HETEROLOGOUS

GENE
EXPRESSION
IN
EUKARYOTIC
CELLS

PRESENTED BY :-
ASH. K
 HETEROLOGOUS PROTEIN PRODUCTION IN
EUKARYOTIC CELLS

When recombinant DNA techniques are used to express certain genes outside their
natural expression habitat, the process is described as HETEROLOGOUS GENE
EXPRESSION.

NEED & APPLICATION :-

Recombinant protein expression is the foundation of today’s biomolecular research and

thriving Biotech industry.
GOAL:- Overproduction of proteins for

STRUCTURAL ENZYMATIC COMMERCIAL/

PHARMACEUTICAL ANTIGEN
STUDIES STUDIES
APPLICATIONS PRODUCTION

# Proteins which are produced by other methods are generally crude preparations & usually
mixture of various other components . In contrast there are number of commercial
applications where highly purified proteins are needed – Analytical enzymes or Ab’s are used
in genetic engineering technology and therapeutic proteins in the treatment of diseases etc.

# Genetic Engineering produces proteins that offer advantages over proteins isolated from
other biological sources. These advantages include :-
• High purity
• High specific activity
• Steady supply
• Batch to batch consistency

AVAILABLE EXPRESSION SYSTEMS :-

1. Prokaryotic - like E.coli

2. Eukaryotic - like yeast, insect, mammalian cell culture etc

Prokaryotic systems are generally easier to handle and are satisfactory for most purposes.
However there are serious limitations in using prokaryotic cells for the production of
eukaryotic proteins.

LIMITATIONS OF PROKARYOTIC EXPRESSION SYSTEM :-

 Many of the Euk proteins undergo a variety of post translational modifications

like – proper folding , glycosylation, phosphorylation , formation of disulfide bridges.
 Endotoxin contamination
  Low yield of functional protein
 Difficult purification ( Inclusion bodies)
To avoid these problems investigators have developed eukaryotic expression systems for the
production of proteins that can be used as therapeutic agents in either humans or animals.

# In general eukaryotic expression vectors have the same kinds of features as their
prokaryotic counterparts :-
• A Selectable eukaryotic marker gene
• A eukaryotic promoter sequence
• The appropriate eukaryotic transcriptional & translational stop signals.
• A sequence that signals polyadenylation of transcript mRNA
• If the vector is to be used in plasmid form ( i.e as extrachromosomal replicating DNA)
then it must also have an ORI that functions in the host cell. Alternatively if the
vector is designed for integration into the host chromosomal DNA , then it must carry
a sequence i.e is complementary to a segment of host chromosomal DNA ( the
chromosomal integration site) to facilitate recombination.

# Because many recombinant DNA procedures are technically more difficult with eukaryotic
cells than with prokaryotic cells , most eukaryotic vectors are designed to be shuttle vectors.
In other words , they carry 2 types of origins of replication & selectable marker genes , one
type that functions in E.coli & another that functions in the eukaryotic host cell.

GENERALIZED EUKARYOTIC EXPRESSION VECTOR

The major features of a eukaryotic expression vectors are :-

• A eukaryotic transcription unit with a promoter (P)
• A cloning site (cs) for the cloned gene
• A DNA segment with termination & polyadenylation signals (t)
• A eukaryotic selectable marker (ESM) gene system
• An origin of replication that functions in the euk cells ( ori-euk)
• An origin of replication that functions in the E.coli ( ori- E )
• An E.coli selectable marker gene Amp r
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae EXPRESSION SYSTEMS:-

For a variety of reasons , the common yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used
extensively as a host cell for expression of cloned eukaryotic genes :-
• It is single celled, well known genetically & physiologically & it can be grown
readily in both small culture vessels and large scale bioreactors.
• Several strong promoters have been isolated from yeast and characterized & a naturally
occurring plasmid called 2µm plasmid can be used in endogenous yeast expression
vector systems.
• It is capable of carrying out many post translational modifications.
• Only 0.5% native proteins are secreted so isolation of secreted proteins is simplified.
• It has been listed by the U.S Food & Drug Administration as a “ Generally Recognised
as Safe” (GRAS).

Recombinant proteins produced by S. cerevisiae :-

VACCINES DIAGNOSTICS HUMAN THERAPEUTIC AGENTS

1. Hepatitis B Surface Ag 1. Hepatitis C virus protein 1. Epidermal G.F

2. Malaria circumsporozite-
Protein
3. HIV- envelope protein
2. HIV- 1 Ag 2. Insulin like G.F
3. Proinsulin
4. α1 antitrypsin
5. Blood coagulation
Factor XII a

Saccharomyces cerevisiae VECTORS :-

Different classes like:-

1. Episomal or Plasmid Vectors ( YEp)

2. Yeast Replicating plasmids ( YRp)

3. Yeast Centromere plasmids (YCp)

4. Yeast artificial chromosome ( YAC ) vectors

 DIRECT EXPRESSION IN S.cerevisiae

 The term direct expression is often used to describe vector systems producing
proteins that accumulate in the cytoplasm of a host cell .
 The production of the human enzyme Superoxide dismutase illustrates the process of
heterologous gene expression in S. cerevisiae .
 SO anion is a byproduct of oxygen utilization in aerobic organisms . In humans this
anion helps both to stimulate the inflammatory response of phagocytes and to direct
leukocytes to the site of infection. However excess of this molecule & its derivatives
can cause cellular damage. To minimize these potentially cytotoxic effects the
naturally occurring cytoplasmic enzyme Cu/Zn Superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn- SOD)
scavenges the SO radical & combines with the hydrogen ion to form H2O2 which in
turn is degraded by catalase or peroxidase.
 SO anion is also produced when blood is allowed to reenter an organ (reperfusion)
after it has been deprived of blood during a surgical procedure. To prevent this source
of SO anion damage , investigators have proposed that Cu/Zn – SOD be administered
to an organ as it is being reperfused.
 In addition Cu/Zn – SOD has the potential to act as a therapeutic agent against
inflammatory diseases such as osteoarthritis , rheumatoid arthritis , scleroderma &
ankylosing spondylitis.
 For the use in either of these ways an AUTHENTIC FORM of Cu/Zn – SOD is
preferred , to avoid any adverse immunological responses that might result from using
an enzyme from another species.
 Initially a cDNA for the enzyme was cloned into an E.coli expression system. But due
to certain limitations , the researchers cloned the human Cu/Zn – SOD cDNA into a
yeast episomal vector in an effort to obtain an authentic enzyme. ( Yeast cells are not
particularly effective at removing introns , so cDNA sequences or chemically
synthesized genes must be used for encoding specific gene products).

S.cerevisiae Expression vector

In human Cu/Zn – SOD cDNA – yeast vector contained –

1. A yeast gene for Leucine Biosynthesis ( LEU2 )
2. A 2µm plasmid DNA sequence , which provides a yeast ORI & permits this
plasmid to replicate in yeast cells.
 3. Both an E.coli selectable marker gene (Ampr ) & an ORI that functions in E.coli &
allows the routine genetic manipulation involved in the construction of the plasmid to be
done conveniently in E.coli.
4. The human Cu/Zn – SOD c DNA cloned between the promoter region of the
yeast glyceraldehydes phosphate dehydrogenase gene (GAPDp) & a sequence containing
the signals for transcription termination & polyadenylation of mRNA from the same gene
( GAPDt)

# A leucine deficient yeast strain (LEU2 -) was transformed with this vector & the cells were
plated onto medium that lacked leucine .Only cells with the functional LEU2 gene, which
was supplied by the vector could grow under these conditions. The GAPD promoter is not
regulated ; rather it is tanscribed continuously during the cell growth. Thus human Cu/Zn –
SOD cDNA is synthesized throughout the growth period (constitutively).In this experiment ,
the yeast cells produced high levels of intracellular Cu/Zn – SOD which like authentic protein
from human cells, was acetylated on the amino group of amino terminal alanine residue.

SECRETION OF HETEROLOGOUS PROTEINS BY S.cerevisiae

 In yeast , only secreted proteins are glycosylated , so a secretion system must be used
for heterologous proteins that require either O- linked or N- linked sugars for biologic
activity.
 To facilitate protein secretion in yeast , the prepro-α- factor or leader peptide
(signal peptide) coding sequence of the mating type factor α 1 gene, is cloned infront
(just upstream) of the cDNA that encodes the desired protein. This gene fusion creates a
protein that can efficiently secreted by yeast.
 During the exporting process , disulfide bond formation , proteolytic cleavage & post
translational modifications occur & in many cases an active protein is eventually released
to extra cellular environment.
 The leader peptide enables a protein to pass through the cytoplasmic membrane & be
secreted. During this process , the leader peptide is removed by a yeast endoprotease that
recognizes the dipeptide Lys-Arg.
 The Lys-Arg codons are therefore placed immediately upstream from the cDNA
sequence so that , following removal of leader peptide , the target protein will have the
correct amino acid residue at its N terminus .
 A properly processed & active form of the protein hirudin was synthesized & secreted
by S. cerevisiae strain containing an episomal expression vector that included the prepro
-α - factor.

OTHER YEAST EXPRESSION SYSTEMS

LIMITATIONS with S.cerevisiae :-

1. PLASMID LOSS – During scale up plasmid loss is a frequent occurrence , even when
inducible promoters are used .

2. HYPERGLYCOSYLATION – Heterologous protein is often hyperglycosylated ,

containing more than 100 mannose residues in each N – linked oligosaccharide side
chain ( instead of natural 8-13 residues ) . The extra mannose units may alter product’s
biological activity or change its immunogenicity .

3. PURIFICATION DIFFICULTIES – In a number of trials , proteins that were

designed to be secreted within the periplasmic space , a situation that makes
purification more difficult .

Therefore other yeast species & eukaryotic systems that can act as host cells for the
production of heterologous proteins are being examined. Candidate yeasts that are being
considered as alternatives to S. cerevisiae are-

• Kluyveromyces lactis – has been used commercially for the production of lactase
• Schizosaccharomyces pombe- yeast that reproduces by fission rather than by budding.
• Yarrowia lipolytica – which uses alkanes as a growth substrate.
• Pichia pastoris & Hansenula polymorpha – which can utilize methanol as the sole
source of carbon & energy.

ADVANTAGES of Pichia pastoris :-

1. It has a highly efficient & tightly regulated promoter of the methanol inducible
gene that encodes alcohol oxidase ( AOX ) the first enzyme of methanol utilization
pathway. In the presence of methanol , as much as 30% of the cellular protein is
alcohol oxidase. In its absence , the AO 1 gene is completely turned off. The AOX1
gene promoter responds rapidly to the addition of methanol to the medium. Therefore
the AOX1 promoter is an excellent candidate for both driving the transcription of
cloned genes & producing large amounts of recombinant protein.

2. Because P. pastoris does not synthesize ethanol , very high cell densities are
attained with the secretion of large quantities of protein.

3. P. pastoris normally secretes very few proteins thus simplifying the purification of
secreted recombinant proteins.

EXPRESSION OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS SURFACE ANTIGEN

An integrating vector system for the production of the hepatitis B virus surface Ag (HBsAg)
was developed. The HBsAg sequence was cloned between the promoter region of the alcohol
oxidase gene 1 ( AOX1p) and the termination and polyadenylation signal region ( AOX1t) of
the same gene .The AOX1 gene is regulated by methanol in P.pastoris. In the presence of
methanol , alcohol oxidase can represent as much as 30% of the total cellular proteins
because of the strength of the AOX1 promoter. In the absence of methanol , no alcohol
oxidase is synthesized.

Pichia pastoris Integrating Expression Vector

• HIS4 gene encodes- histdinol dehydrogenase which is an enzyme in the histidine

biosynthesis pathway.
• An ORI from P. pastoris ( oripp)
• Ampr – Ampicillin resistance gene
• An ORI that functions in E.coli.
• The joined right angled arrows indicate the DNA region that will be integrated into
the P. pastoris genome.
• The segment marked 3’AOX1 is a piece of DNA from the 3’ end of the alcohol
oxidase 1 gene of P.pastoris and this segment facilitates integration of input DNA into a
specific chromosomal site.

To avoid problems due to plasmid instability, the strategy in this experiment was to integrate
the AOX1p-HBsAg-AOX1t unit into the genome of Pichia pastoris . To do this a histidinol
dehydrogenase – deficient strain ( HIS4-) of Pichia pastoris was transformed with the
segment of the vector that contained AOX1p-HBsAg-AOX1t , HIS4, & 3’AOX1sequences.
 1
Double recombination Yeast (integration in Pichia pastoris)
P. pastoris
-tight control HIS4
-methanol induced (AOX1) Vector
-large scale production DNA
(gram quantities) AOX1t

GOI
AOX1p 3’AOX1

Genomic
DNA
Alcohol oxidase gene
AOX1 gene (<= 30% of protein)
Genomic
DNA

GOI
AOX1p AOX1t HIS4 3’AOX1
Class 16A
# The double cross over event occur within the AOX1 p & 3’- AOX1 DNA segments. This
event results in the integration of the input DNA into the genomic DNA &the loss of the
alcohol oxidase I gene (AOX1) from the host chromosome. The HIS4 gene product enables
cells with integrated DNA to grow on medium lacking histidine. In the presence of methanol ,
the AOX1 p region drives the transcription of the hepatitis B virus surface Ag gene ( HBsAg).
The AOX1 segment provides transcription termination & polyadenylation signals for the
HBsAg gene .
 CULTURED INSECT CELL EXPRESSION SYSTEMS

Baculoviruses exclusively infect invertebrates, including many insect species. During the
infection cycle 2 forms of baculovirus are produced

One form consists of single Second form is made up of a number of

virions released by an infected virions trapped (occluded) in a protein
host cell & are capable of matrix. Protein of the matrix= Polyhedrin
infecting other host cells Package ofoccluded virions = Polyhedron

# Many of these packages are released into the environment after cell lysis and death of a
single host organism. Polyhedron protects the virions from being inactivated by
environmental agents. Upon ingestion by a host, the polyhedron protein is solublized & the
virions are capable of establishing an infection cycle. During late stages of the infection
cycle, the poyhedrin protein is synthesized in massive quantities. That synthesis is initiated
about 36-48 hrs after infection & continues 4-5 day , until the infected cell lyse & host
organism dies .

# Promoter for polyhedron gene (polyh) is a very strong promoter but viral reproduction
cycle doesnot depend on the presence of polyhedrin gene.

# Therefore polyhedron gene was replaced with the gene for a heterologous protein, followed
by infection of cultured insect cells with the genetically engineered baculovirus that resulted
in the production of large amounts of heterologous protein, because of similarity of post
translational modification systems between insects & mammals would mimic closely if not
precisely the authentic form of target protein. So baculoviruses were developed as an
expression vector for both mammalian proteins and animal virus proteins.

# The specific baculovirus used extensively as an expression vector is Autographa

californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus ( AcMNPV) .
# Autographa californica ( the alfalfa looper ) & over 30 other insect species like Mamestra
brassicae & Estigmene acrea can be infected with AcMNPV.

# This virus also grows well on many insect cell lines . The most commonly used cell line for
genetically engineered AcMNPV is derived from the fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda
)

BACULOVIRUS TRANSFER VECTOR

The transfer vector is an E.coli based plasmid that carries a segment of DNA from AcMNPV
consisting of

• the polyhedron promoter region & an adjacent portion of upstream AcMNPV

DNA , which provides a region for homologous recombination with AcMNPV .
• A cloning site for the input DNA
• Polyhedrin termination & polyadenylation signal region & provides an adjacent
portion of downstream AcMNPV DNA , which provides a second region for homologous
recombination with AcMNPV .The coding region for the polyhedrin gene has been
deleted from this block of DNA.
• A gene of interest is cloned between the polyhedron promoter & termination
sequences & the construct is propagated in E.coli.
• Next cotransfection is used to introduce both the transfer vector DNA carrying a
cloned gene & the intact wild type AcMNPV DNA into host cells. ( Recall that in
transfection the baculovirus is introduced into cells as isolated DNA. During the normal
viral infection process, baculovirus DNA is introduced biologically by the intact virus ).
• Within some of the cotransfected cells , a double crossover event (fig) occurs and the
cloned gene with polyhedron promoter & termination regions then becomes integrated
into the AcMNPV DNA , with the concomitant loss of the polyhedron gene.
• Virions lacking the polyhedron gene produce distinctive zones of cell lysis ( occlusion
–negative plaques ) from which recombinant baculovirus can be isolated.
 Replacement of polyhedron
gene of AcMNPV with an
expression unit from a
transfer vector- A double
crossover event results in
integration of the expression
unit into AcMNPV genome

• When host cells are infected by recombinant baculovirus , product protein can be
harvested after 4-5 days.
• The visual identification of occlusion negative plaques is tedious and subjective.
Consequently DNA hybridization or PCR assay can be used to detect recombinant
baculovirus.
• The baculovirus expression vector system has been used to produce more than 500
different heterologous proteins like α-interferon , β-interferon , erythropoietin, HIV -1
envelope protein , interleukin-2 , mouse monoclonal antibodies, rabies glycoprotein,
tissue plasminogen activator, adenosine deaminase, poliovirus proteins etc.
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF INSECT CELL EXPRESSION SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
1. High level of protein expression –
yields upto 100mg of protein 109 cells
2. This system is capable of post
translational modifications.
3. Capacity of large DNA inserts –
accommodate genes upto 15kb.
4. Stable integration (due to virus)
5. Easy purification – cell lyse themselves
after 96 hrs ( due to virus).
6. Simultaneous expression of multiple
genes – with multiple promoter transfer
vectors.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Glycosylation not as complex as in
human system.
2. Viral proteases degrade target protein.
3.Grow very slowly ( 10-12 days for
setup)
4. Cell culture is sustainable for 4-5 days.
5. Setup is time consuming, not as simple
as yeast.
6. Discontinous expression- Baculovirus
infection of insect cells kills the host &
hence the need to reinfect fresh cultures
for each round of protein synthesis.
 MAMMALIAN CELL EXPRESSION SYSTEM

• Sometimes required for difficult- to –express proteins or for complete

“AUTHENCITIY” ( matching glycosylation & sequence).
• 2 modes of expression – Transient & Stable .
• A number of established cell lines have been developed. Cells from African green
monkey (COS) , Baby hamster kidney (BHK), Human embryonic kidney ( HEK- 239)
are used for short term (transient) gene expression foe either rapid production of small
amounts of heterologous proteins or testing the integrity of constructs during various
stages of vector development. CHO cells are commonly used for long term (stable) gene
expression & when high yields of protein are required.

GENERALIZED MAMMALIAN EXPRESSION VECTOR :-

P = Eukaryotic Promoter ( frequently from either human virus CMV , SV 40, HSV etc or
mammalian genes- β-actin, thymidine kinase, bovine GH ). Promoter sequence drives
expression of both marker & cloned heterologous gene .
I = Intron ( enhances the production of heterologous protein )
MCS = Multiple cloning site
pa= Polyadenylation sequence
TT = Transcription termination sequence
SMG = Selectable Marker gene
Amp-r = Ampicillin gene for selecting transformed E .coli
ori euk = Eukaryotic ORI generally from animal virus Simian virus 40 (SV40)
oriE = from E.coli ( for propagation)

• Inducible promoters are often used when continuous synthesis of heterologous

protein is toxic to the host cell
• Expression of gene of interest (GOI) is increased by placing the sequence for an intron
b/w the promoter & the MCS of the transcription construct ( cassette)
• The sequence that are required for selection & propagation of a mammalian
expression vector in E.coli are derived from a standard E.coli cloning vector such as
pBR322.
• For the best results , a GOI must be equipped with translational control sequences.
 • Initiation of translation in higher eukaryotic organisms depends on a specific sequence
of nucleotides surrounding the start (AUG) codon called the KOZAK SEQUENCE i.e
CC (A or G ) CCAUGG.

K = Kozak sequence , S = Signal sequence , T = Protein affinity tag , P = Proteoloytic

cleavage site , SC = Stop codon , UTR = Untranslated sequence ( increases efficiency of
translation to contribute to mRNA stability )

• Kozak sequence followed by signal sequence – to facilitate secretion, a protein tag –

to enhance purification of heterologous protein, a proteolytic cleavage sequence – enables
the tag to be removed from heterologous protein. A stop codon is added to ensure that
translation ceases at the correct location.

• Majority of mammalian cell expression vectors carry a single GOI that encodes a
functional polypeptide . However many commercially important proteins consist of 2
different protein chains. For eg human thyroid stimulatory hormone is a 2 chain protein
( heterodimer ) & both Haemoglobin and antibodies are tetramers with 2 copies of each
subunit α2β2 & H2L2 respectively.

• It is possible to clone the gene or cDNA for each subunit of a multimeric protein ,
synthesize & purify each subunit separately & then mix the chains together in a test tube.
Unfortunately very few multichain proteins are properly assembled invitro. By contrast ,
invivo assembly of dimeric & tetrameric proteins is quite efficient.

• Consequently VARIOUS STRATEGIES have been devised f or the production of 2

different recombinant proteins within the same cell .

1. TWO – VECTOR EXPRESSION SYSTEM

2. TWO – GENE EXPRESSION SYSTEM
3. BICISTRONIC EXPRESSION VECTOR
LIMITATIONS :-

1. Loss of 1 of the 2
vectors in doubly
transfected cells is
common.

2. Moreover the 2
vectors are not always
maintained with the
same copy number, so
one subunit is
overproduced relative
to other & yields of the
final product are
reduced.
# To ensure that equal amounts of the recombinant proteins are synthesized , bicistronic
vectors have been constructed with the 2 cloned genes separated from each otherby a DNA
sequence that contains an IRES – INTERNAL RIBOSOMAL ENTRY SITE. IRES is
found in mammalian virus genomes & after transcription they allow simultaneous translation
of different proteins from a polycistronic mRNA molecule. Generally constructing an
effective mammalian expression vector is time consuming & demands considerable efforts to
achieve optimum protein production.

# Some heterologous proteins that have been produced by large scale culture of mammalian
cells - β – Interferon, γ-interferon, CD4 receptor , Erythropoietin , growth hormone ,
tissue plasminogen activator , monoclonal antibodies , Blood clotting factor IX, Blood
clotting factor VIIIc etc.

SELECTABLE MARKER SYSTEMS FOR MAMMALIAN EXPRESSION VECTORS

MAMMALIAN CELL EXPRESSION

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Almost human glycosylation & 1. Production rates may be comparable
phosphorylation pattern low
2. Highest functionality 2. Selection of single clones is very time
consuming.
3. Lowest immunogenicity & very high 3. Some animal cell lines require a solid
compatibility to humans. surface on which to grow , adding
complications to the design of culture
vessel. .
4.High safety profile , easy permission as 4. Higher cost for culture
a drug.
5. Can express large proteins (50 kb )

REFERENCES :-
1. DNA ANALYSIS & GENE CLONING BY T.A BROWN
2. PRINCIPLES OF GENETIC MANIPULATION BY S.B PRIMROSE
3. MOLECULAR BIOTECHNOLOGY BY GLICK & PASTERNAK
4. BIOTECHNOLOGY BY B.D SINGH