Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Prepared by
Dr. V. Praveen Rao
Professor of Agronomy & IFFCO Chair
&
Dr. S. Hemalatha
Associate Professor
Page 1
Citation
Rao, V.P., Suneetha, K.B. and Hemalatha. 2010. Irrigation water management. Department
of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, 148 pages.
Page 2
Preface
This book is intended as a professional basic textbook for undergraduate
level students of irrigation water management in agriculture and horticulture
faculty. At the postgraduate level also it will be very useful for students of
agronomy, soil science and horticulture. In addition the text book will be a valuable
reference on irrigation aspects for the candidates appearing in competitive
examinations including agricultural research services. Professional training
institutes like KVKs, polytechnics, rural institutes etc dealing in on-farm water
management would find this text book of immense value.
The text book covers all the areas of irrigation related to agriculture. The
book is written in a very simple form with up to date data and statistics. It is a
comprehensive basic text book on water resources, soil water plant relations, soil
moisture measurement, crop water requirements & irrigation scheduling, methods
of irrigation, irrigation water quality and water management practices for
important field and horticultural crops in Andhra Pradesh. Descriptions of
necessary equipment, class room problems and examples have been included to
facilitate the understanding of the subject matter. Tables, figures, formulae and
images are also given for better illustration. A list of important references is given at
the end of the manual.
The authors would welcome suggestions from the readers to improve the text
book.
Hyderabad
V. Praveen Rao
K.B. Suneetha Devi
S. Hemalatha
Page 3
Contents
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
5
6
9
12
19
23
26
33
36
41
43
47
54
58
63
68
70
74
76
79
83
86
90
97
101
105
109
113
118
122
126
131
135
141
Page 4
Practicals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Page 5
Lecture No. 4
Lecture No. 5
Lecture No. 6
Lecture No. 7
Lecture No. 8
Lecture No. 9
Lecture No. 10
Lecture No. 11
Lecture No. 12
Lecture No. 13
Lecture No. 14
Lecture No. 15
Lecture No. 16
Lecture No. 17
Lecture No. 18
Lecture No. 19
Lecture No. 20
Lecture No. 21
Lecture No. 22
Lecture No. 23
Lecture No. 24
Lecture No. 25
Lecture No. 26
Lecture No. 27
Lecture No. 28
Lecture No. 29
Lecture No. 30
Lecture No. 31
Lecture No. 32
Page 8
Lecture No. 1
Irrigation Introduction, Importance, Definition & Objectives
1.1 Introduction
Sustainable development and efficient management of water is an increasingly
complex challenge in India. Increasing population, growing urbanization, and rapid
industrialization combined with the need for raising agricultural production generates
competing claims for water. There is a growing perception of a sense of an impending
water crisis in the country. Some manifestations of this crisis are:
a) There is hardly any city which receives a 24-hour supply of drinking water. Besides in
many rural habitations there are pockets where arsenic, nitrate, and fluoride
concentration in drinking water are posing a serious health hazard.
b) Increasing costs of developing new water resource Many major and medium
irrigation projects seem to remain under execution forever as they slip from one plan to
the other with escalating cost and time overruns.
c) Siltation of reservoirs and owing to lack of maintenance, the capacity of the older
irrigation systems seems to be going down.
d) Declining groundwater table due to over-exploitation imposing an increasing financial
burden on farmers who need to deepen their wells and replace their pump sets and on
State Governments whose subsidy burden for electricity supplies rises.
e) Water pollution and degradation of water-related ecosystems - Water in most parts of
rivers is not fit for bathing, let alone drinking. Untreated or partially treated sewage
from towns and cities is being dumped into the rivers. Untreated or inadequately
treated industrial effluents pollute water bodies and also contaminate groundwater,
f) Wasteful use of already developed water supplies, often encouraged by the subsidies
and distorted incentives that influence water use,
g) Rise in water-logging and salinity resulting in degradation of soils in irrigated areas,
h) Increasing water conflicts about water rights between upper and lower riparian states
in a river, conflicts about quality of water, peoples right for rainwater harvesting in a
watershed against downstream users, industrial use of groundwater and its impact on
water tables and conflicts between urban and rural users etc
i) The gross irrigated area does not seem to be rising in a manner that it should be, given
the investment in irrigation. The difference between potential created and area actually
irrigated remains large. Unless we bridge the gap, significant increase in agricultural
production will be difficult to realize.
a) Floods are a recurring problem in many parts of the country. Degradation of catchment
areas and loss of flood plains to urban development and agriculture have accentuated
the intensity of floods.
Page 9
India with 2.4% of the worlds total area has 16% of the worlds population; but has
only 4% of the total available fresh water. This clearly indicates the need for water
resource development, conservation, and optimum use.
thereby
making
more
favourable
b)
c)
d)
e)
Page 11
Lecture No. 2
Water Resources and Irrigation Development in India
2.1 Surface Water Resources
India is blessed with an average annual rainfall of about 1194-mm. However, the
bounty is not evenly spread both in time and space with the result flood-drought-flood
syndrome still persists. As much as 85-90% of the rainfall is received only in the southwest monsoon season of June to October. It is that during the four rainy months of June to
September the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon carries moisture amounting to about
770 million ha meters and the Bay of Bengal branch about 340 million ha meters of water.
Of the monsoon moisture, about 25 30% precipitates in the form of rainfall. During the
remaining eight months an approximate precipitation of 100 million ha meters including a
small portion of snow pour over the country. There are on average 130 rainy days in a year
in the country.
The rainfall when considered over the geographical area of 329 million ha amounts
to 392.8 million ha meters. This may be rounded off to 400 million ha meters including
snowfall whose potential is not yet fully recorded (Fig. 2.1).
meters, which is of the same magnitude as is available to United States of America annually,
though Indias geographical area is only about 40% of that of the United States. This 180
million ha meters includes about 20 million ha meters brought in by streams and rivers
from catchments lying outside the country and about 45 million ha meters pertains to
regenerated flow from groundwater as assessed from river flows during non-rainy months.
The remaining 115 million ha meters constitutes direct contribution by precipitation, of
which about 10 million ha meters is received as snowfall. Of the 180 million ha meters, due
to limitations imposed by topography, climate, soil conditions etc., only about 69 million ha
meters are considered utilizable. The present utilization of the surface water is estimated
to be about 31.12 million ha meters, of which about 95% is used for irrigation with the
remaining being put to other uses. The major surface river basins of India are presented in
Fig. 2.2.
and here again a major portion of 85% is being used for irrigation with the remaining going
for other uses.
The total water resource availability in the country though remained constant, the
per capita availability of water has been steadily declined from 5300 in 1951 to the present
level of 1700 m3 due to population growth, large scale urbanization & rapid
industrialization (Fig. 2.3).
Further, the remains of Indus Valley Civilization that flourished up to 1750 B.C also
revealed the existence of the farm communities in the Indian sub-continent. The Grand
Anicut across the river Cauvery in Tamilnadu was constructed by Chola kings as early as in
the 2nd Century A.D., and was providing irrigation to about 0.24 million hectares, when its
renovation was taken up by the British. Likewise the Viranarayana and GangaikondaCholapuram tanks in Tamilnadu and Anantarajasagara in Andhra Pradesh were
constructed during 10th and 13th Century, respectively. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1220
1250) is credited to be the first ruler who encouraged digging canals. Subsequently in the
14th Century during the reign of Feroz Shah Tughlaq and Shahjahan the development of
canal irrigation was given impetus and the western and Eastern Jamuna Canal in Haryana
was laid out. Maste Canal followed these on the river Ravi during the 18th Century. It was
also noticed that the Chandel Kings in Bundelkhand region constructed large number of
tanks that continued to be used till the 18th Century.
irrigated area went to Pakistan and 19.4 million ha remained with India. To cope up with
the demand of food grains for growing population, a good number of Multipurpose River
Valley Projects viz., Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley and Hirakud dams were initiated soon
after independence. At the beginning of First Five Year Plan in 1950-51 the irrigated area
was 22.6 million ha (9.7 million ha under major and medium irrigation projects and 12.9
million ha under minor irrigation schemes from both surface and groundwater sources).
The post independence era through Five-Year Plans witnessed planned efforts in
irrigation development in the country. The Rajasthan Canal, Gandhisagar Dam, Gandak,
Kosi, Nagarjunasagar, Tungabhadra, Malprabha, Ghataprabha and Farakka irrigation
projects were taken up during the first two Five Year Plans (1950-51 to 1960-61).
Subsequently projects such as Tawa, Ramganga, SriRamsagar, Ukai, Kadana, Teesta, Tehri,
Jayakwadi, Beas, Gandak, Sardar Sarovar, Chambal, Mahi, Mahanadi delta, Idukki, Koyna,
Narmada Sagar Valley etc., were initiated (Table 2.1).
River
Beneficiary States
Satluj
Damodar
Mahanadi
Tungabhadra
Krishna
Kosi
Ganga Bhagirathi
Gandak
Beas
Satluz
Chambal
Tapti
Narmada
Godavari
Malprabha
Mahi
Mahanadi
Periyar
Koyna
Krishna
Cnuisot Stream
Bhilanganga & Bhagirath
Narmada
Tere was therefore a great spurt in irrigated area which increased from 22.6 million
ha in Pre-plan period to 87.23 million ha by the end of the 10th Five Year Plan (34.42
million ha under major & medium irrigation projects and 52.81 minor irrigation schemes)
(Fig. 2.4). With an average irrigation intensity of 140%, the actual net irrigated area is
Page 16
likely to be around 62.31 million ha, which is only 43% of the net sown area of the country
(142 million ha).
According FAO estimates of 2009, out of the total 1628 million ha of cultivated area
in the world, only 17.0% (277 million ha) is under irrigation (Fig. 2.6). The largest irrigated
area in the world is in India (62.3 million ha) followed by China (56 million ha) and USA
(28 million ha) (Fig. 2.6).
Page 18
Lecture No. 3
Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Andhra
Pradesh
3.1 Surface water resources
The state is endowed with a variety of natural resources for irrigation and is
popularly known as the River State. The mean annual rainfall of the state is 940mm.
Major portion (66.4%) of the rainfall is contributed by South-west monsoon from June to
September followed by North-east monsoon (23.8%) from October to December. The rest
9.8% of the rainfall is received during the winter & summer months of January to May.
Further, it has the advantage of having most of the East flowing rivers in the heart of the
state bringing copious supplies from the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan Plateau up
to Bay of Bengal. Of these, the most important major river systems are The Godavari, The
Krishna and The Pennar besides 9 inter state rivers and 28 intra state rivers totaling to
about 40 river basins (Table 3.1).
Catchment
area (Km2)
Per cent of
CA to the
total area
Per
cent
Godavari
73, 201
26.45
4.2470
42470
1500
55
Krishna
74, 382
26.88
2.2660
22660
800
29
Pennar
48, 111
17.39
0.2700
2700
97
3.5
0.2860
2860
101
3.5
81, 006
29.28
0.6800
6800
240
9.0
7.749
77, 490
2, 738
100
Other 9
inter-state
rivers
28 Intrastate rivers
TOTAL
2, 76, 700
100.0
Riparian state
Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa & Karnataka
Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh &
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh &
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka Orissa &
Tamilnadu
Andhra Pradesh
The three major river systems viz., The Godavari, The Krishna and The Pennar
together drain about 70% of the states land area (the Godavari basin accounting for 26%,
the Krishna basin for 27% and the Pennar basin for 17%). The Godavari and Krishna river
systems have major part of their catchment in other states (Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa), whereas; a small part of the catchment of Pennar river
system is in Karnataka State. Since these are inter-state rivers, the availability of water to
Andhra Pradesh State is dependent on established riparian rights. It is assessed that two
major river systems flowing through the state viz., the Godavari and the Krishna contribute
Page 19
about 84% of the utilizable surface water of the state. Besides these, nine other minor
inter-state rivers flowing through the territories of Orissa, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh contribute another 3.5% of the total surface flows. In addition to these 12
inter-state rivers, 28 other smaller river systems, which lie entirely within the state
boundary, contribute the balance 9% of the surface flows (Table 3.1).
Thus, the total surface water wealth available from all the river basins of the state is
therefore, of the order 77490 million m3 (equivalent to 2748 TMC or 7.749 million ha
meters). All the rivers in the state are highly seasonal, and even in the case of perennial
rivers, more than 90% of the total water flows occur during the monsoon period of June to
November. In view of this, construction of expensive retention dams and reservoirs has
been involved for irrigation development in the state.
Page 21
Tanks (0.696
mha)
Others (0.184
mha)
Canals (2.298
mha)
Open wells
(0.871 mha)
2000
69
22
36
23
16
20
4
Tank
s
714
28
6
10
3
3
Neg.
1
Tube
wells
719
258
166
119
59
103
51
35
Open
wells
297
37
81
93
120
18
46
27
2231
772
1969
867
Canals
Rice
Sugarcane
Groundnut
Maize
Cotton
Sunflower
Chillies
Turmeric
Other crops
Total
Total
irrigated
area
(000 ha)
% of irrigated
area under crop
to the total
irrigated area
189
8
6
2
3
1
10
1
3845
400
281
260
208
141
127
68
231
6070
63.3
6.7
4.7
4.3
3.5
2.4
2.1
1.1
8.7
100.0
Others
Page 22
Lecture No. 4
Command Area Development and Water Management
4.1 Introduction
During the post independence period high priority was accorded to increase
agricultural production and productivity for providing food security to the people and as
such a number of irrigation projects were initiated and constructed. The irrigation
potential, which stood at 22.6 million ha till 1950-51 had increased to 33.57 million ha by
the end of Third Five Year Plan. In the later years, during successive Five Year Plans
Government of India realized that in spite of the large investments made in the irrigation
sector and the phenomenal growth in the irrigation potential, there existed a gap between
irrigation potential created (Fig. 4.1) besides the return from the investment both in terms
of agricultural productivity as well as finance were very disappointing. The increasing gap
between irrigation potential created and irrigation potential utilized prompted the
Irrigation Commission in 1972 to make specific recommendations for systematic and
integrated development of commands of irrigation projects. Following this, a Committee of
Ministers in 1973 suggested creation of a broad-based Area Development Authority for
every major irrigation project to undertake the work of comprehensive area development
and management.
On-farm development through systematic land leveling and land shaping of areas
under the projects
Planning & construction of field channels, drains and farm roads
Modernisation, maintenance & efficient operation of irrigation systems
Page 24
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Page 25
Lecture No. 5
Soil Physical Properties Influencing Soil Water Relations
5.1 Introduction
Soil water relations deal with those physical properties of soils and water that affect
movement, retention and absorption of water by plants and which must be considered in
order to plan or improve an irrigation system.
The gaseous or vapour portion of the soil occupies that part of the spaces between
the soils particles not filled with water. This is an important phase of the soil system, as
most plants require some aeration of the root system, with the exception of aquatic plants
such as rice. Irrigation practice is important in maintaining a reasonable balance between
the soil moisture and air.
Finally, soil water and air vary in composition, both in time and space.
Class
Very shallow
Shallow
Moderately deep
Deep
Very deep
A shallow soil has limited moisture holding capacity, restricted feed zone and root
growth, therefore would need frequent irrigations with less water depth. Shallowness of
soil is further unfavourable in areas needing land leveling and shaping because it affects
soil-water relations besides nutrient retention & availability. Deep soil on the other hand,
has good moisture holding capacity, larger feeding zone and good possibilities for
development of root system. Soil depth is also important for interpreting water storage
capacity.
Page 27
Page 28
granular and prismatic structural types are most desirable for efficient irrigation water
management and normal crop growth (Fig. 5.4).
it lowers the porosity in turn the soil water storage capacity; this directly affects the crop
performance particularly where water availability is sub-optimal, which is a characteristic
feature of light soils. The bulk density values for various soil textural classes are given in
Table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Bulk density values of various soil types (USDA - SCS)
Soil texture
1. Sandy
2. Loamy sand
3. Sandy loam
4. Fine sandy loam
5. Loamy soil
6. Silty loam
7. Silty clay loam
8. Sandy clay loam
9. Clay loam
10. Clay soil
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample problem: Calculate the bulk density from the following data
Fresh weight of soil = 2501g; Weight of water = 750g; Height of core = 10cm and Diameter
of the core = 12cm
Answer:
!"# $%&'()* +/-. /0
3456 7 845
6846
1$'
6. 4:; +/-.
2)
665. :
665. :
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Soil total porosity A is an index of pore volume in the soil. It is the space in a given
volume of soil that is occupied by air and water or not occupied by the soil solids. The total
porosity is calculated as follows:
/0
0!"# $%&'()*
porosity, the movement of air and water is surprisingly rapid because of the dominance of
the macro pores. Therefore the size of the individual pore spaces rather than their
combined volume is an important consideration for optimum soil-water relations. For ideal
conditions of aeration, permeability, drainage and water distribution, a soil should have
about equal amount of macro and micro pore spaces.
Knowledge of porosity in a given volume of soil is very important with respect to
irrigation water management, because it is an index of moisture storage capacity and
aeration conditions, the two most important factors that influence the plant growth and
development.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample problem:
Given Bulk density = 1.32 g cm-2 and particle density = 2.65 g cm-2. Calculate what part of
the soil is pore space (%).
Answer:
6. 3
BC)D" EC=C'()* F% H6 7
I 655 45. 6J%
3. @4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 32
Lecture No. 6
Water Retention in Soil
6.1 Adhesion & Cohesion
Hydrogen bonding accounts for two basic forces responsible for water retention and
movement in soils:
Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and solid surfaces
Cohesion: Attraction of water molecules for each other.
By adhesion some water molecules are held rigidly at the surfaces of soil solids. In turn
these tightly bound water molecules hold by cohesion other water molecules farther away
from the solid surfaces (Fig. 6.1).
remove water from the soil. Several units have been used to express the force (energy)
with which water is held in the soil. A common means of expressing tension is in terms of a
bar, which equals the pressure exerted by a vertical water column. For instance, a pressure
of one bar is approximately equal to the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a vertical column
of water having a height of 1023 cm or a hydraulic head of 1023 cm. Similarly 1.0 bar is
equivalent to 0.9869 atmospheres. This value approximates the standard atmosphere,
which is the average air pressure at sea level i.e., equal to 14.7 lbs/in2 or a mercury head of
76 cm or 760mm. The suction of water having a height of 10cm is equal to 0.01 bars or 10
millibars, that of a column of 100 cm high about 0.1 bar or 100millibars. Similarly 1.0 bar is
equal to 100 centibars. Thus the higher the height of water column or bars or atmospheres
the greater the tension or suction measured.
6.3 pF
In attempting to express the matric potential (or soil moisture tnsion) of soil water
in terms of an equivalent hydraulic head (or energy per unit weight), it is understood that
this head may be of the order of 100 cm or even 100000 cm of water. To avoid the use of
such cumbersomely large numbers, Schofield (1935) suggested the use of pF (by anology
with the pH acidity scale), which is defined as the logarithm of the negative pressure (soil
water tension or suction) head in cm of water. A tension of 10 cm of water is, thus, equal to
a pF of 1. Likewise, a tension head of 1000 cm is equal to a pF of 3, and so forth.
Approximate equivalents among expressions of soil water tension are given below in Table
6.1.
Soil water
potential (kPa)
1
10
33
102
1534
3171
Hydraulic
head (cm)
10.2
102
337
1023
15345
31713
pF value
1.0
2.0
2.52
3.0
4.2
4.5
Fig. 6.2. Soil moisture characteristic curves for soils varying in texture
The soil moisture characteristic curve is strongly affected by soil texture. The
greater the clay content, in general, the greater the water retention at any particular
suction, and the more gradual the slope of the curve (Fig. 6.2). In a sandy soil, most of the
pores are relatively large, and once these large pores are emptied at a given suction, only a
small amount of water remains. In a clay soil, the pore size distribution is more uniform,
and more of the water is adsorbed, so that increasing the suction causes a more gradual
decrease in water content.
The soil moisture characteristic curves have marked practical significance. They
illustrate retention-energy (suction) relationships, which influence various field processes,
the two most important of which are the movement of water in soils and the uptake and
utilization of water by plants. Thus help in scientific scheduling of irrigations to field crops
at optimum time and in proper quantity.
Page 35
Lecture No. 7
Water Movements in Soil
7.1 Infiltration
Infiltration is the entry of fluid from one medium to another. In irrigation practice it
is the term applied to the process of water entry into the soil, generally by downward flow
through all or part of the soil surface is termed as infiltration.
Infiltration rate or infiltrability is defined as the volume of water flowing into the
profile per unit of soil surface area per unit time. It is mathematically expressed as:
(
K
LMB
Where,
( = Infiltration rate (mm or cm/min or h)
K = Volume quantity of water (m3) infiltrating,
L = Area of the soil surface (m2) exposed to infiltration, and
B = Time (min or h).
steady state infiltration rate for various soil types is given in Table 7.1. The factors
influencing infiltration rate are time from the onset of rain or irrigation, initial water
content, hydraulic conductivity, presence of impeding layers in the profile and vegetative
cover.
7.2 Seepage
The lateral movement of water through soil pores or small cracks in the soil profile
under unsaturated condition is known as seepage.
7.3 Permeability
It indicates the relative ease with which air and water penetrate or pass through the
soil pores. Permeability of soils is generally classified as rapid, moderate and slow. Thus
the permeability is rapid in coarse textured soils and slow in fine textured soils.
gravity and hydrostatic pressure is termed as deep percolation. Sandy soils facilitate
greater percolation when compared to clayey soils due to dominance of macro pores.
Likewise the loss of water by percolation in cropped fields is generally less than that in
bare soils.
>6 7 >3
O
Where, V is Darcy's velocity (or the average velocity of the soil fluid through a geometric
cross-sectional area within the soil), h1 and h2 are hydraulic heads, and L is the vertical
distance in the soil through which flow takes place. The coefficient of proportionality, K, in
the equation is called the hydraulic conductivity.
are different. For example a clay soil with a large proportion of fine pores shows poor
hydraulic conductivity as compared to a sandy soil with higher proportion of larger pores
(Fig. 7.3). Higher bulk density and massive structure reduce the hydraulic conductivity of
the soil. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for a particular soil is always constant, whereas
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a function of soil water content (Fig. 7.3).
K
LN'D)
O
)
Where, A is the cross-sectional area of the column through which the water flows, K sat is
the saturated hydraulic conductivity, is the change in water potential between the ends
of the column (for example, 6 7 3 , and O is the length of column) (Fig. 7.4).
For a given column, the rate of flow is determined by the ease with which the soil
transmits water (Ksat) and the amount of force driving the water, namely the water
potential gradient /L. For saturated flow this force may also be called the hydraulic
gradient. By analogy, think of pumping water through a garden hose, with Ksat
representing the size of the hose (water flows more readily through a larger hose) and
/L representing the size of the pump that drives the water through the hose. The units
in which K sat is measured are length/time, typically cm/s or cm/h.
any water movement or flow taking place under this soil condition is referred to as
unsaturated flow. Under field conditions most of the soil water movements occurs only
when the soil pores are not completely saturated with water. However, water movement
under these conditions is very sluggish compared to that when the soil is at saturation. This
is because at or near zero tension, the tension at which saturated flow occurs the hydraulic
conductivity is orders of magnitude greater than at tensions of 0.1 bars and above, which
characterize unsaturated flow.
Lecture No. 8
Physical Classification of Water
8.1 Introduction
The water held within the soil pores is referred to as soil moisture. The manner in
which it is held in the soil and to what extent it is translocated into plant system forms a
basis of observation of drying of wet soils and of plants growing on these soils, water may
be divided into three categories viz., gravitational water, capillary water and hygroscopic
water (Fig. 8.1).
field capacity (0.33 bars or 33 kPa) and hygroscopic coefficient (31 bars or 3100 kPa)
(Fig. 8.1). However, the water within the capillary range is not equally available i.e., it is
readily available starting from 0.33 bars up to a certain point often referred to as critical
soil moisture level (for most crops it varies between 20 to 50% depletion of available soil
moisture) and thereafter up to 15 bars (1500 kPa) it is slowly available. Further below,
when the soil exerts tensions between 15 bars and 31 bars, the water is held very tightly in
thin films and is practically not available for plant use. The capillary water moves in any
direction but always in the direction of increasing tension and decreasing potential.
Page 42
Lecture No. 9
Soil Moisture Constants
9.1 Introduction
The water contents expressed under certain standard conditions are commonly
referred to as soil moisture constants. They are used as reference points for practical
irrigation water management. The usage of these constants together with the energy status
of soil water gives useful knowledge. These constants are briefly explained below:
available to the plants owing to quick drainage. The available soil moisture is expressed as
depth of water per unit of soil and is calculated according the following formula:
LQD("D0"% RC(" SC(')!=% ../$%E)> CF 'C("
Where,
XY XZ[\] ^_`_^Zab cdZeafg[ %dh di[h ]gb j[Zkla m_eZe
non n[gc_h[ha jZ\aZhk `dZha cdZeafg[ %dh di[h ]gb j[Zkla m_eZe
pm edZ\ mf\q ][heZab k/^cr
]e s[`al dA edZ\ ^c
tuv ti_Z\_m\[ edZ\ cdZeafg[ cc/c ][`al dA edZ\
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample problem
A soil has an average soil moisture content of 36.5% at field capacity and 13.5 % at
permanent wilting point on dry weight basis. The bulk density of the soil is 1.6g cm-3. Find
out the available soil per meter depth of soil profile.
Answer:
XY 7 non w pm w ]e
36.5 7 13.5w 1.6 w 100
288 cc/c ][`al dA edZ\
10
10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------tuv
The field capacity moisture content, permanent wilting point, available soil moisture
and infiltration rates in different soil types is given in Table 9.1.
Saturation
capacity (%)
FC
(%)
PWP
(%)
60
50
45
42
40
38
40
30
22
14
10
6
20
15
12
6
4
2
ASM
%
20
15
10
8
6
4
mm/m
200
150
100
80
60
40
Infiltration
rate (mm/hr)
3
37
7 12
12 20
20 30
30
Page 45
temperature, expressed in terms of percentage on an oven dry basis. The matric suction of
soil water at this moisture content is nearly about 31 bars.
Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1950) proposed that soil water is equally available
to plants equally throughout a definable range of soil wetness, from an upper limit
FC to a lower limit PWP, both of which are characteristic and constant for a given
soil (Curve a in Fig. 9.3). According to this theory, plant functions remain
unaffected by any decrease in soil wetness until PWP is reached, at which plant
activity is curtailed, often abruptly.
Other investigators notably Richards and Wadleigh (1952) indicated that soil
water availability to plants actually decreases with decreasing soil wetness and that
a plant may suffer water stress before wilting is reached (Curve c in Fig. 9.3).
Still others attempted to divide available range of soil wetness into readily
available and decreasingly available zones and searched for a critical level
somewhere between FC and PWP as an additional criterion of soil water availability
(Curve b in Fig. 9.3).
Page 46
Lecture No. 10
Measurement of Soil Moisture
10.1 Introduction
The measurement of soil moisture is needed to determine when to irrigate and the
amount of water needed when irrigating, to evaluate evapotranspiration, and to monitor
soil matric potential. The soil moisture is measured in two ways direct and indirect
methods as follows:
1.' 7 1$'
1%(+>) CF .C(') 'C(" 7 1%(+>) CF CQ%& $=* 'C("
W 655
W 655
1$'
1%(+>) CF CQ%& $=* 'C("
Page 47
The volumetric water content i is defined as the volume of water present in a
given volume (usually 1 m3) of dry soil. When i multiplied by 100 it gives volume water
percentage. This method involves collecting soil sample from the field using core sampler
of known volume from representative depths in the root zone and then determining its
moist and dry weights and calculating the volume wetness by the following relationship:
Q
1.' 7 1$'
W 655
2) W /
Q
To calculate the volume water content from gravimetric water content, we need to
know the bulk density pm of dried soil and is calculated as follows:
Q . W /0 =DQ(.%)=(- D)%= -C&)%&) ? 0!"# $%&'()*
Because in the field we think of plant root systems as exploring a certain depth of
soil, and because we express precipitation and irrigation components, as depth of water
(for example mm of rain or irrigation), it is often convenient to express the volumetric
water content as a depth ratio (depth of water per unit depth of soil). Conveniently, the
numerical values for these two expressions are the same. For example, for a soil containing
0.1 m3 of water per m3 of soil (10% by volume) the depth ratio of water is 0.1 m of water
per metre depth of soil.
%E)> CF D)%= ..E%= !&() 'C(" $%E)> $' . W /0 W $' Q W $'
Merits
Ease of handling
Low cost
Minimum technical skill required
Standard method of soil moisture determination with which other methods are
compared
Demerits
Time consuming
Accuracy is subject to weighing and sampling errors
Destructive soil sampling method
Laborious
Page 48
Relatively inexpensive
Easy to install
Gives quick readings
Suitable for irrigation scheduling to crops raised in fine textured soils
Demerits
soil, quickly forming a cloud of constant density around the probe. The density of sow
neutrons formed around the probe is nearly proportional to the concentration of hydrogen
in the medium surrounding the probe, and therefore approximately proportional to the
volume fraction of water present in the soil. The slowed or thermalized neutrons are
detected by slow neutron detector containing BF3 gas, which is then transmitted through
electric pulses to the scaler and is displayed as moisture content.
Less laborious
Rapid results
Non-destructive method after initial installation
Repeated measurements can be made at the same location and depth
Independent of temperature and pressure
Demerits
10.3.3 Tensiometer
The tensiometer is an instrument designed to provide a continuous indication of the
soils matric suction (also called soil-moisture tension) in situ (Fig. 10.4). The essential
parts of Tensiometer are shown in Fig. 10.4. The tensiometer consists of a porous ceramic
cup, connected through a tube to a vacuum gauge (or manometer), all parts filled with
water. When the cup is placed in the soil where the suction measurement is to be made, the
water inside the cup comes into hydraulic contact and tends to equilibrate with soil water
through the pores in the ceramic walls. When initially placed in the soil, the water
contained in the tensiometer is generally at atmospheric pressure (essentially, 0 bars
tension). Soil water, being generally at substmospheric pressure (or higher tension),
exercises a suction, which draws out a certain amount of water from the rigid and air tight
tensiometer. Consequently, the pressure inside the tensiometer falls below atmospheric
pressure. The subpressure is indicated by a vacuum gauge or manometer. A Tensiometer
left in the soil for a period of time tends to track the changes in the soils matric suction. As
soil moisture is depleted by drainage or plant uptake, or as it is replenished by rainfall or
irrigation, corresponding readings on the Tensiometer gauge occur.
Merits
Page 52
Suitable for scheduling irrigations to crops raised in coarse textured soils where
majority of ASM is between 0 0.8 bars or 0 to 80 kPa or centibars and requiring
frequent irrigations
Demerits
Page 53
Lecture No. 11
Soil Plant and Plant Water Relations
11.1 Introduction
To design a successful irrigation system, it is essential to know the plant rooting
characteristics, effective root zone depth, moisture extraction pattern and moisture
sensitive periods of crops.
c) Water table: A high water table limits root growth, and a rising water table may kill
roots that have previously grown below the new water level (Fig. 11.1).
d) Toxic substances: Presence of toxic substances in the sub-soil also limits root growth
and development. Saline layers or patches in the soil profile therefore inhibit or prevent
root penetration and proliferation.
Crop (s)
Cauliflower, Cabbage, Onion, Potato, Lettuce, Rice
Moderately deep rooted Carrots, French bean, Garden pea, Chilli, Muskmelon,
(90cm)
Tobacco, Wheat, Castor, banana, and Groundnut
Deep rooted (120cm)
Maize,
Sorghum,
layers is usually more as compared to lower layers. Since water also evaporates from upper
few inches of soil, it is lost rapidly from the upper layers. As the amount of moisture in the
upper part of root zone in the vicinity of roots is diminished, soil moisture tension
increases and a moisture suction gradient is created between the upper layers and the far
away lower layer from where moisture has not been extracted previously. This causes
water to move towards the upper layers to attain equilibrium between two zones, thus, the
plants get moisture from lower parts of the root zone.
In uniform soils that are fully supplied with available soil moisture, plants use water
rapidly from the upper part of the root zone and slowly from the extreme lower part. The
basic moisture extraction curve indicates that for all crop plants growing in a uniform soil
with adequate available water supply exhibits similar moisture-extraction pattern. The
usual extraction pattern (Fig. 11.2) shows that about 40% of the soil moisture extracted is
contributed from upper quarter of the root zone, 30% from the second quarter, 20% from
the third quarter, and 10% from the bottom quarter. Values for individual crops may vary
within the range of 10%.
Page 56
stages. These are known as moisture sensitive periods or critical growth stages for
moisture.
Critical growth period is the stage or stages of growth of the crop at which moisture
stress has the greatest effect on quality & quantity of yield. Therefore, any stress during
these stages will irrevocably reduce the yield and provision of adequate water and other
management practices at other growth stages will not compensate the yield lost.
In general moisture stress during germination and early seedling stage may have
deleterious effect on field crop emergence and plant establishment because of soil crusting
and small root system resulting in low plant population per unit area. Stress during
vegetative stage has little effect on subsequent production unless it is so severe as to
drastically reduce leaf area index and leaf area duration. Moisture stress during flowering
causes flowers drop & pollen desiccation and affects fertilization; while that during grain
development leads to production of shriveled grains and low mean test weight. Critical
stages for various fields, vegetable and fruit crops are presented in Table 11.2, which serve
as a guideline for management of limited water supplies.
Page 57
Lecture No. 12
Evapotranspiration
12.1 Evapotranspiration (ET = Evaporation + Transpiration)
Evaporation is a diffusive process by which water from natural surfaces, such as free
water surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation foliage (intercepted water, dewfall,
guttation etc) is lost in the form of vapour to the atmosphere. It is one of the basic
components of hydrologic cycle.
Likewise transpiration is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour
through plant surfaces, particularly leaves. In this process water is essentially absorbed by
the plant roots due to water potential gradients and it moves upward through the stem and
is ultimately lost into the atmosphere through numerous minute stomata in the plant
leaves (Fig. 12.1). It is basically an evaporation process. However, unlike evaporation from
a water or soil surface, plant structure and stomatal behaviour operating in conjunction
with the physical principles governing evaporation modify transpiration.
Page 59
Page 60
b) Stomatal number and size: Most leaves of productive crops have many stomata on
both sides of their leaves. Stomatal number and size, which are affected by both
genotype and environment, have much less effect on stomatal transpiration than
stomatal opening and closing.
c) Leaf area or canopy cover: The higher the leaf surface area, the greater the
transpiration owing to more transpiring surface. However, the increase in water loss
for each unit increase in the leaf area index is less. It has been shown that ET crop will
not increase with increase in the leaf area index over that required intercepting 85% of
solar radiation.
d) Adaptive mechanisms: Many plants have mechanisms in leaves that favour reduced
transpiration when water becomes limiting. For example some grass species, like maize
& sorghum reduce their exposed leaf area by leaf rolling. While crops with broad leaves
have other mechanisms to reduce water loss; for example, soybean has a tendency to
roll the leaves upside down so the silvery pubescence (hair) on the exposed lower
surface can reflect more light i.e., albedo and reduce energy load.
e) Rooting depth and proliferation: The availability and extraction of soil moisture by
the crop is highly dependent on rooting depth and proliferation. Deeper rooting
increases water availability and root proliferation (roots per unit soil volume) increases
water extraction from a unit volume of soil before permanent wilting occurs. Therefore
higher rooting depth & proliferation ensures higher water extraction hence promotes
transpiration.
f) Length of growing season: As the crop duration increases the amount of water needed
for completion of its life cycle increases, hence, the ET crop increases.
c) Wind breaks: Artificial and vegetative wind breaks Reduce wind velocities downward
from it. This may reduce ET crop by about 5% to 30% under windy, warm, dry
conditions depending on the horizontal downward distance from the wind break.
However, in most cases shrubs and trees are used and, due to transpiration of the
vegetative barrier, overall ET crop may be more.
d) Anti-transpirants: The use of anti-transpirants, natural or artificially induced
variations in plant foliage properties and soil conditioners to reduce ET crop are found
to be effective, but cheap and practically suitable materials for field application are yet
be identified.
e) Salinity: The ET crop can be affected by soil salinity since the soil water uptake by the
plant can be drastically reduced due to higher osmotic potential of saline water.
Reduced water uptake under saline conditions is shown by symptoms similar to those
caused by drought, such as early wilting, leaf burning, a bluish-green colour in some
plants, reduced growth and small leaves. The same level of soil salinity can cause more
damage under high than under low evaporative conditions. The negative effect of soil
salinity can be partly offset by maintaining a higher soil water regime in the root zone
to maintain the optimal ET crop values.
Lecture No. 13
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
13.1 Introduction
Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly
computed from weather data. A large number of empirical or semi-empirical equations
have been developed for assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from
meteorological data. Numerous researchers have analysed the performance of the various
calculation methods for different locations. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in
May 1990, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is now recommended as the standard
method for the definition and computation of the reference evapotranspiration, ETo. Some
of the methods which are only valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and
cannot be applied under conditions different from those under which they were originally
developed were also discussed below.
reference surface. The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo
is a climatic parameter and can be computed from weather data.
ETo expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a specific location and
time of the year and does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors. Typical
ranges for ETo values for different agroclimatic regions are given in Table 13.1.
3-5
4-6
57
68
1-2
1-3
2-4
4-7
47
69
&
D$(D)(C&
Where:
ETo
W
Rn
f(u)
(ea ed)
=
=
=
=
=
L%=C$*&D.(-
Page 66
Page 67
Lecture No. 14
Crop Coefficients
14.1 Crop coefficient
Crop coefficient refers to the ratio between crop evapotranspiration and reference
crop evapotranspiration. It is calculated as follows:
U=CE -C%FF(-(%&) N-
U=CE QDEC)=D&'E(=D)(C&
B
%F%=%&-% U=CE QDEC)=D&'E(=D)(C& B
Crop coefficient curve is constructed by dividing crop growing period into four
growth periods and placing straight line segments through each of these periods with the
lines through the initial and mid-season periods being horizontal. The four growth stages
of crop growing period are as follows:
a) Initial period planting to 10% ground cover
b) Crop development 10% ground cover to effective cover i.e., flowering
c) Mid-season Effective cover to start of maturity i.e., senescence of leaves
d) Late season Start of maturity to harvest.
Crop coefficient values vary with the development stage of the crop. In the case of
annual crops, Kc is typically low at seedling, emergence and establishment stage, increases
with increase in ground cover and attains maximum value at mid-season stage and
thereafter decreases towards ripening and maturity stage (Fig. 14.1).
differences in reflectivity, crop height and roughness, degree of ground cover and canopy
resistance to transpiration. Crop coefficient values for various crops are presented in Table
14.1.
Table 14.1. FAO Crop Coefficients (Kc) for major crops (Allen et.al., 1998)
Crop
Kernel
development &
maturity period
30
0.80
5.40
4.32
129.6
Page 69
Lecture No. 15
Water Requirements
15.1 Water requirement
It is defined as the quantity of water regardless of its source, required by a crop or
diversified pattern of crops in a given period of time for its normal growth & development
under field conditions at a given place. In other words it is the total quantity of water
required to mature an adequately irrigated crop. It is expressed in depth per unit time.
Water requirement, if considered as a demand, it includes the quantity of water
needed to meet the losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during the
application of irrigation water (unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of water
required for special operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts
below the crop root zone, frost control etc.
1 B C= U! LEE"(-D)(C& OC''%' RE%-(D" &%%$'
Water requirement
(mm)
Rice
Wheat
Sorghum
Maize
Sugarcane
Sugarbeet
Groundnut
Cotton
Soybean
Tobacco
Beans
1200
450 650
450 650
500 800
1500 2500
550 750
500 700
700 1300
450 700
400 600
300 500
Crop
Tomato
Potato
Pea
Onion
Chillies
Cabbage
Banana
Citrus
Grapes
Mango
Turmeric
Water
requirement
(mm)
600 800
500 700
350 500
350 550
400 600
380 500
1200 2200
900 1200
700 1200
1000 1200
1200 1400
Page 70
(6
SF- 7 S0(
W /0( W $'(
65
Where,
= Net irrigation requirement to be applied at each irrigation (mm)
&
= Number of soil layers considered in root zone depth ds
SF- = Gravimetric moisture percentage at field capacity in ith layer
S0( = Gravimetric moisture percentage just before irrigation in ith layer
/0( = Soil bulk density in ith soil layer (g/cm3)
$'(
= Depth of ith soil layer (cm)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem
From the data given below calculate the net irrigation requirement.
Soil depth
Field
Moisture content
Bulk density
(cm)
capacity
before irrigation
(g/cm3)
(%)
(%)
0 25
21.4
14.5
1.45
25 50
20.5
13.4
1.47
50 75
18.6
15.2
1.51
75 100
18.5
15.5
1.54
Page 71
Answer:
36. : 7 6:. 4
? 6. :4 ? 34 34. 56 ..
65
35. 4 7 6. :
? 6. :8 ? 34 3@. 5; ..
65
6J. @ 7 64. 3
? 6. 46 ? 34 63. J ..
65
6J. 4 7 64. 4
? 6. 4: ? 34 66. 44 ..
65
NIR in soil profile (0 100 cm) = 25.01 + 26.09 + 12.83 + 11.55 = 75.48 mm
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%) (==(+D)(C& =%!(=%.%&)
? 655
? 655
D
==(+D)(C& LEE"(-D)(C& FF(-(%&-*
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem:
Given
= 84.5 mm
= 65%
Answer:
J:. 4
? 655 65 ..
@4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 72
It is taken as the basis for designing irrigation system capacity. Irrigation systems
are to be designed in such a way that the irrigation period is not greater than irrigation
interval.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem:
Given
a) Net irrigation requirement
= 65.5 mm
b) Peak period Cu
= 7.2 mm
c) Calculate irrigation period
Answer:
==(+D)(C& E%=(C$
@4. 4
;. 6 ~ ; $D*'
8. 3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 73
Lecture No. 16
Duty of Water And Conjunctive Use of Water
16.1 Duty of water
It is the relationship between the irrigation water and the area of the crop that
matures fully with the given amount of water. Duty is expressed as follows:
1. Area per unit rate of flow (ha/cumec)
2. Depth of water or Delta (ha/depth of water)
3. In terms of stored water (ha/million m3 of stored water)
2
L
? 3: ? @5 ? @5
J. @: . J@:
-.
? 65555
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem
A tank has a water spread area of 40 ha with an average depth of 3m of water.
Calculate the area of rice (120 days base period) that can be irrigated if the duty is
expressed as:
a) 960 ha m3/sec; b) 110 ha cm; and c) 90 ha/million m3 of water.
Answer:
BC)D" DQD("D0"% D)%= :5 ? ? 655 >D. -.
%")D
L=%D
-. J@:
635
65J -.
;@5
:5 ? ? 655
666 >D
65J
Page 74
L=%D
:5 ? ? 655
65; >D
665
:5 ? 6555 .3 ?
L=%D
6. 3 .(""(C& . W ;5 >D 65J >D
65, 55, 555
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 75
Lecture No. 17
Effective Rainfall
17.1 Introduction
The primary source of water for agricultural crop production in most parts of the
world is rainfall. All the rainwater, however, cannot be useful for crop production. The
extent of the rainfall received and its utility in crop production in a given location
determines its effectiveness. In simplest terms, effective rainfall means useful or utilizable
rainfall. From the point of view of the crop water requirement Dastane (1974) has defined
effective rainfall as that portion of the total annual or seasonal rainfall which is
useful directly and/or indirectly for meeting the crop water needs in crop
production at the site where it falls but without pumping. It therefore includes water
intercepted by living or dry vegetation, that lost by evaporation from puddles on soil
surface, lost by evapotranspiration during crop growth, that fraction which contributes to
leaching & percolation or facilitates other cultural operations either before or after sowing
without any harmful effect on yield and quality of the field crops. Consequently ineffective
rainfall is that portion, which is lost by surface runoff, unnecessary deep percolation losses,
the moisture remaining in the soil after the harvest of the crop and which is not useful for
the succeeding crop. This concept of effective rainfall is suggested for use in planning and
operation of irrigation projects.
c)
d)
e)
f)
leveled land and this has longer opportunity time than on slopping land, leading to
higher fraction of effective rain than on undulating lands.
Soil characteristics: Higher infiltration and permeability rates increase effectiveness
of rainfall. Fraction of the effective rainfall increases with increasing water holding
capacity of the soil. The proportion of effective rainfall is lower in irrigated than the
unirrigated areas where there is often greater deficiency of soil moisture.
Ground water characteristics: The amount of effective rainfall is greater when the
water table is deep than when it is shallow. Upward capillary movement of water
decreases the deficit of moisture and hence the amount of effective rainfall.
Management practices: Any management practice influencing runoff, infiltration,
permeability or evapotranspiration also influences the degree of effective rainfall.
Bunding, terracing, ploughing, ridging and mulching reduce runoff and increase
effective rainfall.
Crop characteristics: Higher crop ET rates create greater depletion of soil moisture.
Hence, effective rainfall is directly proportional to the rate of water uptake by the crop.
Degree of ground cover, root zone depth and growth stage influences the rate of water
uptake. Rainfall which reduces the yield (such as downpours which often cause lodging
in cereals when the latter are at the grain formation stage) must be regarded as
ineffective
removed, thus allowing percolation below the root zone. Further for drum D outlet pipes
are fitted at 0.5cm intervals to the above 31 32 cm for precise water control. These outlet
pipes can be connected to a water receiver. The drums are filled with the representative
soil compacted to field density and rice seedlings are transplanted in drum A, C and D,
along with the adjoining field crop. Whereas in drum B rice plants are transplanted every
week selected from the bulk crop surrounding the drums. However before transplanting
remove the roots of rice plants. These rootless plants in drum B shade the soil as plants in
other drums and affect the evaporation. Water levels in the drums are maintained at the
same level as outside.
The drum D is intended to measure the ineffective rainfall. The height of the rice
crop and height of the field bunds govern the maximum depth of submergence, whichever
is less. Any rainfall which submerges the crop beyond a predetermined level or which
exceeds the height of the bunds is ineffective. As the height of the crop increases, the
outlets are plugged till the bund height becomes the limiting factor. The water level is set at
a selected height in drum D. This height can be adjusted with increase in growth of plants.
Evapotranspiration and percolation continue and create a deficit every day. When rain
falls, it first makes up this deficit and the surplus flows out through the outlet pipes, this is
termed as ineffective rainfall. If there are no rains, the water level in drum D will gradually
reach the soil surface and the crop will be irrigated according to normal practice. Water
level in the drums is measured every day and losses due to ET and percolation are
replaced.
a) Difference in water level in drum A = Daily Evapotranspiration
b) Difference in water level in drum B = Daily Evaporation
c) Difference in water level in drum C = Total daily water needs
d) Difference in water level between drum A and B = Daily Transpiration
e) Difference in water level between drum A and C = Daily Percolation losses
f) Ineffective rainfall = Water collected in receiver tank from outlet pipes of drum D
g) Effective Rainfall = Total rainfall received Ineffective rainfall
Page 78
Lecture No. 18
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops Soil Water Regime Approach
18.1 Introduction
Scientific irrigation scheduling is a technique providing knowledge on correct time
and optimum quantity of water application at each irrigation to optimize crop yields with
maximum water use efficiency and at the same time ensuring minimum damage to the soil
properties.
However, criteria most suitable for scheduling irrigations would vary with soils,
plants, climatic and management factors.
c) It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation (leaching) to
a minimum.
d) It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
e) It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage requirements.
f) It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled leaching.
g) It results in additional returns by using the saved water to irrigate non-cash crops
that otherwise would not be irrigated during water-short periods.
irrigations are scheduled. Though it is a crude method it can be used satisfactorily for some
purpose if experience is backed by other local information. Further this method is
subjective. Thus, different people who examine the same soil condition may obtain
different answers.
Table 18.1. Guidelines for judging soil moisture by feel & appearance of soil
Table 18.3. Threshold soil moisture tension values for scheduling irrigation
S.No.
1.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Crop
Sugarcane
Maize
Cotton
Sorghum
Tobacco
Soybean
Wheat
Potato
Depth of maximum
rooting density (cm)
30
30
30
60
30
30
30
30
Page 82
Lecture No. 19
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops Climatological Approach
19.1 Introduction
The potential rate of water loss from a crop is primarily a function of evaporative
demand of the atmosphere under adequate soil water conditions. Thus in this method the
water loss expressed in terms of either potential evapotranspiration (PET) or cumulative
pan evaporation (CPE) over short periods of time are taken as an index for scheduling
irrigations. Different climatological approaches are described below:
19.1.1.1 Lysimeter
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes
that are difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be
determined with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in
isolated tanks filled with either disturbed or undisturbed soil (Fig. 19.1).
Page 83
Different types of lysimeters vary widely in the accuracy with which changes in soil
water are detected. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly
measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy of a
few hundredths of a millimetre, and small time periods such as an hour can be considered.
In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined
by deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total
water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately
outside of the lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). Lysimeters
provide the direct estimates of water balance components viz., E, T, ET, drainage, runoff,
effective rainfall etc in a cropped field against which other methods can be tested and
calibrated. As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and
maintenance require special care, their use is limited to specific research purposes.
Page 85
Lecture No. 20
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops Plant Indices Approach
20.1 Introduction
The plant in one form or the other expresses water deficits in the soil, since it is the
one, which is affected by the water, stress. Any plant character, related directly or
indirectly to water deficits and which responds readily to the integrated influences of soil
water, plant and environmental parameters may serve as a criterion for timing irrigation to
crops. Some of the plant indices commonly used are discussed below:
Fig. 20.1. Rolling of leaves in maize and change of leaf angle in beans
volume is added to the dug up soil and mixed well. The pit is then filled back with the
mixture and while filling up every 15 cm layer is well compacted, so that the soil in the pit
retains the original bulk density as that of surrounding soil. Crop is sown normally and is
allowed to grow as usual with the rest of the field. As and when the plants in the mini-plot
show wilting symptoms it is taken as a warning of impending water need and cropped field
is irrigated.
It depends on the lag between evaporative demand of the atmosphere and the
rate of water absorption by the roots and has been found to be one of the reliable
indices of plant water stress for scheduling irrigation. For instance the critical RWC
level (below which reduction in growth occurs) for cotton and sesame was 72% and
75% respectively. Whenever the plant exhibits these values, irrigations can be
scheduled. However, the main drawback is it is tedious and time consuming.
Page 87
For maize it is shown that if the canopy temperature rises to more than 0.70C over
ambient temperature during 1330 to 1400 hours irrigations need to be scheduled.
However, tomato showed no sensitivity to water stress with respect to temperature
variations.
Page 89
Lecture No. 21
Surface Methods of Irrigation
21.1 Introduction
Surface irrigation method refers to the manner or plan of water application by
gravity flow to the cultivated land wetting either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or
part of the field (furrows, basins, border strips). Most irrigated areas have characteristic
land features and differ from those in other areas. Hence, for efficient application of water
it is important to select such method of irrigation, which fits ones own land. In doing so it
may be necessary, or desirable, to use more than one method of irrigation in an area or a
given farm (Fig. 21.1).
ridges between furrows. If the salt accumulation reaches harmful levels, planting is
advocated on the relatively salt free bottom of the furrows following pre-plant irrigation.
Advantages
1. Fairly high irrigation application efficiency among surface irrigation methods
2. Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy rainfall
3. Low evaporation losses
Disadvantages
1. Not suitable in coarse textured soils with high infiltration rates
2. Possibility of intra-furrow soil erosion
3. Labour intensive
21.3.5 Corrugations
This is a special method of furrow irrigation. Corrugations or rills are shallow
furrows running down the slope from head ditches or laterals, which are sometimes very
close to each other (Fig. 21.6).
Page 95
21.4 Sub-irrigation
Sub-irrigation is the method of applying water beneath the soil surface; close to the
plant roots so that either water seeps from the sides of the channels towards the plant
roots or through capillary movement upward. It is usually done by creating an artificial
water surface at some pre-determined depth, about 30 75 cm below the ground,
depending upon the texture and rooting characteristics of the crop. Application efficiencies
vary from 30-80% depending upon conditions. Water having high salt content cannot be
used. This method is expensive, difficult to maintain and operate, and suitable only for few
crops. Because of high investment required, it has not been widely adopted in India.
Page 96
Lecture No. 22
Sprinkler Method of Irrigation
22.1 Introduction
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to
natural rainfall (Fig. 22.1). Water is conveyed under desired pressure (2 to 5 kg/cm2)
developed by a pump through a network of pipes, called mainlines and submains to one or
more laterals and is sprayed in to the air through sprinkler nozzles or perforations so that
it breaks up in to small water drops (0.5 to 4mm in size) which fall over the land or crop
surface in an uniform pattern at a rate (0.06-5000 LPH) less than the infiltrability of soil.
The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a
uniform application of water.
Fig. 22.2. Centre pivot, Linear move and traveler sprinkler irrigation
systems
Page 97
22.2 Advantages
a) Elimination of field channels and their maintenance, which increase the production
area
b) Harmful ditch weeds, which have allelopethic effects, do not appear with sprinkler
irrigation.
c) No water losses in conveyance, which amounts to 35% in surface irrigation methods
d) Close control over water application i.e., no runoff losses because water is applied
below or equal to infiltration rate.
e) Convenient for giving light and frequent irrigations.
f) Higher application efficiency over surface methods of irrigation.
g) Sprinklers give a gentle rain that does not clog or compact the soil ensuring better
and quicker germination of seeds resulting in more plants per unit area
h) Suitable in undulated lands, soils with shallow depth and areas located at higher
elevation than the water source.
i) Feasibility of frequent, short water applications for germination, cooling & frost
protection to plants, etc.
j) Higher yield and water saving over surface irrigation methods
22.3 Limitations
a) Uneven distribution of water due to high wind velocities particularly during summer
season.
b) Higher evaporation losses when operating under high temperatures.
c) Mechanical difficulties such as sprinklers fail to rotate, nozzles may clog, couplers
may leak or engine may require repair.
d) Initial investment and recurrent operating costs are much higher than in surface
irrigation methods.
e) Moving the portable lines, when the soil is wet results in the destruction of soil
structure
f) Use of saline water for irrigation is not possible since it will be harmful to crops
g) Higher water pressure required hence extra energy cost
Page 98
Page 99
Page 100
Lecture No. 23
Drip Method of Irrigation
23.1 Introduction
Irrigation advancements within the last 2 decades have been astounding. Drip or
trickle irrigation is one of the latest innovations for applying water, and represents a
definite advancement in irrigation technology.
Drip irrigation is defined as the precise, slow and frequent application of small
quantities of water to the soil in the form of discrete drops, continuous drops, and tiny
streams through emitters located at selected points along a water delivery lateral line. It
differs from sprinkler irrigation by the fact that only part of the soil surface is wetted.
Current drip irrigation technology dates back to the work of Symcha Blass (1964).
Based on the observation that a large tree near a leaking faucet exhibited a more vigorous
growth than other trees in the area, he developed the first patented drip irrigation system.
From Israel, the concept spread to Australia, North America and South Africa by the late
1960s, and eventually throughout the world. The availability of low cost plastic pipe for
water delivery lateral lines helped to speed up the field use of drip irrigation system. At
present the largest area is in the USA and Spain (1.5 million ha each) followed by India
(1.43 million ha). Total coverage in the world has increased from 4000 ha in 1972 to over 8
million ha in 2008.
23.1.1 Surface drip irrigation: The application of water to the soil surface as drops or tiny
streams through emitters with discharges rate for point-source emitters less than 8 L/h for
single outlet emitter and for line-source emitters less than 4 L/h (Fig. 23.1). Often the
terms drip and trickle irrigation are considered synonymous.
water application is different from and not to be confused with the method where the root
zone is irrigated by water table control, herein referred to as subirrigation (Fig. 23.2).
23.2 Advantages
Many reports have listed and summarized potential advantages of drip irrigation as
compared to other irrigation methods.
a) Enhanced plant growth, crop yield and premium quality produce
b) Water Saving due to increased beneficial use of available water and higher water
application efficiency
c) Precise and uniform delivery of water to crops due to controlled water application
d) Maintenance of higher soil water potential in the root zone
e) Compact and efficient root system
f) Combined water and fertilizer (fertigation) application minimizes nutrient losses
and improves fertilizer use efficiency and contributes to fertilizer saving in some
crops
g) Reduced salinity hazards to crop plants when low quality saline water is used for
irrigation
h) Suitable for irrigating high-value crops raised in greenhouses, plastic tunnels, potted
plants and under plastic mulches
i) Lower operating pressures means reduced pumping energy costs
j) Limited weed growth because only a fraction of the soil surface is irrigated
k) Reduced operational and labour costs due to improved weed control and
simultaneous application of water, fertilizers, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and
other additives through the drip irrigation system
Page 102
l) Feasible to irrigate crops raised in small & irregularly shaped narrow lawns, and on
undulated land terrains
m) Maintenance of dry foliage means improved disease and pest management
n) Suitable to highly permeable & low water holding sandy and desert soils, saline and
slowly permeable alkaline soils, wastelands, slopy lands and rocky hills, road
embankments, abandoned mine areas etc
o) Improved and continuous cultural operations such as spraying, weeding, thinning
and harvesting of tree and row crops is possible without interrupting the drip
irrigation cycle for any prolonged period of time.
p) Environmental protection and ecological security
23.3 Limitations
Despite observed successes, some important possible limitations of drip irrigation
as compared to other irrigation methods have been encountered for some soils, water
quality and environmental conditions, which include:
a) Sensitivity to emitter clogging
b) Salt accumulation in soil
c) Mechanical damage to system components
d) Lack of microclimate control such as frost protection and evaporative cooling.
e) Operational constraints such as high technical skills, stringent filtration and
operating pressures etc
Page 103
Page 104
Lecture No. 24
Water Use Efficiency of Crops
24.1 Introduction
Irrigation plays a vital role in Indian agriculture. The impact of irrigated agriculture
on water resources is significant since it uses 85% of the total water resources in the
country. The limits to the availability of water and land for irrigated agriculture necessitate
the careful use of water resources for achieving higher water use efficiency.
The term "water use efficiency" originates in the economic concept of productivity.
Productivity measures the amount of any given resource that must be expended to produce
one unit of any good or service. In a similar manner, water use efficiency measures the
quantity of water taken up by the crop during its crop life to produce a unit quantity of the
output i.e., crop yield. In general, the lower the water resource input requirement per unit
of crop yield produced, the higher the efficiency.
Further water use efficiency is closely related to water conservation. The growing
water scarcity and the misuse of available water resources are nowadays major threats to
sustainable agricultural development. Therefore, water use efficiency has a clear role to
play in sustainable development, in other words, the use of the earth's water resources by
today's inhabitants while assuring that future generations have sufficient capacity to meet
their own needs.
B-
Where,
WUE = Water use efficiency in kg/ha-mm
Y
= Marketable crop yield in kg/ha
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration in mm
1
Page 105
Where,
FWUE = Field water use efficiency in kg/ha-mm
Y
= Crop yield in kg/ha
WR = Water used in metabolic activities, ET and deep percolation losses in mm
Water use efficiency of various crops is presented below in Table 24.1.
Rice
Sorghum
Pearl millet
Maize
Groundnut
Wheat
Finger millet
Water
requirement
(mm)
1200
500
500
625
506
280
310
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
WUE
(kg/ha-mm)
4500
4500
4000
5000
4616
3534
4137
3.7
9.0
8.0
8.0
9.2
12.6
13.7
their productivity i.e., crop yield and water use i.e., ET. Water use efficiency of C4 plant
species such as maize, sorghum, sugarcane, pearl millet, finger miller etc is higher (3.14 to
3.44 mg dry weight/g of water) when compared to C3 species (1.49 to 1.59 mg dry
weight/g of water) such as pulses, oilseed crops, wheat, barley, oats etc.
Crop varieties also differ in WUE. High yielding varieties, hybrids, GM crops etc due
to their dwarf plant type, responsive to water & fertilizer, pest & disease resistance and
high harvest index exhibit higher WUE as compared to traditional varieties characterized
by rank vegetative growth, low harvest index, susceptible to lodging, pests & diseases.
Page 107
requirement of crop will not change to a significant level except in cases where
premature death of plants occurs.
g) Irrigation method: Field water use efficiency in general is higher with over head
sprinkler, microsprinkler and drip methods of irrigation as compared to surface
irrigation methods viz., furrow, border strip, check basin etc owing to higher crop
yield and lower seasonal water application.
h) ET control measures: Use of mulches, anti-transpirants, shelterbelts and elimination
of weeds etc reduce water losses from cropped field in terms of soil evaporation and
transpiration without any reduction in crop yield, hence markedly improve WUE.
Page 108
Lecture No. 25
Irrigation Efficiencies
25.1 Introduction
Irrigation efficiencies are the indices which indicate how best the water applied to
the farm is being utilized. These parameters are needed to know the performance of the
irrigation activity on the farm. A low value of the irrigation efficiencies in general implies
that land, water and the crops are not being managed properly. The net effects of poor
irrigation efficiencies are crop loss, and wastage of water and nutrients. The principal
factors affecting irrigation efficiency are irrigation system design, quality of land
preparation, selection of irrigation methods, stream size, soil texture, soil depth, land
topography and skill & care of irrigator. A basin-wise study conducted by Madras Institute
of Development Studies (MIDS) using potential evapotranspiration data and gross water
withdrawals revealed that the overall irrigation efficiency in the country is 38%. The study
further indicated that the Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery, and Mahanadi systems have a very
low efficiency of around 27%, while the Indus and Ganga systems are doing better with
efficiencies in the range of 43% 47%. Therefore, identifying the various components for
low efficiency and knowing what improvements can be made is essential for making the
most effective use of this vital but scarce resource in agricultural areas. There are four
common irrigation efficiencies viz., water conveyance efficiency (Ec), water application
efficiency (Ea), water storage efficiency (Es) and water distribution efficiency (Ed).
1F
? 655
1$
Where:
= Water conveyance efficiency (%)
1F
= Water delivered to the plot (L/sec)
1$
= Water delivered from the source (L/sec)
In irrigation distribution network i.e., distributories, water courses, etc., the water
conveyance efficiency is used to find out what percentage of the released water at the head
gate actually reaches the farm and is an indicator of the seepage losses in the conveyance
losses. Thus a low Ec implies that much of the water released from the source is lost due to
seepage in transit from source to the field.
Page 109
1'
? 655
1F
Where:
D
= Water application efficiency (%)
1'
= Water stored in the root zone (cm)
= Water delivered to the plot (cm)
1F
The concept of water application efficiency can be applied to a project, a farm or a
field to evaluate the irrigation practices. All the factors, which influence the design of the
surface irrigation system therefore directly, affect the application efficiency. Thus a low Ea
implies that much of the applied water has been lost due to deep percolation or runoff.
1'
? 655
1&
Where:
'
= Water storage efficiency (%)
1'
= Water stored in the root zone (cm)
1&
= Water needed in the root zone (cm)
The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in evaluating the irrigation
methods especially under limited water supply conditions. It is also important when soils
with low infiltration rates are to be irrigated. In such cases adequate time is to be allowed
for the required amount of water to penetrate into the soil. This concept is also useful
when salt balance of the root zone has to be taken into consideration and leaching
requirement needs to be calculated. In such cases higher water storage efficiencies must be
desirable to leach out the salts from the root zone. A low storage efficiency implies that
water application is much less than actually needed. In a stretch of land one may get poor
application efficiency for the upstream part and poor storage efficiency for the
downstream section.
Page 110
$ H6 7
I ? 655
$
Where:
1'
? 655
1=
Where:
E
= Project efficiency (%)
1'
= Water stored in the root zone (cm)
1=
= Water diverted from the reservoir (cm)
The overall irrigation efficiency of a farm is a product of:
F D W ' W $
The overall irrigation efficiency for a project (i.e., considering irrigation channels) is the
product of:
E D W ' W $ W -
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem:
Canal stream size
Water delivered to the field
Area irrigated
Effective root zone depth
Runoff losses
Available water holding capacity
Schedule irrigations at
Depth of application varied linearly
: 120 LPS
: 100 LPS
: 1.5 ha in 8 hours
: 1.75 m
: 415 m3
: 200 mm/m depth of soil
: 50% DASM
: 1.65 m at head end to 1.3 m at tail end
Page 111
-
655
M 655 J. %
635
3:@4
M 655 J4. 4;%
3JJ5
50
M 350 175 cc
100
175
M 1.5 M 10000 2625cr
1000
3:@4
M 655 ;. ;5%
3@34
1.65 1.35
1.5 c
2
0.15 0.15
0.175 c
2
$ H6 7
5. 684
I M 655 ;5. 5%
6. 4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 112
Lecture No. 26
Quality of Irrigation Water
26.1 Introduction
All irrigation waters are not pure and may contain some soluble salts. In arid and
semi-arid regions successful crop production without supplemental irrigation is not
possible. Irrigation water is usually drawn from surface or ground water sources, which
typically contain salts in the range of 200 to 2000 ppm (= 200 to 2000 g/m3). Irrigation
water contains 10 100 times more salt than rain water. Thus, each irrigation event adds
salts to the soil. Crop removes water from the soil to meet its water needs (ETc) leaving
behind most of the salts to concentrate in the shrinking volume of soil water (Fig. 26.1).
This is a continuous process. Application of saline water may hinder the crop growth
directly and may also cause soil degradation. Beyond its effect on crop and soil, irrigation
water of low quality can also affect environment by introducing potentially harmful
substances in to surface and ground water sources. Therefore, a salt balance in the soil has
to be maintained through proper water management practices for continuous and
successful cultivation of crops.
UD
S+
3
The ion concentration is expressed as meq per litre. Increase in SAR of water
increases the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil. There is a linear relationship
between SAR and ESP of the soil:
RV
As per USSSL, the sodicity classes of water are shown in Table 26.2.
Table 26.2. Sodicity classes of water
Sodium class
SAR value
S1 Low
< 10
S2 Moderate
10 18
S3 High
18 26
S4 Very high
> 26
Page 114
Harmful effects of sodic water include destruction of soil structure, crust formation,
poor seedling emergence, reduction in availability of N, Zn and Fe due to increased soil pH,
Na toxicity and toxicity of B & Mo due to their excessive solubility.
RU .%/"()=% U
S+
U 7 UD
RSC is expressed in meq per litre. Water with RSC more than 2.5 meq/L is not
suitable for irrigation. Water with 1.25 to 2.5 meq/L is marginally suitable and water with
less than 1.25 meq/L is safe for use.
Page 115
Page 116
Page 117
Lecture No. 27
Water Management Practices in Rice
27.1 Introduction
Rice culture at present dominates irrigated agriculture (Fig. 27.1). About 64% of the
irrigation water resources in Andhra Pradesh are used for cultivation of rice. An adequate
water supply is one of the most important factors in rice production. In many parts of India
including Andhra Pradesh rice plants suffer from either too much or too little water
because of irregular rainfall and land topography.
Sulphide injury
Iron toxicity
Page 120
d) At maximum tillering in fertile soils i.e., 40 days after transplanting drain the
field for three days till the soil shows fine cracks. This is known as mid-season
drainage. This is essential because the respiratory function of the roots is highest
during this stage and introduction of air into the soil by draining the field leads to
vigorous growth of roots and checks the development of non-effective tillers
thereby reducing the sterility percentage. It also helps in regulation of nitrogen
supply thus controls the production of ineffective tillers.
e) Reproductive growth starts when maximum tiller production is completed and
includes the panicle primordia development, booting, heading and flowering
stages. A large amount of water is consumed in the major part of the
reproductive growth period. Drought at this stage causes severe damage leading
to increased panicle sterility, caused by impeded panicle formation, heading,
flowering or fertilization. Excessive water at booting stage causes decrease in
culm strength and increases lodging.
Page 121
Lecture No. 28
Water Management Practices in Wheat and Maize
28.1 Wheat
The dwarf wheat varieties were first introduced into India during 1963. In the very
first year of their cultivation, it was realized that the irrigation practices developed for the
tall wheat varieties did not suit the dwarf wheat varieties. Consequently studies to
determine the optimum irrigation & water requirements of dwarf wheat were taken up at
the Indian Agricultural Research Institute and other centers and the following
recommendations were given by the ICAR for efficient use of irrigation water in cultivation
of dwarf wheat.
and the variety may be needed for getting the highest yield from the dwarf wheats.
Irrigation at a soil moisture tension of 0.5 bars at a depth of 22.5 cm amounted to the same
number of irrigations and resulted in similar grain yields. The schedule for adequate and
restricted water supply is given in Table 28.1.
Based on soil water regime approach under south Indian condition irrigations at
25% DASM and 40 50% DASM under north Indian conditions were found to be optimum.
Likewise irrigations at 0.75 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio based on climatological approach were
found to be optimum for many locations. An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 was optimum at CRI stage.
The critical growth stages for irrigation are crown root initiation, tillering, heading & grain
formation. The seasonal crop water requirement varies between 350 to 500mm depending
upon the agro-climatic zone. The recommended method of irrigation is check basin and
border strip method of irrigation (Fig. 28.1).
28.2 Maize
The maize is one of natures most amazing energy-storing plants. From a seed,
which weighs little more than one-hundredth of an ounce, a plant of 7 10 feet tall
develops in about nine weeks. Thus corn has a high water requirement but is one of the
most efficient field crops in producing higher dry matter per unit amount of water used
(Fig. 28.2).
The effective root zone depth of the maize crop varies from 0.9 to 1.5 m. For
maximum production a medium duration grain crop of maize requires between 400 to 600
mm of water depending upon the soil-plant and climatic factors. The furrow method of
irrigation is commonly practiced in India. For estimating crop evapotranspiration begin
with 0.3 Kc of daily ETo in the initial period, raise it to 0.8 to 0.9 at vegetative stage, 1.2 at
tasseling, silking & pollination stages, and decrease it to 0.5 at maturity of corn.
Frequency and depth of irrigation has a pronounced effect on grain yield. Maize
appears relatively tolerant to water deficits during the vegetative and ripening periods.
Greatest decrease in grain yield is caused by water deficits during the flowering period
Page 123
including tasseling-silking and pollination, mainly due to a reduction in grain number per
cob. Water deficits particularly at the time of silking & pollination may result in little or no
grain yield due to silk drying. Water deficits during the ripening period have marginal
effect on grain yield.
Page 125
Lecture No. 29
Water Management Practices in Sugarcane and Groundnut
29.1 Sugarcane
Sugarcane being a long duration crop producing huge amounts of biomass is classed
among those plants having a high water requirement and yet it is drought tolerant. Out of
the total cropped area (0.4 million ha) of sugarcane in Andhra Pradesh nearly 97% is
irrigated. The crop duration varies from 12 months in seasonal crop, 13 14 months in
pre-seasonal and 16 18 months in adsali crop.
The yield formation or grand growth period is the most critical period for moisture
supply in sugarcane. This is because the actual cane yield build-up or stalk growth takes
place in this period. The production and elongation of inter-nodes, leaf production on the
stalk and its expansion, girth improvement, ultimately the stalk weight takes place in this
period. It is also the period for production of sugar storage tissues. Therefore, crop reaches
its peak water requirement in this stage. With adequate water supply to maintain a sheath
moisture content of 84 85% in the leaf sheaths of 3,4,5 and 6th leaf from the top during
this period of active growth produces longest inter-nodes with more girth (thick cane) and
the total cane weight is greater. On the other hand water deficits in grand growth period
reduce stalk elongation rate due to shortening of inter-nodes resulting in less cane weight
and the effect is well marked on yield at harvest. Severe water deficits during the later part
of the grand growth period forces the crop to ripen. However in the absence of sufficient
rains during this period, scheduling of irrigations at 50% DASM or 0.75 IW/CPE ratio was
found to be optimum.
In ripening period, a restricted water supply or mild water deficit (sheath moisture
content of 74 76%) is necessary to bring the crop to maturity by reducing the rate of
vegetative growth, dehydrating the cane and forcing the conversion of total sugars to
recoverable sucrose. This can be achieved by scheduling irrigations at 75% DASM or 0.5
IW/CPE ratio equivalent to 21 days irrigation interval. With the check of vegetative growth,
the ratio between dry matter stored as sucrose and that used for new growth increases. On
the other hand, plentiful supply of water leads to continued vegetative growth thus
affecting sugar accumulation process. An important consideration is that soil should not be
allowed to crack, as it would cause root pruning and damage the root system.
Thus the critical stages for irrigation are formative (or tillering) stage and stem
elongation (or grand growth period) stage. The effective root zone of the crop varies
between 0.9 to 1.2 m. The recommended method of irrigation is either drip or furrow
method of irrigation (Fig. 29.1). For predicting crop evapotranspiration begin with 0.4 Kc
of daily ETo in the initial period , raise it to 0.7 to 1.05 at tillering & canopy establishment
phase, 1.2 at grand growth period and decrease it to 1.15 to 0.95 to 0.7 at ripening &
maturity period of sugarcane. Irrigate using tensiometer installed at 20 cm soil depth to
maintain 15 40 centibars at different crop growth stages to maximize cane yields. Water
salinity (ECw) threshold levels are 4.3 dS/m in sandy soil, 2.5 dS/m in loamy soil and 1.4
dS/m in clay soil, above which yield decreases.
Adequate soil moisture throughout the crop growing season is important for
obtaining maximum yields because vegetative growth including cane growth is directly
proportional to the water transpired. Depending on the agro-ecological conditions,
cultivation practices adopted and crop cycle, seasonal water and irrigation requirements of
sugarcane in different regions of Andhra Pradesh are given in Table 29.1.
Page 127
Period
Water
requirement
(mm)
Irrigation
requirement
(mm)
I. COASTAL ANDHRA
Formative phase
Grand growth
period
Maturity phase
Season Total
II. TELANGANA
Formative phase
Grand growth
period
Maturity phase
Season Total
III. RAYALASEEMA
Formative phase
Grand growth
period
Maturity phase
Season Total
February/March
to
June
(120days)
June/July to end of October /
November (150 days)
November/December to January /
February / March (90 days)
73.66
50.80
69.85
6.35
26.67
17.78
170.18
74.93
91.25
135.00
87.50
50.00
45.00
271.25
37.50
175.00
91.44
83.82
83.82
22.86
49.53
224.79
26.67
133.35
29.2 Groundnut
Groundnut is an important oilseed crop of Andhra Pradesh and is cultivated in all
the three agricultural seasons viz., Kharif (June to September), rabi (October to January)
Page 128
and summer (January to May) seasons. Generally the rabi/summer groundnut is raised
under irrigated conditions. However supplemental or protective irrigations during rainy
season in the event of drought significantly improve the pod yield.
The effective root zone depth of the crops varies between 0.5 to 0.9 m. Depending
upon the range of environment, variety and crop duration the seasonal water requirements
vary from 400 to 650 mm. The irrigation schedule recommended for efficient use of
irrigation water for Spanish bunch variety on a sandy loam soil in Andhra Pradesh is given
in Table 29.2. The recommended methods of irrigation are check basin, border strip and
sprinkler irrigation (Fig. 29.2).
Duration
(days)
Irrigation
frequency
Crop ET
(mm)
ET
(mm/day)
0 30
30 55
55 - 90
90
2
3
2
7
125
150
100
375
4.16
6.00
2.85
---
0 35
35 65
65 - 100
100
3
6
4
13
135
270
135
540
4.00
9.00
4.00
---
Page 129
For estimating crop evapotranspiration begin with 0.4 Kc of daily ETo in the initial
germination & establishment period, raise it to 0.7 to 0.8 at vegetative & flowering stage,
0.95 1.1 at pegging, pod initiation & pod addition stages, and decrease it to 0.7 0.8 at
pod filling & maturity stages of groundnut.
Withholding of first irrigation (after germination) up to 25 30 days after sowing
induces profuse flowering and fruiting. The critical growth stages for irrigation are
Flowering, Peg penetration and early Pod development. In the case of limited water supply,
water savings should be made during the periods other than flowering, pegging, pod
initiation, pod setting and pod filling periods. Insufficient water in the pod zone can also
depress calcium uptake of developing pods and cause more pops, fewer double loculed
pods. Excessive soil water in heavy soils at harvest can cause the pods to be torn easily
from the pegs with the pods remaining in the soil.
Scheduling of irrigations between 25% to 50% DASM or 0.75 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio at
different growth stages was found to be optimum for producing higher pod yields. Irrigate
using tensiometers installed at 30 60 cm soil depth to maintain 40 centibars at
germination, 60 centibars at early vegetative growth, 40 centibars at pod development and
60 centibars at maturity to maximize pod yields. Threshold water quality (ECw) was found
to vary between 1.5 to 4.4 dS/m depending on the soil texture, above which pod yield
decreases. Further water containing SAR >5 to 7, boron >0.75 ppm, chloride >400 ppm and
sodium >400 ppm is not suitable for irrigating peanuts.
Page 130
Lecture No. 30
Water Management Practices in Mango, Banana and Tomato
30.1 Mango
Most of the areas cultivated with mango are located in regions of short periods of
rain, where water deficit takes place most of the year in the soil water balance. Irrigation
scheduling from flowering to fruit ripening stage considering the following factors
contributes to higher yield and improved fruit quality.
a) Climatic conditions
b) Crop age Young and non-bearing orchards differ from the bearing orchards
c) Root penetration and proliferation
d) Fruit-bud differentiation takes place in terminal mature (8 to 10 months) shoots
e) During fruit-bud differentiation and vegetative phase, requirements are
antagonistic.
f) Fruit quality depends upon moisture content in soil during fruit development and
maturity.
Most of the feeding roots are found at distances from the plant of 0.9 m to 2.6 m and
at depths from soil surface to 0.90 m though root penetration was noticed up to 2 m soil
depth. The basin and drip method of irrigation are commonly practiced in India (Fig. 30.1).
Critical stages for water supply are flowering, pollination and fruit development. Greatest
decrease in fruit yield is caused by water deficits during the flowering and fruit
development period, due mainly to a reduction in number of flowers, fruit number and
fruit size. For estimating crop ET begin with a crop coefficient value of 0.4 during
flowering, increase it up to 0.85 in the middle of fruit growth period and decrease it to 0.60
during fruit ripening stage.
30.2 Banana
Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the most important tropical fruit of India including
Andhra Pradesh. Banana is a tropical herbaceous evergreen plant which has no natural
dormant phase and hence has a high water demand throughout the year, especially during
high temperatures. With respect to water management the important characteristics of the
banana plant are:
a) A high transpiration potential due to the large broad leaves and high LAI
b) A shallow root system compared with most tree fruit crops
c) A poor quality to withdraw water from soil beneath field capacity
d) A rapid physiological response to soil water deficit
These factors make banana plants extremely sensitive to even slight variations in
soil water content, emphasizing the importance of correct irrigation scheduling. Banana
requires an ample and frequent supply of water; water deficits adversely affect crop
growth and yields. The establishment period and the early phase of the vegetative period
determine the potential for growth and fruiting and adequate water and sufficient nutrient
supply is essential during this period. Water deficits in the vegetative period affect the rate
of leaf development, which in turn can influence the number of flowers in addition to the
number of hands and bunch production. The flowering period starts at flower
differentiation, although vegetative development can still continue. Water deficits in this
period limit leaf growth and number of fruits. Water deficits in the yield formation period
affect both the fruit size and quality (poorly filled fingers). A reduced leaf area will reduce
the rate of fruit filling; this leads, at harvest time, to bunch being older than they appear to
be and consequently the fruits are liable to premature ripening during storage. Thus the
critical growth stages for irrigation in banana are vegetative growth, flowering and fruit
development.
Page 132
The banana plant has a sparse, shallow root system. Most feeding roots are spread
laterally near the surface. Rooting depth will generally not exceed 0.9 m. For estimating
crop evapotranspiration begin with 0.5 Kc of daily ETo in the initial period , raise it to 0.7
to 0.85 at vegetative development, 1.1 at grand growth period (bunch emergence,
flowering & fruit filling period) and decrease it 0.9 to 0.80 at ripening & maturity stages of
banana Daily water requirements vary in the range of 3 7 mm/day depending on the
combination of LAI, temperature, humidity, radiation & wind. The annual water
requirements vary between 1200 to 1500 mm depending on climatic conditions and crop
duration.
Basin and furrow method of irrigation are commonly used in commercial
plantations (Fig. 30.2). However, due to water scarcity conditions and higher yield
realization farmers are also using drip irrigation in banana.
30.3 Tomato
Tomato is the second most important vegetable crop next to potato in India. It is
rapidly growing crop with a growing period of 120 150 days.
The crop has a fairly deep root system and in uniform deep soils roots penetrate up
to 1.2m. Over 80% of the total water uptake occurs in the first 50 cm. The crop is most
sensitive to water deficit during and immediately after transplanting and during, flowering
Page 133
and fruit development stages. Water deficit during the flowering period causes flower
drop. Moderate water deficit during the vegetative period enhances root growth. Excessive
watering during the flowering period has been shown to increase flower drop and reduce
fruit set. Also this may cause excessive vegetative growth and a delay in ripening. Water
supply during and after fruit set must be limited to a rate which will prevent stimulation of
new growth at the expense of fruit development. Frequent light irrigations improve size,
shape, juiciness and colour of the fruit, but total solids (dry matter content) and acid
content will be reduced.
Surface irrigation by furrow is commonly practiced. Under sprinkler irrigation the
occurrence of fungal diseases and possibly bacterial canker may become a major problem.
Further, under sprinkler, fruit set may be reduced with an increase in fruit rotting. Due to
the crops specific demands for a high soil water content achieved without leaf wetting,
trickle or drip irrigation has been successfully applied (Fig. 30.3).
Page 134
Lecture No. 31
Agricultural Drainage
31.1 Drainage - Definition
Agricultural drainage is the artificial removal and safe disposal of excess water
either from the land surface or soil profile, more specifically, the removal and safe disposal
of excess gravitational water from the crop root zone to create favourable conditions for
crop growth to enhance agricultural production.
small depressions are to be drained off (Fig. 31.1). Depending upon the possibility the
field drains are designed in such a way to connect one depression to another and water
is safely conveyed to lateral drains. These lateral drains ultimately guide the water to
main outlet drain. The field drains besides occupying the land area are likely to
interfere with farm operations.
Page 137
Page 138
Page 140
Lecture No. 32
Cropping Systems in Irrigated Agriculture
Assured irrigation water facilities provide opportunities for multiple cropping
(intercropping, sequential cropping, relay cropping etc). Major sources of irrigation include
canal irrigation, tank-fed and well irrigation. Depending on the water availability period, 1,
2 seasons or all the year round the number of crops raised per year on a given piece of land
is determined. Thus, the cropping intensity in irrigated agriculture ranges from 200 to
400%. Major crops in different agro-climatic zones vary greatly, depending on their
adaptability and irrigation water availability. Crops that follow the main crops in sequence
also differ from region to region. Major rice, sugarcane and groundnut based cropping
systems in Andhra Pradesh are as follows:
Sugarcane + Rajmash
sugarcane + Tomato
sugarcane + Bhendi
b) Nellore
Sugarcane + Watermelon
c) Medak
Sugarcane + Potato
Sugarcane + Bengalgram
d) North-coastal districts
Sugarcane + Blackgram
Sugarcane + Blackgram
Cotton Groundnut
Groundnut Horsegram
Groundnut + Redgram
Groundnut + Jowar
Maize Groundnut
Groundnut Jowar / Safflower
f) High Altitude Tribal zone
Groundnut Minor millets
Groundnut Niger
Page 144
ABBREVATIONS
ICID
IWMI
IWRM
WUA
WALAMTARI
CWC
CADWM
CCA
WTC
CGWB
TMC
SAR
ESP
LR
b
p
Cu
ETc
ETo
Kc
Epan
ER
Gwc
IRR
WR
NIR
GIR
FC
PWP
ASM
CPE
DASM
Ec
Ea
Es
Ed
Ep
RSC
ECw
ECe
WUE
FWUE
Qm
Qv
Page 146
References
Dastane, N.G. 1967. A Practical manual for Water Use Research, Navbharat Publications,
Poona.
Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. 1975. Guidelines for Predicting Crop Water Requirements.
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, F.A.O., Rome.
IARI. 1977. Water requirements of crops in India. Monograph 4, ICAR publication, New
Delhi.
Israelsen, O.W. and Hansen, V.E. 1962. Irrigation Principles & Practices, John Willey
and Sons, Inc, U.S.A.
Keller, J. and Bliesner, R.D. 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation. Van Nortrand
Reinhold, New York.
Majumdar, D.K. 2002. Irrigation Water Management: Principles & Practices. Prentice hall
of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
Michael A M, 2006. Irrigation Theory & Practice. Vikas Publishing House Private Ltd.
Misra, R.D. and Ahmed, M. 1998. Manual on Irrigation Agronomy. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., Ltd., New Delhi.
Reddy, S.R. 2007. Irrigation Agronomy, , Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Reddy, G.H.S. and Reddy, T.Y. 2006. Efficient Use of Irrigation Water, Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Sivanappan, R.K., Padma Kumari, O. and Kumar, V. 1987. Drip IrrigationKeerthi
Publishing House Pvt., Ltd., Coimbatore.
Tiwari, K.N.T. 2006. Manual on pressurized irrigation. Scientific Publication No: PFDC, IIT,
Kharagpur.
Page 147