature. It is dynamic and changes its structure as well as function with
time and quite interestingly, these changes are very orderly and can be predicted.
An aggregation of populations of different species living together ( in inter dependence ) in a specific

area, having a specific set of environmental conditions constitute a biotic community.
It is observed that one type of a community is totally replaced by another type of community over a
period of time and simultaneously several changes also occur. This process is known as ecological
succession.
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community structure and
function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and ultimately
culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax community.
The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages (community ) or
seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called a Pioneer community.
Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrata are named differently as
follows:
(i) Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog
(ii) Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture.
(iii) Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture. They can be of the following
types:
Lithosere : starting on a bare rock
Psammosere : starting on sand
Halosere : starting on saline soil
Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may be caused
due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc.
(Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic
factors).
(ii) Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersal
or migration, followed by ecesis or establishment. Dispersal of the seeds, spores etc. is brought about
by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and
reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or aggregations.
(iii) Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-
specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water and
nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction.
(iv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in turn,
they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known
as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the existing species
and favour some new species, which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.
(v) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called
climax which is in equilibrium with the environment.
Succession is a progressive transformation or origination of a biological community as new plant and

animal species come into an area and alter the environmental conditions.
The complete process of succession may take hundreds or thousands of years and entails a number of
intermediate communities, each called a seral community.
Stabilized ecosystem known as climax community
Exposed rocks —> microbes,lichens, mosses —> grasses —>herbs —> Trees ( climax community)
There are two types of succession: Primary succession and Secondary succession.
Succession comprises evolution of a vegetation from its origin to attainment of climax with several
limiting factors in between.
Primary succession: The succession which starts from a primitive substratum without any life
building unliving matter therein is known as the Primary succession.
It is the initial development of an ecosystem. It occurs when a community begins to develop on a site
previously unoccupied by living organisms, such as an island, a sand or silt bed, a body of water, or a
new volcanic flow. Forests that develop on new lava flows or at the edge of a retreating glacier are
some common examples of primary succession.
Secondary succession: The succession which is starting from previously built up substratum with
living matter, is known as the Secondary succession.
It is a re-establishment of an ecosystem. It occurs when an existing community is disrupted and a new
one subsequently develops at the site. The disruptions may be caused by some natural catastrophe
(such as flooding or fire), or by a human activity (such as mining, deforestation or plowing). A forest
that develops on an abondoned pasture or one that grows after a flood, fire or hurricane is an example
of secondary succession.
If the existing community, as a result of its reaction with the environment causes its own replacement,
such a succession is known as autogenic succession but if the replacement of the existing community
takes place due to the influence of any external force, condition etc, such a course is called allogenic
succession.
A tropical rainforest of the pristine nature is an example of a climax succession.

The anthropogenic factors disturb this climax stage and lead to various intermediate phases of re-
succession an instance of ecodegradation.
Major Ecosystems
Any unit that includes all the organisms i.e., the communities in a given area interact with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biodiversity and
material cycle within the system known as ecological system or ecosystem.
Earth is the gaint ecosystem (biosphere) where abiotic and biotic components are constantly acting
and reacting upon each other bringing structural and functional changes in it. This vast ecosystem is,
however, difficult to handle and thus for convenience nature is generally studied by making its
artificial sub divisions into units of smaller ecosystems.
However, these unit ecosystems are simply seperated from each other with time and space, but
functionally they all are linked with each other. There are no functional boundaries between them.
An ecosystem represents the highest level of ecological integration which is energy based. This
functional unit is capable of energy transformation accumulation and circulation.
Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as follows:
(i) Natural ecosystems (ii) Artificial (man-engineered) ecosystems.
Natural Ecosystems:
These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major interference by
man. Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are further divided as :
1. Terrestrial ecosystems: Include forest ecosystems, which can be subdivided into a whole range of
types including tropical rainforests, Mediterranean evergreen forests, temperate and boreal
forests, and temperate deciduous forests; grasslands and savannahs; and deserts and semi-arid
ecosystems. It includes Arctic and alpine ecosystems, dominated by cold areas and lacking trees. It
also includes desert ecosystems. etc.
2. Aquatic (water-open) which may be further distinguished into

(a) Freshwater which may be lotic (running-water as spring, stream or rivers or lentic
(standing waters as lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamp etc).
(b) Marine ecosystems : as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.
Include an enormous range, from coral reefs, mangroves, sea-grass beds, and other coastal and shallow
water ecosystems to open-water ecosystems and the mysterious, little-known systems of the abyssal
plains and trenches of the world's oceans.
Artificial (man-engineered) Ecosystems

These are maintained artificially by man where, by addition of energy and planned manipulations
natural balance is disturbed regularly, for example, croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc, where
man tries to control the biotic community as well as physico-chemical environment are artificial
ecosystems.
1. Terrestrial ecosystems : Forest Ecosystem Types
(a) Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen broad leaf forests found near the equator. They are
characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall(>200cm/yr), all of which
favour the growth of trees. All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform. They
are the richest in biodiversity. The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in
India which is the natural habitat for a wide variety of species
(b) Mediterranean evergreen forests : Mediterranian climate region, with hot, dry, summers, and
cool, moist winters, are often dominated by evergreen shrubs with small, leathery,
sclerophyllous(hard, waxy) leaves. This community is drought resistant, often with small or
thorny trees as well as shrubs.
(c) Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator and are characterized
by a warm climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon. A large part of the year remains
dry and therefore different types of deciduous trees are found here,
which lose their leaves during dry season.
(d) Tropical schrub forests: They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer. Here there
are small deciduous trees and shrubs.
(e) Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas(pacific north west) with adequate
rainfall(250 cm/yr). These are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc. They also
consist of some evergreen broad- leaf trees.
(f) Temperate deciduous forests/Broad leaved Deciduous Forest and Evergreen Forest:
They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. There is a marked seasonality with long
summers, cold but not too severe winter and abundant rainfall throughout the year. In winter, when
water is scarce or the ground is frozen, deciduous trees shed their leaves to conserve water. The major
trees include broad leaf deciduous trees like oak, hickory, poplar ,maple,birch, beech,elm, and other
hardwoods.etc.
(g) Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests): They are found just south of arctic tundra. Here
winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only. In summer the temperature is
mild, sun-shines for long hours but the season is quite short. The major trees include pines, spruce, fir,
cedar,hemlock,spruce. etc. which have tiny, needle-shaped leaves having a waxy coating so that they
can withstand severe cold and drought. The soil is found to get frozen during winter when few species
can survive. The leaves, also know as needles, fall on the forest floor and cover the nutrient poor soil.
These soils are acidic and prevent other plants from growing. Species diversity is rather low in these
forests.
(h) Tundra: The tree less landscape is called tundra ,has a very short growing season, cold harsh
winter , and the potential for frost any month of the year. Dominant tundra plants are dwarf shrubs,
sedges, grasses, mosses, and lichens. Tundra has low biological productivity , low diversity, and low
resilence.
The different components of a forest ecosystem

Abiotic component : These are the inorganic as well as organic substances present in the soil and
atmosphere.
Biotic component : The living organisms present in the food chain occur in the following order.
Producers : The trees are of different kinds depending upon the kind of the forest formation
developing in that climate. Besides trees, there are also present several climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and
a ground vegetation.
In tropical moist deciduous forest the producers, are Tectona grandis, Butea frondosa, Shorea rubusta
and Anogeissus latifolia, Adina cordifolia and so on.
In temperate deciduous forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus, Acer, Betula ,and conifers
such as Abies, Pinus Thuja, Picea etc., whereas in a temperate coniferous forests, the dominant
producer trees are gymnosperrns genera : Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus and wide range of
flowering plants.
Consumers :
(a) Primary consumers. These are the herbivores that include the animals feeding on
tree leaves as ants, flies, beetles, leafhoppers, bugs and spiders etc., and larger animals grazing in
shoots and/or fruits of the producers, the elephants, nilgai, deer,
moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, fruit bats, mongooses etc.,
(b) Secondary consumers. These are the top carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox
etc. feeding on the herbivores.
(c) Tertiary consumers. These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat
carnivores of secondary consumers level.
Decomposers
These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of Aspergillus, Coprinus,
Polyporus, Ganoderma, Fusarium, Alternariq, Trichoderma etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus,
Clostridhim, Pseudomonas, Angiococcus etc.,) and actinomycetes, like species of Streptomyces etc.
Rate of decomposition in tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than that in the temperature
ones. They actively participate in biogeochemical nutrient recycling.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Grasslands are dominated by grass species but sometimes also allow the growth of a few trees and
shrubs. Rainfall is average but erratic. Seasonal cycles of temperature and precipitation contribute to
abundant vegetative growth that both protects and enriches athe soils of these prairies and plains,
making them among the richest farmlands in the world.
Limited grazing helps to improve the net primary production of the grasslands but overgrazing leads to
degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification. Three types of grasslands are found to
occur in different climatic regions:
(a) Tropical grasslands: They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high
average temperature and low to moderate rainfall. In Africa, these are typically known as Savannas,
which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. The Savannas have a wide diversity of
animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc. During dry season, fires are quite common.
Termite mounds are very common here. The termites gather the detritus (dead organic matter)
containing a lot of cellulose and build up a mound. On the top of the mound fungi are found to grow
which feed upon this dead matter including cellulose and in turn release methane, a greenhouse gas.
Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. Most of the carbon assimilated by
them in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. which are present
underground. Deliberate burning of these grasslands can release huge quantities of carbon dioxide,
another green house gas, responsible for global warming.
(b) Temperate grasslands: They are usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills, winters are very cold
but summers are hot and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to grow.
In United States and Canada these grasslands are known as prairies, in South America as Pampas, in
Africa as Velds and in central Europe and Asia they are known as Steppes. Winds keep blowing and
evaporation rate is very high. It also favours rapid fires in summer. The soils are quite fertile and
therefore, very often these grasslands are cleared for griculture.
(c)Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra): They are found in arctic polar region where severe cold and
strong, frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow. In summers
the sun-shines almost round the clock and hence several small annual plants grow in the summer. The
animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under
the soil surface throughout the year and is known as permafrost. In summer, the tundra shows the
appearance of shallow lakes, bogs etc. where
mosquitoes, different type of insects and migratory birds appear.
Grasslands Ecosystem : Structure and Function;

This is type of terrestrial ecosystem. Grasslands occupy roughly 19 percent of the earth's surface.
The various components of a grassland ecosystem are as follows :
Abiotic components : These are the nutrients present in soil and the aerial environment.
Biotic component :
These may be categorized as :
1. Producers: They are mainly grasses, as species of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Digitaria,
Dactyloctenium, Brachiaria, Setaria, Sporobolus etc. Besides them a few forbs and
shrubs also contribute to primary production.
2. Consumers. These occur in the following sequence :
(a) Primary Consumers. Grazing animals such as cows, buffaloes, deers, sheep, rabbit, mouse etc.
Besides them, there will also be present some insects as Leptocorisa, Dysdercus,
Oxyrhachis. Cicincella, Coccinella, some termites and millipeds etc.. that feed on the leaves of
grasses.
(b) Secondary consumers. These include herbivore consuming animals like fox, jackal, snakes, frogs,
lizards, birds etc. Sometimes the hawks feed on the secondary consumers and also some insects, thus
occupying tertiary consumers level in the food chain and food web.
3.Decomposers. The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of different forms of higher
life are fungi, as species of Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicilllium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium etc.,
and some bacteria and actinomycetes. They bring about the minerals back to the soil, thus making
them available to the producers.
Thus, they help in nutrient recycling an illustrating of biogechemical recycling.
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
These ecosystems occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation (rainfall, snow etc.) The
precipitation is less than 25 cm per year. About l/3rd of our world's land area is covered by deserts.
Deserts have little species diversity and consist of drought resistant or drought avoiding plants. The
atmosphere is very dry and hence it is a poor insulator. That is why in deserts the soil gets cooled up
quickly, making the nights cool. Deserts are of three major types, based on climatic conditions:
(a) Tropical deserts like Sahara and Namib in Africa and Thar desert, Rajasthan, India are the driest
of all with only a few species. Wind blown sand dunes are very common.
(b) Temperate deserts like Mojave in Southern California where day time temperatures are very hot
in summer but cool in winters.
(c) Cold deserts like the Gobi desert in China has cold winters and warm summers.
Desert plants and animals are having most typical adaptations for conservation of water. Many desert
plants are found to have reduced, scaly leaves so as to cut down loss of water due to transpiration or
have succulent leaves to store water. Many a times their stems get flattened and develop chlorophyll
so that they can take up the function of photosynthesis. Some plants show very deep roots to tap the
groundwater. Many plants have a waxy, thick cuticle over the leaf to reduce loss of water through
transpiration. Desert animals like insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize loss of
water. They usually live inside burrows where humidity is better and heat is less. Desert soil is rich in
nutrients but deficient in water.
Due to low species diversity, shortage of water and slow growth rate, the desert plant communities, if
faced with a severe stress take a long time to recover.
Desert Ecosystem : Structure and Function:

Deserts occupy about 17 per cent of land, occurring in the regions with an annual rainfall of less than
25 centimeters. The various biotic components are :
1.Producers. stems and branches variously modified, a few succulents like cacti are present. Some
lower plants like lichens and xerophytic mosses may be present.
2. Consumers The most common animals are reptiles and insects, able to live under
xeric conditions. In additions to them, there are also found some nocturnal rodents
and birds. The 'ship of desert', camels feed on tender shoots of the plants.
3. Decomposers. These are very few, as due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is
correspondingly less. They are some fungi and bacteria, most of which are thermophilic.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ecosystems dealing with water bodies and the biotic communities present in them are either
freshwater or marine. Freshwater ecosystems are further of standing type (lentic) like ponds and lakes
or free-flowing type (lotic), like rivers. There are also some unique freshwater ecosystems, including
underground rivers and subterranean pools. Freshwater ecosystems are varied because they are
influenced not only by local climate, soil, but also by the surrounding terrestrial ecosytems and
anything that happens upstream from them.
Let us consider some important aquatic ecosystems.
(a) Pond ecosystem: It is a small freshwater aquatic ecosystem where water is stagnant. Ponds may be
seasonal in nature i.e. receiving enough water during rainy season. Ponds are usually shallow water
bodies which play a very important role in the villages where most of the activities center around
ponds. They contain several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes and birds. The ponds are,
however, very often exposed to tremendous anthropogenic (human-generated) pressures. They are
used for washing clothes, bathing, swimming, cattle bathing and drinking etc. and therefore get
polluted.
Lake ecosystems: Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies with standing water. They have a shallow
water zone called Littoral zone, an open-water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes
place, called Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible, known as
profundal zone
The Dal Lake in Srinagar (J & K), Naini Lake in Nainital (Uttaranchal) and Loktak lake in Manipur
are some of the famous lakes of our country.
Organisms : The lakes have several types of organisms:
(a)Planktons that float on the surface of waters e.g.phytoplanktons like algae and zooplanktons like
rotifers.
(b) Nektons that swim e.g. fishes.
(c) Neustons that rest or swim on the surface.
(d) Benthos that are attached to bottom sediments e.g. snails.
(e) Periphytons that are attached or clinging to other plants or any other surface e.g. crustaceans.
Stratification : The lakes show stratification or zonation based on temperature differences. During
summer, the top waters become warmer than the bottom waters. Therefore, only the warm top layer
circulates without mixing with the colder layer, thus forming a distinct zonation:
Epilimnion : Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer
Hypolimnion : Cold, viscous, non-circulating bottom layer.
In between the two layers is thermocline, the region of sharp drop in temperature.
Types of Lakes : Some important types of lakes are:

(a) Oligotrophic lakes which have low nutrient concentrations.
(b) Eutrophic lakes which are overnourished by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, usually as a
result of agricultural run-off or municipal sewage discharge. They are covered with "algal blooms" e.g.
Dal Lake.
(c) Dystrophic lakes that have low pH, high humic acid content and brown waters e.g. bog lakes.
(d) Endemic lakes that are very ancient, deep and have endemic fauna which are restricted only to
that lake e.g. the Lake Baikal in Russia; the deepest lake, which is now suffering a threat due to
industrial pollution.
(e) Desert salt lakes that occur in arid regions and have developed high salt concentrations as a result
of high evaporation, e.g. great salt lake, Utah; Sambhar lake in Rajasthan.
(f) Volcanic lakes that receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions e.g. many lakes in Japan.
They have highly restricted biota.
(g) Meromictic lakes that are rich in salts and are permanently stratified e.g. lake Nevada.
(h)Artificial lakes or impoundments that are created due to construction of dams e.g. Govindsagar
lake at Bhakra-Nangal.
Pond Ecosystem ; Structure and Function:

A pond is a good example of a small self-sufficient and self-regulating ecosystem. Location, size,
depth and substratum of a pond influence the biology of pond ecosystem. Fresh waters, although a
small part of waters on earth, are extremely important as a source of drinking water.
Biotic component
The various organisms that constitute the biotic component are as follows :
1. Producers : These are autotrophic, green plants and some photosynthetic bacteria. The producers
fix radiant energy and with the help of minerals derived from water and mud, they manufacture
complex organic substances as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc., producers are of the following
types :
(a) Macrophytes : They are mainly large rooted plants which include partly or completely
submerged, floating and emergent hydrophytes. The common plant species are Trapa, Typha,
Bleocharis, Sagittaria, Nymphara, Potamogeton, Chara, Hydrilla, Vallisheria, Utricularia, Marselia,
Nelumbo etc. Besides them some free-floating forms as Azolla, Salvinia, Wolfia, Eicchornia,
Spirodella, Lemna etc also occur in the pond.
(b) Phytoplankton : These are minute, flaoting or suspended lower plants. Majority of them are
filamentous algae such as Zygnema, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Cladophora and Oedogonium. Besides
them ther are also present Chlorococcales, Closterhim, Cosmarium, Eudorina, Pandorina, Pediastrum,
Scenedesmns, Volvox, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Chlamydomonas, Spirulina
2.Consumers : They are hetrotrophs which depend on the organic food manufactured
by green plants for their nutrition. Most of the consumers are herbivores while a few insects and
some large fish are carnivores.The consumers in a pond ecosystem are distinguished as follows :
(a) Primary consumers : These are herbivores feeding directly on living plants (producers) or plant
remains. They may be large as well as minute in size.
Benthic populations include fish, insect larvae, beetles, mites, molluscs, crustaceans etc.
Besides these, some mammals as cows, buffaloes etc., visit the pond casually and feed on marginal
rooted macrophytes. Some birds also regularly visit the pond feeding on some hydrophytes.
(ii) Zooplankton : These are chiefly the rotifers as Brachionus, Asplancha Lecane etc, some
protozoans as Euglena, Coleps, Dileptus etc and Crustaceans like Cyclops, Steno Cyupris etc. They
feed chiefly on phytoplankton.
(b) Secondary consumers (Carnivores) : They are the carnivores, which feed on the
primary consumers herbivores. These are chiefly insects and fish, which feed on
zooplankton.
(c) Tertiary consumers (carnivores) : Some large fish a game fish feed on the smaller fish
and thus become the tertiary (top) consumers. In a pond, fish may occupy more than one
trophic levels. The small fish (herbivores) feed on phytoplankton while some fish feed on
zooplankton at carnivore level.
3. Micro Consumers or Decomposers : They are also known as micro consumers, since
they absorb only a fraction of the decomposed organic matter. They bring about the
decomposition of complex dead organic matter of both plants and animals to simple forms.
Thus they play an important role in recycling the mineral elements again to the medium of the pond.
They are chiefly bacteria, actionmycetes and fungi, Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Cladosporium,
Pythium, Rhizopus, Pencillium etc are the most common decomposers among fungi in waters and mud
of the pond.
Rivers and Stream Ecosystems

As compared with lentic freshwaters (ponds, lakes etc), lotic waters such as streams and rivers have
been less studied. However, the various components of an riverine and stream ecosystems can be
arranged as follows:
Producers : The chief producers that remain permanently attached to a firm substrate are green algae
such as Cladophora, encrusting diatoms and aquatic mosses.
Consumers :The consumers show certain such features as permanent attachment to firm substrate,
presence of hooks and suckers, sticky undersurfaces, streamlined bodies, flattened bodies, positive
rheotaxis (rheo= current; taxis = arrangement) and positive thigmotaxis. Thus a variety of animals are
found, which are freshwater sponges and caddis-fly larvae, larvae of Stimulium and Blepharocera,
snails and flatworms, fish and stonefly and mayfly nymphs.
Decomposers : Various bacteria and fungi like actinomycetes are present which acts as decomposers.
Wetlands : wetlands are ecosystems in which the land surface is saturated or covered with standing
water at least part of the year. Vegetation is adapted fro growth under saturated conditions. There are
many kinds of wetlands. They can be grouped into three categories.
Swamps are wetlands with trees
Marshes are wetlands without trees.
Bogs and fens are waterlogged areas saturated by groundwater or rainwater.
The most extensive wetland areas are in Canadian and Russian arctic tundra.
Marine ecosystems:
Estuary
Estuaries are bays or semienclosed bodies of brackish (moderately salty) water that form where rivers
enter the ocean.
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where fresh water and salty
seawater meet. These are the transition zones which are strongly affected by tidal action. Constant
mixing of water stirs up the silt which makes the nutrients available for the primary producers. There
are wide variations in the stream flow and tidal currents at any given location diurnally, monthly and
seasonally. Therefore, the organisms present in estuaries show a wide range of tolerance to
temperature and salinity. Such organisms are known as eurythermal and euryhaline. Coastal bays,
and tidal marshes are examples of estuaries.
Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic. There are many migratory
species of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and half in salty
water. For them estuaries are ideal places for resting during migration, where they also get abundant
food. Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems. The river flow and tidal action provide energy
subsidies for the estuary thereby enhancing its productivity. Estuaries are of much use to human
beings due to their high food potential. However, these ecosystems need to be managed judiciously
and protected from pollution.

Ecosystems 3

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Ecosystems 3

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Ecosystems

Definition : Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.

The term 'ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935

The study of ecosystem is important because :

So green plants are also called as converters (or) transducers

Therefore, autotrophs are called producers.

Heterotrophs: (heterotrophic = other - nourishing)

Macroconsumers: eg: They are of three types :

An organism feeding position in an ecosystem is its trophic level.

The smallest such entity that is self – sufficient is an Ecosystem.

ii) Nutrient Cycling: Rate of materials (or) nutrient cycles

They are of two varieties:

Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Nitrogen Gas Becomes Nitrates

Nitrogen and Air Pollution

Phosphorus and Water Pollution

It is achieved by a number of limitations, which is called cybernetics.

But minerals keep on moving in a cyclic manner

Broadly ecosystems are classified into different systems as given below:

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem :

Ecosystem is maintained by the flow of energy.

The amount of energy trapped varies from ecosystem to ecosystem.

Some energy is degraded into heat and dissipated.

Thus, the flow of energy in the ecosystem is always unidirectional.

The flow of energy follows the two laws of Thermodynamics:

Some common examples of simple food chains are:

Two major types of food chains:

Dead organic matter —> Detrivores —>predators.

In this way, individual food chains interconnect to form a food web.

Significance of food chains and food webs

Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with

Ecological pyramids are of three types:

A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.

Pyramid of Numbers a) Grassland b) forest c) parasitic food chain

An aggregation of populations of different species living together ( in inter dependence ) in a specific

Succession is a progressive transformation or origination of a biological community as new plant and

Stabilized ecosystem known as climax community

A tropical rainforest of the pristine nature is an example of a climax succession.

2. Aquatic (water-open) which may be further distinguished into

Artificial (man-engineered) Ecosystems

1. Terrestrial ecosystems : Forest Ecosystem Types

The different components of a forest ecosystem

Grasslands Ecosystem : Structure and Function;

Desert Ecosystem : Structure and Function:

Let us consider some important aquatic ecosystems.

Types of Lakes : Some important types of lakes are:

Pond Ecosystem ; Structure and Function:

Rivers and Stream Ecosystems

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